Range of Materials Processes in a Tractor

Range of Materials & Processes in a Tractor

Steel pistons with friction-welded skirt and crown and chrome/ molybdenum disulfide

Silicon microprocessors with coated piston ring gold-plated connectors Titanium turbocharger

Die-cast aluminum compressor wheel valve cover

Lexan windshield Forged steel connecting Centrifugal cast-iron rods with precision- cylinder bores fractured joint

Aluminum/copper/nickel journal bearings Fiberglass hood Copper tube, aluminum fin coolers High-strength steel bolts

FIGURE 1.1 Model 8430 tractor, with detailed illustration of its diesel engine, showing the variety of materials and processes

incorporated. Source: Courtesy of John Deere Company.

P s e s s e c o r g n i r u t c a f u n a M d n a s l a i r e t a M f o t n e m p o l e v e D l a c i r o t s i H

E r o m r a f o g n i h c t , g n i n i o c , r o m r A s s a l g n a i t e n e V l e e t s , c n i Z . , s d r o w s l e e t s g n i g r o f 1 –

1 , w a s n e v i r d k r o w h t i m s r e v l i s d n a s l l e b f o g n i t s a c , s l a t e m r e t w e p

5 1 – H d o o w r o f e h t a l d n a r o f r e w o p r e t a W , s s a l g e t a l p t s a C , n o n n a c n o r i - t s a C

1 , g n i l l o r g n i k r o w l a t e m s s a l g t n i l f e t a l p n i t s p i r t s e g a n i o c r o f l l i m

6 1 –

1 , s s e r p l l i r d e h t a l g n i t t u c g n i l l o r e p a h s , ) r e v l i s m o r f s s a r b , g n i t s a c

1 A .

) d a e l ( c i l l a t e m d n a r e p p o c c n i z

Egypt: B . C . to B . C .

Greece: B . C . to B . C .

Roman Empire: B . C . to 476 A . D .

Middle Ages: to 1492 Renaissance: 14th to 16th centuries '

476 ' 500 '

146 ' 1100 '

300 ' 3100

, s e h t a l g n i k r o w d o o w s e l i f , l e e t s d n a n o r i g n i w o l b g n i u l g 1 –

History of Manufacturing

1 .

, e z n o r b n i t , d a e l 3 –

L 1 E B A T

, g n i n i h c a m , s l o o T g n i n i o J d n a g n i m r o F s u o i r a V d n a s l a t e M s e t a D d o i r e P g n i r u t c a f u n a m d n a g n i p a h s d n a s l a i r e t a m g n i t s a c s m e t s y s s e t i s o p m o c

B 4 e r o f e

B . C , t n i l f , e n o t s f o s l o o T g n i r e m m a H , g n i z a l g , e r a w n e h t r a E c i r o e t e m , r e p p o c , d l o G .

, y r o v i , e n o b , d o o w s r e b i f l a r u t a n n o r i s l o o t e t i s o p m o c 4 –

3 B .

C , a n i m u l a ( m u d n u r o C , u A - u C ( g n i r e d l o S y r l e w e j , g n i p m a t S e n o t s , g n i t s a c r e p p o C .

) y r e m e ) n S - b P , b P - u C - t s o l , s d l o m l a t e m d n a , r e v l i s , s s e c o r p x a w

2 B .

, s w a s , s l e s i h c d e v o r p m I f o g n i d l e w e g r o F s n i o c f o g n i p m a t S d n a g n i s s e r p s s a l G l e e t s t s a c , n o r i t s a C .

C , r e t t o p s d a e b s s a l G d n a g n i t s a c e z n o r B .

’ , d e r e m m a h g n i k a m e o H g n i z a r b , g n i t e v i R t e e h s g n i t t i l s y b e r i W s

, r o f s l o o t s e x a l a t e m s l e s s e v s s a l g , l e e h w f a e l d l o g , g n i w a r d d n a g n i k a m n o r i y r t n e p r a c

2 –

1 B .

C , s s a r b n o r i t h g u o r W .

1 – 1

B . C

l l i m d n i w , r e p a p d n a S - d l o g , g n i w a r d e r i W s s a l g l a t s y r C e p y t , e c a n r u f t s a l B
w e r c s , g n i n r u t , g n i r o B , d l o g , d a e l ( g n i l l o R n i a l e c r o P d l o m - t n e n a m r e P

History of Manufacturing (cont.) 1 .

L 1 E B A T ) . t n o c ( s e s s e c o r P g n i r u t c a f u n a M d n a s l a i r e t a M f o t n e m p o l e v e D l a c i r o t s i H

1 , y t i l a u q l a t o t s g n i t a o c g n i d l e w r e d w o p , g n i g a w s , s e i x o p e , r e b b u r s t r a p g n i r e e n i g n e l o r t n o c g n i r e e n i g n e r o f s l a t e m s s a l g e v i t i s n e s o t o h p s t r a p

1 , r e f s n a r t n o i t c u d o r p r e d w o p l a t e m , g n i t s a c , s c i t s a l p

, s e n i h c a m l y n i v y l o p g n i d l o m , e s o l u l l e c e d i r o l h c

, e n e l y h t e y l o p , e t a t e c a s r e b i f s s a l g

9 1 – P n o i s r e v n o c e t a h p s o h c r a d e g r e m b u S , ) l e e t s ( n o i s u r t x E c i t e h t n y s , s c i l y r c A r o f s s e c o r p x a w - t s o L

9 1 – E l a c i m e h c d n a l a c i r t c e l s a g , c r a l a t e m s a G , ) l e e t s ( n o i s u r t x e d l o C - e l i r t i n o l y r c A , d l o m c i m a r e C

1 , c i t a m o t u a g n i n i h c a m d n a , c r a n e t s g n u t , g n i m r o f e v i s o l p x e , e n e r y t s - e n e i d a t u b , n o r i r a l u d o n

; l o r t n o c g n i d l e w g a l s o r t c e l e l a c i n a h c e m o m r e h t , s e n o c i l i s , s r o t c u d n o c i m e s , g n i d l e w n o i s o l p x e g n i s s e c o r p s n o b r a c o r o u l f g n i t s a c s u o u n i t n o c

, t a o l f e n a h t e r u y l o p , s s a l g d e r e p m e t , s s a l g s c i m a r e c s s a l g

WWII WWI Industrial Revolution: to 1850

9 1 – , s s a m e d i b r a c n e t s g n u T s e d o r t c e l e d e t a o C m o r f e r i w n e t s g n u T f o t n e m p o l e v e D g n i t s a c e i D

, g n i l l i m l a s r e v i n u e h t a l , g n i l l o r l i a r - l e e t s , n o i t a z i n a c l u v , b l u b , m u n i m u l a c i t y l o r t c e l e , d e i f i r t i v e n i h c a m , g n i l l o r s u o u n i t n o c , g n i s s e c o r p r e b b u r , t t i b b a b , s l e e t s l e k c i n

7 1 – , ) e p i p d a e l ( n o i s u r t x E , n o r i t s a c e l b a e l l a M

1 , g n i l l o r g n i w a r d p e e d s r a b n o r i ( l e e t s e l b i c u r c

) s d o r d n a

8 1 – , g n i y p o c g n i l l i m , g n i p a h S l e e t s , r e m m a h m a e t S m o r f s s a l g w o d n i W , g n i t s a c l a f u g i r t n e C

1 , t e r r u t s k c o t s n u g r o f e h t a l , e b u t s s e l m a e s , g n i l l o r t h g i l , r e d n i l y c t i l s , s s e c o r p r e m e s s e B

, l e e h w g n i d n i r g g n i t a l p o r t c e l e e n e r y t s , r e t s e y l o p , l e e t s d e z i n a v l a g , r e b b u r d i o l u l l e c , y g r u l l a t e m r e d w o p

, g n i d l o m n o i s u r t x e l e e t s h t r a e h - n e p o

9 1 – , c i t a m o t u a e h t a l d e r a e G ; e n e l y t e c a y x O t o h , g n i l l o r e b u T e l t t o b c i t a m o t u A

1 , g n i b b o h , e n i h c a m w e r c s - l a c i r t c e l e , c r a n o i s u r t x e , e t i l e k a b , g n i k a m

, s l o o t l e e t s - d e e p s - h g i h d n a , e c n a t s i s e r s s a l g e t a c i l i s o r o b d n a e d i x o m u n i m u l a g n i d l e w t i m r e h t

) c i t e h t n y s ( e d i b r a c n o c i l i s

' 1750 Information Age Space Age

I . T , y r r e D . K . T , e t o c e l y T . F . R , h t i m S . S . C , y e h c S . A . J

, g n i r u t c a f u n a m d e t a r g e t n i - e c a f r u s , ) g n i m r o f n g i s e d d e d i a - r e t u p m o c , s c i m a r e c l a r u t c u r t s , g n i r u o p d n a g n i d l o m , s t o b o r l a i r t s u d n i g n i r e d l o s t n u o m , g n i r u t c a f u n a m d n a x i r t a m - c i m a r e c , n o i t a c i f i d i l o s d i p a r

, a m g i s x i s s k r o w t e n : e c r u o S . n a i j k a p l a K . S d n a , d i m h c S . R . S , s m a i l l i W .

, r o t o m r a e n i l g n i h c t e g n i t c u d n o c n o b r a c e k i l d n o m a i d , l a r u e n l a i c i f i t r a s e v i r d s e v i s e h d a

, g n i t a l p o r t c e l e , y h p a r g o h t i l , y r d ) g n i d l o m d n a y l l a c i r t c e l e , s c i m a r e c e l b a n i h c a m

) g n i v l o v n i s s e c o r p a r o f d e r o l i a t ( d e d l e w g n i k r o w l a t e m y l d n e i r f e r u t a r e p m e t - h g i h g n i l o o t d i p a r , s k n a l b l a t e m - t e e h s s d i u l f . s r o t c u d n o c r e p u s

I L , n o i t a c i r b a f e e r f - d a e l , g n i d l e w , g n i l o o t d i p a r , s m a o f l a t e m n g i s e d d e d i a - r e t u p m o c G m y n o r c a n a m r e a ( - t t u b r e s a l , s r e d l o s y l l a t n e m n o r i v n e , s g n i t a o c d e c n a v d a , s e i d d n a s d l o m f o

2 A G

9 1 –

, l a i c i f i t r a s m e t s y s t r e p x e n o i t a l u m i s r e t u p m o c , r e t u p m o c e c n e g i l l e t n i d n a n o i t a l u m i s n o i t a z i m i t p o

, n o i t c e p s n i d e t a m o t u a , ) s l a i r e t a m t r a m s (

, s m e t s y s g n i r u t c a f u n a m n o i t a l u m i s y l l a c i r t c e l e , s c i t s a l p , g n i k r o w l a t e m , y g o l o n h c e t r o s n e s s r e m y l o p g n i t c u d n o c , s l a t e m s u o h p r o m a

1 , d n o m a i d s l o o t d e t a o c g n i d n o b n o i s u f f i d , g n i g r o f l a m r e h t o s i , s l a i r e t a m , g n i t s a c m u u c a v , n o i s i c e r p a r t l u g n i n r u t d e n i b m o c o s l a ( , g n i m r o f c i t s a l p r e p u s , s r o t c u d n o c i m e s d e d n o b y l l a c i n a g r o

History of Manufacturing (conc.)

1 .

9 1 – , e d i r t i n n o r o b c i b u C , m a e b r e s a L , g n i g r o f n o i s i c e r P e t i s o p m o c , s e v i s e h d A , e t i h p a r g d e t c a p m o C

, l o r t n o c l a c i r e m u n e v i s e h d a , g n i d l e w g n i m r o f o r t c e l e , s c i t s a l p f o g n i m r o f s e d a l b e n i b r u t , p i h c t i u c r i c d e t a r g e t n i g n i d n o b s c i t s a l p d e c r o f n i e r g n i d n i w t n e m a l i f

1 , d n o m a i d c i t e h t n y s m a e b - n o r t c e l e , n o i s u r t x e c i t a t s o r d y h d l o c , e t a n o b r a c y l o p l a t s y r c - e l g n i s

9 1 – , e d i b r a c m u i n a t i T d n a c r a - a m s a l P , g n i m r o f o r d y H , s l a t e c A , g n i t s a c e z e e u q S

L 1 E B A T ) . t n o c ( s e s s e c o r P g n i r u t c a f u n a M d n a s l a i r e t a M f o t n e m p o l e v e D l a c i r o t s i H

r e t u p m o c , g n i n i h c a m c i t s a l p r e p u s h t i w y b e d a m s e i d , s r e b i f l a c i t p o f o n o i t a m o t u a , d n a s
g n i n r u t d n a g n i n i h c a m d n a g n i g r o f e p a h s t e n , s e t i s o p m o c x i r t a m - l a t e m
e l b i x e l f , s r e t n e c r e t u p m o c , g n i m r o f e l b a d a r g e d o i b d i l o s i m e s , s e t i s o p m o c
s y o l l a y r o m e m e p a h s
o n a n d n a - o r c i M r i t s n o i t c i r F , g n i p y t o t o r p d i p a R , s l a i r e t a m e s a h p o n a N , g n i t s a c o e h R s

Manufacturing Importance

40 USA Australia

30 Japan France

Kuwait

20 Germany Canada per capita, 1000 US$

Thailand Bangladesh

GDP Ethiopia

China

45 Contribution of manufacturing to GDP, %

FIGURE 1.2 Importance of manufacturing to national economies. The trends shown are from 1982 until 2006. Source: After J.A. Schey with data from the World

Development Report, World Bank, various years.

FIGURE 1.3 (a) Chart showing various steps involved in designing and manufacturing a product.

Depending on the complexity of the product and the type of materials used, the time span between the original concept and the marketing of a product may range from a few months to many years. (b) Chart showing general product ﬂow, from market analysis to selling the product, and depicting concurrent engineering. Source: After S. Pugh.

Packaging; marketing and sales literature Material specification; process and equipment selection; safety review

Pilot production Production

Inspection and quality assurance Production drawings; instruction manuals

Conceptual design and evaluation; feasibility study Prototype production; testing and evaluation

Development Process

Design analysis; codes/standards review; physical and analytical models Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) Computer-aided manufacturing and process planning (CAM and CAPP) Computer-aided design (CAD)

Main design Flow

Iterations Market

Specification Concept design

Detail design Manufacture

Sell (a)

(b) Definition of product need; marketing information

Product a

Shape or feature Production method Flat surfaces Rolling, planing, broaching, milling, shaping, grinding Parts with cavities End milling, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining, ultrasonic machining, blanking, casting, forging,

Shapes & extrusion, injection molding, metal injection molding

Parts with sharp features Permanent-mold casting, machining, grinding, fabricating , powder metallurgy, coining Manufacturing

Thin hollow shapes Slush casting, electroforming, fabricating, lament winding, blow molding, sheet forming, spinning Tubular shapes Extrusion, drawing, lament winding, roll forming, spinning,

Process

centrifugal casting Tubular parts Rubber forming, tube hydroforming, explosive forming, spinning, blow molding, sand casting, lament winding Curvature on thin sheets Stretch forming, peen forming, fabricating, thermoforming

Openings in thin sheets Blanking, chemical blanking, photochemical blanking, laser machining Cross-sections Drawing, extrusion, shaving, turning, centerless grinding, swaging, roll forming Square edges Fine blanking, machining, shaving, belt grinding Small holes Laser or electron-beam machining, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining, chemical blanking Surface textures Knurling, wire brushing, grinding, belt grinding, shot blast- ing, etching, laser texturing, injection molding, compression molding

Detailed surface features Coining, investment casting, permanent-mold casting, machining, injection molding, compression molding Threaded parts Thread cutting, thread rolling, thread grinding, injection molding Very large parts Casting, forging, fabricating, assembly Very small parts Investment casting, etching, powder metallurgy, nanofabrica-

TABLE 1.2 Shapes and some common methods

tion, LIGA, micromachining of production.

Notes:

a Rapid prototyping operations can produce all of these features to some degree. b `Fabricating' refers to assembly from separately manufactured components.

Design for Assembly

Poor Good Poor Good

Poor Good

Parts can Chamfer allows part Part must be released

Part is located Can easily Will tangle only hang up to fall into place before it is located before release tangle under pressure (a)

(b) (c) Poor Good

Poor Good Difficult to feed—parts overlap Easy to feed Insertion Air-relief hole Air-relief Air-relief difficult in workpiece hole in pin flat on pin (d)

(e)

FIGURE 1.4 Redesign of parts to facilitate automated assembly. Source: Reprinted from G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst, Product Design for Assembly, 1989, by courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.

All-Aluminum Automobile

Robotically applied, advanced arc-welding processes provide consistent, high-quality assembly of castings, extrusions, and sheet components Die-cast nodes are thin-walled to maximize weight reduction yet provide high performance

Strong, thin-walled extrusions Advanced extrusion bending processes exhibit high ductility, energy support complex shapes and tight radii absorption, and toughness (a)

(b)

FIGURE 1.5 (a) The Audi A8 automobile, an example of advanced materials construction; (b) The aluminum body structure, showing various components made by extrusion, sheet forming, and casting processes. Source: Courtesy of

ALCOA, Inc.

Methods of Manufacture Before After

Joined (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 1.6 Various methods of making a simple part: (a) casting or powder metallurgy, (b) forging or upsetting, (c) extrusion, (d) machining, (e) joining two pieces.

Scales in Manufacturing

Automobile Machinery gears

Virus Dust particle

Atoms Human cell

Mouse Grain of sand

Machining Human height

Lithography LIGA

Forging Chemical blanking

Aircraft Casting

Integrated circuit package

Features in integrated circuit

Gear for MEMS

Nanomanufacturing

FIGURE 1.7 Illustration of the range of common sizes of parts and the capabilities of

Examples in nature Manufacturing process examples Applications Classification Macromanufacturing Micromanufacturing Meso- manufacturing

1 m

5 10 Å 1 Å 10 m

5 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm

0.1 m

5 100 mm 10 mm 1 mm

0.1 mm

5 1 cm 1 mm

0.1 m 0.01 m

Size

manufacturing processes in producing these parts.

Ant

Machining a Mold Cavity

(a) (b)

(c)

FIGURE 1.8 Machining a mold cavity for making sunglasses. (a) Computer model of the sunglasses as designed and viewed on the monitor. (b) Machining the die cavity using a computer numerical control milling machine. (c) Final

product produced from the mold. Source: Courtesy Mastercam / CNC Software, Inc.

Flexible Manufacturing

FIGURE 1.9 General view of a ﬂexible manufacturing system, showing several machines (machining centers) and an automated guided vehicle (AGV) moving along the aisle. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

Global Labor Rates

TABLE 1.3

ALCOA, Inc.

48 Singapore

10 European countries 111 Asian countries

11 China, India

20 Brazil, Mexico

27 Czech Republic

33 Portugal, Taiwan

53 New Zealand, Korea

Source: Courtesy of U.S. Department of Labor, November 2004.

85 Spain

90 Ireland, Italy

93 Australia, Canada, Japan

96 United Kingdom

Denmark 147 Norway 144 Germany 136 Belgium, Switzerland 127 Finland, Netherlands 123 Austria, Sweden 116 United States 100 France

Approximate Relative Hourly Compensation for Production Workers, for 2003. United States = 100. Compensation Costs Vary Depending on Benefits and Allowance.

67 Israel

Range of Materials Processes in a Tractor