MIRWAN COMPARISON THREE SUBCULTURES
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Co pariso of Cultural Values i Three I do esia Su -Cultures
Mir a Surya Perdha a*
Depa t e t of Ma age e t, Fa ult of E o o i s a d Busi ess, U i e sitas Dipo ego o,
I do esia
De ia Arda
Maste of Ma age e t P og a , U i e sitas Dipo ego o, I do esia
*Co espo de e:
i
a .pe dha a@u dip.a .id
A stra t
The ai of this stud is to o pa e the ultu al alues of po e dista e a d olle ti is
a o g th ee I do esia su - ultu es: Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s. “i e
ost esea h i the field of oss ultu al a age e t i I do esia ea the p o le of ultu e
ge e alizatio , it is ital to i estigate ultu al alues at the su - ultu al le el. Resea h
fo usi g o su - ultu al le el is a le to e plo e the ua es a d disti guished ha a te isti s
a o g eth i g oups o egio s; espe iall i a ultu all - o ple ou t su h as I do esia.
To o pa e ultu al alues, this stud utilizes Value “u e Module 8 i st u e t a d adopted
its al ulatio fo ula. A Total of 6 espo de ts e e i ol ed, ith the o positio of
Ja a ese, 6 “u da ese a d
Chi ese I do esia s. The Value “u e Module 8
uestio ai es e e dist i uted th ough a uasi-s o all sa pli g ethod to o pa ies
lo ated i Ce t al a d West Ja a.
The a al sis of ua titati e data e ealed the a iatio of po e
s o es a o g the th ee su - ultu es. This fi di g ei fo es the a gu
su - ultu e is u i ue, a d gi es e ide e that easu i g ultu e i a
su h as I do esia is i a u ate. I pli atio s fo theo a d p a ti es
dista e a d olle ti is
e t that ea h I do esia
ultu all - o ple ou t
e e also dis ussed.
Key ords: I do esia, Po e Dista e, Colle ti is , “u - ultu al Co pa iso
. Resear h Ba kgrou d
The ai of this stud is to o pa e the ultu al alues of po e dista e a d
olle ti is
a o g th ee I do esia su - ultu es: Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese
I do esia s. Although ei g the fou th la gest ou t i te
of populatio , I do esia’s
ultu e is fa o e di e sified ith o e ,
eth i g oups o pa ed to Chi a, I dia a d U“A
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“tatisti I do esia,
. With su h eth i o positio , it is ha d to dete i e hi h eth i
g oup that ould e used to ep ese t I do esia’s atio al ultu e .
“i e
s, a
esea h i
a age e t sho s that atio al ultu e has g eat
o se ue es to all aspe t of o ga izatio al a age e t. Resea he s su h as Hofstede
,
; Lau e t
; Adle
; I gleha t a d Bake
stated that a age e t a d
o ga izatio p a ti es does ot lead to u ifo it e ause of the ultu al i flue e i ea h
egio . Lau e t
epo ted that a o g the e is still diffe e es of pe spe ti e a d
eha io i
a age e t p a ti es a o g Eu opea s. I Hofstede’s esea h
,
,
ou t ies ith diffe e t ultu al di e sio s’ s o e de o st ated diffe e t eha io s oth i
so iet a d o ga izatio .
The eha io of the people a d o ga izatio s i a ou t is g eatl i flue ed
the
do i a t ultu e Ka u go a d Me do a,
; “ hei ,
. I the ase of I do esia,
Ja a ese ultu e is ofte o side ed do i a t , a d is o side ed as the atio al ultu e of
I do esia A tlo ,
; Yudia ti a d Goodfello ,
; Mag is-“use o,
; Ma ,
.
The opi io that Ja a ese ultu e is the ep ese tatio of I do esia’s ultu e is
halle ged i this stud . Although it is fa tual that Ja a ese is the la gest eth i g oup i
I do esia, Ja a ese is o l o e out of hu d eds I do esia’s eth i g oup. Fu the o e, the
Ja a ese eth i g oup is o l do i a t i Ja a Isla d – the s allest a o g I do esia’s fi e ig
isla ds. The lai that Ja a ese ultu e is the ep ese tatio of I do esia’s ultu e is i alid,
si e othe egio i I do esia o othe I do esia eth i g oup ight ot sha e the sa e
alues a d eliefs as the Ja a ese.
To de o st ate the lai , this stud o pa es the ultu al alues of po e dista e
a d olle ti is a o g th ee I do esia su - ultu es: Ja a ese, “u da ese, a d Chi ese
I do esia . Ja a ese a d “u da ese e e hose e ause it is the la gest a d se o d la gest
eth i g oup i I do esia, a d oth eth i g oups is do i a t i Ja a Isla d. The Chi ese
I do esia s e e hose ased o the fa t that out of
i hest I do esia s a e Chi ese
I do esia s Fo es,
. Those th ee eth i g oups ill e o pa ed usi g Hofstede’s
ultu al f a e o k of po e dista e a d olle ti is usi g Value “u e Module
i st u e t. Co se ue tl , the esea h uestio i this esea h is:
Do Su da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s shares the sa e cultural alues ith the
Ja a ese?
. Theory
. Hofstede’s Fra e ork
Based o a esea h i ol i g
,
espo de ts i
ou t ies, Hofstede fou d that
atio al ultu e a e plai diffe e es i attitudes a d alues elated to o ga izatio al
eha io Pe dha a,
. Hofstede defi es atio al ultu e as the olle ti e e tal
p og a
i g of the people of a pa ti ula atio alit . A o di g to Hofstede, people i
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pa ti ula atio ha e a olle ti e atio al ha a te that ill efle t thei ultu al e tal
p og a
i g.
To o pa e the ultu al alues of the Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s,
this stud utilize Hofstede’s di e sio of po e dista e a d i di idualis / olle ti is . Po e
Dista e is the e te t to hi h less po e ful e e s of o ga izatio s/i stitutio s a ept that
po e is dist i uted u e uall . This efle ts the alues of the less po e ful e e s i so iet
a d also those ho ha e o e po e Pe dha a,
.
Colle ti is is the te de
of people to joi i a g oup o olle ti e a d taki g a e fo
o e a othe i e ha ge fo lo alt a o g the . Its opposite, I di idualis , is the te de
of
people to at h the sel es a d thei lose elati e o l . Hofstede's easu e the deg ee of
i di idualis i to t o poles of o ti uu : the lo e the deg ee of i di idualis
ea s that
people a e te di g to e olle ti ist. Colle ti is is the te de
of people to joi i a g oup o
olle ti e a d taki g a e fo o e a othe i e ha ge fo lo alt a o g the
Pe dha a,
.
To easu e the po e dista e a d olle ti is s o e, this stud utilize Value “u e
Module , a i st u e t de eloped
Hofstede, Hofstede, Mi ko a d Vi ke
. The
al ulatio fo ula fo po e dista e a d olle ti is di e sio a e as follo s:
Ta le . Cal ulatio For ula S ore for Po er Dista e a d I di idualis /Colle ti is
Power Distance = 35(m07 – m02) + 25(m23 – m26) + C(pd)
Individualism = 35(m04 – m01) + 35(m09 – m06) + C(ic)
. Ja a ese Perspe ti e o Po er Dista e a d Colle ti is
I elatio to the ultu al di e sio of po e dista e, the e a e se e al Ja a ese
ultu al alues that should e take i to atte tio . The fi st Ja a ese alue is the p i iple of
espe t. Ja a ese people, oth i spee h o eha io , ha e to espe t othe people i
a o da e ith thei so ial status Mag is-“use o,
. I di iduals should k o
he to
ho ou a d espe t people i highe positio , hile espo si le a d a ti g as fathe / othe to
those i lo e positio s Mag is-“use o,
. This a tio also efle ted i the use of la guage
a d gestu e he so eo e talks to othe people i highe usi g Ja a ese k a a o lo e
usi g Ja a ese goko positio .
The p i iple of espe t is ased o a ie that all so ial elatio ship a e hie a hi all
o de ed, a d o the o al i pe ati e to ai tai a d e p ess this ode of so ial o de as a
good i itself Gee tz,
. E e o e should k o thei positio a d pla e o the so iet .
Those ho i highe positio should e espe ted a d these people should espo si le, a ti g
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like pa e ts to those ho i lo e positio Mag is-“use o,
. Quoti g Mulde
that
a itio , i polite ess, a d pe so al ishes fo
ate ial gai a d po e a e sou es of
dis uptio , disha o a d o t adi tio that should e a oided a d ep essed , the Ja a ese
ust a ept, satisfied a d e espo si le fo thei status as su h o ditio s ill lead to so ial
ha o Mag is-“use o,
.
The se o d Ja a ese alue elated to po e dista e is the feeli g of edi fea , isi
asha ed a d su gka . I a Ja a ese fa il , hild e
e e taught he the ha e to feel fea
edi , sha e isi a d su gka . Fo e a ple, he hild e pla i g ith thei f ie ds a d
the the o e ho e late, the ha e to feel edi, e e efo e the fa e thei pa e ts, e ause
the ha e ade istake diso e i g thei pa e ts fo o i g ho e late. The ha e to feel isi
he the a t i p ope l i.e: ois , ua eli g, eha i g outside the o
i f o t of st a ge
people. “u gka is al ost si ila ith isi , ut it is o e asso iated ith eha io patte s of
eti uette Gee tz,
, fo e a ple he othe people offe so e food to a hild, the
ust
politel eje t it at fi st. The people ho offe the food ill also politel offe the food o e
o e, a d the the hild is allo ed to a ept it. Both people k o that this is a Ja a ese
eti uette of su gka , the efo e the ha e to u de sta d he to use the e p essio of
su gka .
The last Ja a ese alue elated to po e dista e di e sio is fathe figu e . As
e tio ed ea lie , the Ja a ese elie ed that all so ial elatio ship is hie a hi all o de ed.
I di iduals should k o
he to ho o a d espe t people i highe positio , hile espo si le
a d a ti g as fathe / othe to those i lo e positio s Mag is-“use o,
. “o eo e i
highe positio ill e o side ed as Bapak fathe s , ho eithe ele ted o appoi ted a d
takes espo si ilit fo his hild e
ot just fo a li ited ti e; a fathe s o ligatio s a d
autho it last as lo g as his life A tlo ,
. I additio , Mulde
stated that a leade
is Bapak, a fathe a d elia le pat o
ho should e ho ou ed a d follo ed, hose hi a d
ish is a o
a d, a d ho a es fo his su je ts a ak uah .
As the feed a k fo the leade as Bapak , su o di ates ha e to e o edie t a d
tha kful fo hat he does fo the . “upe io s a t thei su o di ates to sho o edie e, o i
Ja a ese o d; a ut Koe tja a i g at,
. U g ateful su o di ates ill e o side ed
as ku a g aja , ill- ed A tlo ,
, a d those ho go i thei o
a , ho a e a itious
a d o pete ith the leade a e o side ed as e ellious du aka,
alelo Mulde ,
.
I life, the Ja a ese o side gi es high ega ds to a d so ial elatio . The elie e that
a pe so a ot li e ithout the othe s, thus, the ha e to al a s sha i g as u h as possi le
ith othe s Koe tja a i g at,
. The a ifestatio of su h elie es a e o se ed i the
o ept of goto g o o g a d
us a a ah . Goto g Ro o g is a philosoph ased o the
ie that people ust help ea h othe , o k togethe to a hie e utual e efit; he eas
us a a ah ill efe s to the fa t that e e opi io should e espe ted, a de isio should e
ade o l afte a o se sus o o p o ise a hie ed Mag is-“use o,
.
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. Method
With the o side atio that ot all of the espo de ts ha i g good p ofi ie
i
E glish, the Value “u e Module
Hofstede et al.,
e e t a slated i to I do esia .
Fi e I do esia g aduate stude ts ho a e ha i g good p ofi ie
i E glish had pa ti ipated
i pilot testi g to o fi the a u a .
Respo de ts of ou su e s e e iddle a age s o ki g i
Ja a ese o ed a d
Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies ased i Ce t al Ja a p o i e, I do esia. The
“u da ese sa ples o igi ated f o
o pa ies i West Ja a. All uestio ai es e e
dist i uted th ough a uasi-s o all sa pli g ethod. I ea h o pa , esea he s asked
the Hu a Resou e Depa t e t to dist i ute the uestio ai e to a age s ho et the
ite ia. “pe ifi fo the Ja a ese a d “u da ese sa ples, all espo de ts ide tified the sel es
as Ja a ese a d “u da ese . I Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies, Chi ese-I do esia
espo de ts so eti es did ot a t to ide tif the sel es as Chi ese-I do esia . The
p efe to all the sel es I do esia . “u h o ditio is u de sta da le, o side i g that i
the past, Chi ese-I do esia
as a gued to suffe f o dis i i atio f o the Ne O de
go e
e t Ta ,
.
All o pa ies pa ti ipati g i this esea h fulfil e tai
ite ia su h as ha i g at least
e plo ees a d i i u
et asset of Billio Rupiah e e applied. I ou su e s,
pa ti ipated Ja a ese a d Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies
e e ope ati g i
a ufa tu i g, fi a ial, health a e, tele o
u i atio , i i g, o st u tio a d t adi g
se to s. “u da ese o pa ies e e all ope ati g i the a ufa tu i g se to o l .
Fo the pu pose of this stud , all e plo ees ho e e i ha ge of te o
oe
su o di ate e e o side ed as iddle a age s. The a age s should also ha e o ked i
the o pa fo at least fi e ea s.
Fo the data olle tio , esea he s
ade o ta t ith the Hu a Resou es
Depa t e t of ea h o pa
e- ail. Afte the pe issio is g a ted, esea he s o e i
pe so a d ha ded o e the ha d op fo of the uestio ai e. A o e lette as p o ided
to e plai the pu pose of the stud a d spe ifi di e tio s ho to fill the uestio ai es.
Ma age s e e asked to olu ta il pa ti ipate i e aluati g thei ultu al alues. The
ee
pe itted to o plete the su e s up to th ee eeks ti e du i g thei
o ki g hou s.
Respo de t’s ide tit
e e kept o fide tial a d a o
it
e e assu ed. Co pleted
uestio ai es e e put i e losed e elope, e e etu ed to Hu a Resou es Depa t e t
i the su e ed o ga izatio s to e olle ted
esea he . As the fi al esults, esea he s
e e a le to olle t
espo ses f o Ja a ese sa ples,
espo ses f o Chi eseI do esia sa ples a d
espo ses f o the “u da ese sa ples.
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The al ulatio of the ultu al alue s o e of po e dista e a d olle ti is
ee
ased o Hofstede et al.’s V“M fo ula. The utilizatio of V“M s o e e a le this stud to
o pa es the ultu al alues of the Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s.
. Result a d Dis ussio
The al ulatio esults of this stud a e p ese ted alo gside the ultu al alue s o es of
po e dista e a d i di idualis / olle ti is a o di g to Hofstede et al.
esult. It
should e oted ho e e ; that the s o es of this esea h a ot e di e tl o pa ed ith
Hofstede et al.’s
s o es e ause of the diffe e e i espo de t ite ia, sa ple size,
a d i ple e tatio ti e of the esea h. Thus, this stud a al ulate its o
di e sio
s o es fo
a age s i Ja a ese, “u da ese, a d Chi ese-I do esia
o pa ies. The
al ulatio i this stud
as ased o the data p o ided
a
at hi g sa ple of
a age s, a d a o l a al se a d e aluate the elati e diffe e es a d te de ies of these
s o es ith Hofstede et al’s
s o es.
Ta le . Results of ork related alues of a agers orki g i Ja a ese o pa ies,
Su da ese o pa ies a d Chi ese I do esia s o pa ies
JAVANESE
SUNDANESE
CHINESEINDONESIANS
Po e Dista e
.
.
.
I di idualis
.
.
.
CULTURAL VALUES
/ Colle ti is
HOFSTEDE
The po e dista e s o e of the th ee g oups of espo de ts is ot as high as
Hofstede’s po e dista e s o e of I do esia. A o di g to Hofstede
, the lo e le el of
po e dista e a e e plai ed; espe iall e ause depe de e o the po e of othe s i a
la ge pa t of ou o ld has ee edu ed o e the past t o ge e atio s p.
. The de li e
i the po e dista e s o e is ai l aused
the i ease of li e atio a d e a ipatio
o e e t, politi al t e ds, a d the i eased edu atio al le els i
a
ou t ies. All these
aspe ts gi e o t i utio to a d the lo e s o e of po e dista e.
“u adi ata
, stated that Co fu ia alues of e ti al a d ho izo tal so ial o de
a e efle ted i Chi ese I do esia s. People a e e pe ted to u de sta d thei positio i the
so iet a d o e thei ole, supposi g that the Chi ese I do esia so iet is o side ed to ha e
high po e dista e.
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O the othe ha d, Ja a ese people also fa ous fo thei ie ega di g status a d
so ial o de . O e of the e a ple ega di g this issue is the ie of the Ja a ese that people
ho a e doi g a ual la o a e o side ed ha i g lo status; hile those ea i g p ope
d ess a d gi e atte tio to pe so al h gie e ill e o side ed ha i g highe status Hofstede,
. Also, Ja a ese a e fa ous fo thei high espe t a d o edie e to a d autho it
Mag is-“use o,
; Mulde ,
a d hie a h Mulde ,
. The eha io of Ja a ese
people est o the p i iple of espe t Mag is-“use o,
, the p i iple of o edie e
Mulde ,
, the p i iple of fea a d hesitatio Gee tz,
a d the o ept of fathe ’s
figu e A tlo ,
; Mag is-“use o,
; Mulde ,
.
The ost i te esti g fa t f o this fi di g is that the po e dista e le el of Ja a ese
a age s is the lo est o pa ed to the othe g oups. This fi di g o tests the ge e al elief
that Ja a ese ultu e is al a s asso iated ith high po e dista e. The po e dista e i
“u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia so iet a e highe o pa ed to the Ja a ese.
High po e dista e o all li ked ith a st o g te de
fo autho itati e
leade ship st le “ha e, Ve kata a a & Ma Milla ,
. Autho it is defi ed a o di g to
positio s that i di ate a e ti al hie a h , a d people i the top positio o side the sel es
to e sepa ate ith those i lo e positio s Tuleja
, p.
. De isio - aki g te ds to e
o e - e t alized e ause supe io s t eat it as solel thei espo si ilit . “u o di ated a e
ie ed as i apa le of o t i uti g to de isio - aki g Begle et al.,
. As a esult,
su o di ates a e likel to o ti ue a epti g e t alized po e a d depe de e o supe io s
fo di e tio s. Pe so al i itiati e
su o di ates is ot alues a d the a e o l e pe ted to
i ple e t p o edu es o edie tl . Based o the esult, the highe s o e of po e dista e f o
“u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia
a age s i plies that the ha e te de ies to a d
autho itati e leade ship st le.
Lo i di idualis
o olle ti is
is a o
o the e i lite atu e o I do esia
Koe tja a i g at,
. This stud , ho e e , fou d that a age s i Ja a ese o ed
o pa ies put less alue o the g oup a d o e o the i di idual o pa ed to “u da ese o
Chi ese-I do esia
a age s. The esult i plies that a age s i Ja a ese o ed o pa ies
ha e a highe te de ies to spe d o e ti e fo the sel es a d thei fa ilies; hi h;
a o di g to Hofstede et al.
is the i di atio of i di idualis . Fo a age s o ki g i
Chi ese-I do esia o pa ies, spe di g ti e fo fa ilies a d the sel es is ot too i po ta t,
the efo e, it gi es a age s o ki g i Chi ese-I do esia o pa ies highe olle ti is
s o e.
. Co lusio s
This stud fou d diffe e e i the po e dista e s o e a o g the g oup of o pa ies,
he e
a age s
o ki g i “u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies
de o st ate a g eate a epta e to a d the i e ualit of po e dist i utio o pa ed to
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a age s o ki g i Ja a ese o ed o pa ies. Ne e theless, the po e dista e of
a age s o ki g i all o pa ies is ot as high as the po e dista e of the I do esia s
Hofstede,
. The de li e i po e dista e s o e o pa ed to Hofstede’s s o e of
I do esia efle ts the ha ge i politi al a d espe iall edu atio se to that has ee happe
o e the last th ee de ades i I do esia.
At the sa e ti e, a age s espe iall f o the Ja a ese o ed o pa ies a e
sho i g te de
to a d i di idualis , o pa ed to the “u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia
a age s. Although a age s o ki g fo Chi ese-I do esia o pa ies sho a st o ge
olle ti ist attitude, the e is a sig ifi a t diffe e e o pa ed to Hofstede et al.
esult
hi h stati g that I do esia de o st ates a e st o g olle ti ist attitude. The fi di gs
suggest that I do esia s is ad a i g to a d a i di idualisti so iet .
The li itatio of this stud is the ge e aliza ilit . Although this stud a e used to
ep ese t
illio Ja a ese people i I do esia,
illio “u da ese a d
illio of
Chi ese-I do esia ; ho e e ; still o l fo us o
out of hu d eds of ultu al g oups i
I do esia. With all of its o ple it , a p ope
easu e of I do esia atio al ultu e a e
e
o ple i te of ti e a d osts. Fu the stud to o pa e othe su - ultu al g oup i
I do esia is e ou aged; ith p io it gi e to othe la ge eth i g oup su h as Makassa ,
Pada g, A eh, Madu a a d A o ese.
Fi all , the fi di g of this stud ei fo es the a gu e t that I do esia’s ultu e is
u i ue a d a ied. Measu i g ultu e i a ultu all - o ple ou t su h as I do esia a ot
e o du ted ith ge e alizatio app oa h si e it ill lead to false a d i a u ate esult. As
a additio , futu e esea h o I do esia’s su - ultu e eeds to o side appl i g ualitati e
te h i ue to u o e the u i ue ultu al ha a te isti s of the o se ed eth i g oup.
. Refere es
. C oss-Cultu al Ma age e t Resea h: The Ost i h a d the T e d. The
of Ma age e t Re ie , ,
.
Adle , N.J.
A ade
A tlo , H.
. Village Leade s a d the Ne O de . I : CEDERROTH, “. & ANTLOV, H. eds.
Leade ship o Ja a : ge tle hi ts, autho ita ia ule. Ri h o d, “u e : Cu zo P ess.
A tlo ,H.
. E e pla Ce t e, Ad i ist ati e Pe iphe
O de i Ja a, Cu zo P ess.
– Ru al Leade ship a d the Ne
Begle , T.M., Lee, C., Fa g, Y., Li, J.
. Po e dista e as a ode ato of the elatio ship
et ee justi e a d e plo ee out o es i a sa ple of Chi ese e plo ees, Jou al of
Ma age ial Ps holog ,
,
–
.
Fo es.
http://
.
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I do esia's
Ri hest.
Ret ie ed
.fo es. o /i do esia- illio ai es/list/
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Gee tz, H.
P ess.
UBAYA INTERNATIONAL ANNUAL SYMPOSIUM ON MANAGEMENT
. The Ja a ese Fa il : A “tud of Ki ship a d “o ializatio , Illi ois, Wa ela d
Hofstede, G.
. Cultu e's Co se ue es: I te atio al Diffe e es i Wo k Related Beha io ,
Ne Yo k, “AGE Pu li atio .
Hofstede, G.
. Cultu al pitfalls fo Dut h e pat iates i I do esia, Jaka ta, T.G. I te atio al
Ma age e t Co sulta ts.
. Cultu e a d O ga izatio s: “oft a e of the Mi d, Lo do , “age.
Hofstede, G.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Mi ko , M.
Mi d ed. . U“A: M G a -Hill.
. Cultu es a d O ga izatio s: “oft a e fo the
I gleha t, R., Bake , W. E.
. Mode izatio 's Challe ge to T aditio al Values: Who's Af aid
of Ro ald M Do ald? The Futu ist, Ma h-Ap il, - .
. Ethi al Di e sio s of Leade ship, Thousa d Oaks, “age
Ka u go, R. N., Me do a, M.
Pu li atio s.
Koe tja a i g at.
. Ja a ese Cultu e, O fo d U i e sit P ess.
Lau e t, A.
. THE CULTURAL DIVER“ITY OF WE“TERN CONCEPTION“ OF MANAGEMENT.
I te atio al “tudies of Ma age e t & O ga izatio , , - .
Mag is-“use o, F.
. Ja a ese Ethi s a d Wo ld-Vie : The Ja a ese Idea of the Good Life,
jaka ta, PT. G a edia.
Ma
, R. I.
. The Cultu e of Busi ess i I do esia, Jaka ta, Gate a Books.
Mulde , N.
. M sti is a d E e da Life i Co te po a
Cha ge, “i gapo e, “i gapo e U i e sit P ess.
Ja a: Cultu al Pe siste e a d
Mulde , N.
. The Ideolog of Ja a ese-I do esia Leade ship. I : A tlo , H. ed.
Leade ship o Ja a: Ge tle Hi ts, Autho ita ia Rule.
Pe dha a, M.“.
. Pe hitu ga Nilai Buda a de ga Me ggu aka Value “u e Module
: “e uah Telaah K itis. Ju al Bis is “t ategi,
, - .
“ hei , E. H.
. O ga izatio al Cultu e a d Leade ship, “a F a sis o, CA, Josse -Bass.
“ha e, “, Ve kata a a , “, Ma Milla , I.
st ategies. Jou al of Ma age e t,
. Cultu al diffe e es i i
,
-
o atio
ha pio i g
“tatisti s I do esia.
. Ke a ga ega aa , “uku Ba gsa, Aga a, da Bahasa “eha i-ha i
Pe duduk I do esia: Hasil “e sus Pe duduk
. Ret ie ed
“epte e
, fo
http://sp
. ps.go.id/files/e ook/ke a ga ega aa % pe duduk% i do esia/i de
.ht l
“u adi ata, L.
. Co fu ia is i I do esia: Past a d p ese t. I L. “u adi ata Ed. , The
Chi ese Mi o it i I do esia: “e e Pape s
- . “i gapo e: Chop e E te p ises.
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UBAYA INTERNATIONAL ANNUAL SYMPOSIUM ON MANAGEMENT
Ta , M. G.
. Et is Tio ghoa Di I do esia: Ku pula
I do esia.
Tuleja, L.
. I te ultu al Co
Ce gage
Tulisa . Jaka ta: Ya asa
u i atio fo Busi ess: Ma age ial Co
O o
u i atio “e ies.
Yudia ti, N. & Goodfello , R.
. A I t odu tio to I do esia Co po ate Cultu e. I :
Goodfello , R. ed. A I side 's Guide: I do esia Busi ess Cultu e. “i gapo e:
Butte o th-Hei e a Asia.
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Co pariso of Cultural Values i Three I do esia Su -Cultures
Mir a Surya Perdha a*
Depa t e t of Ma age e t, Fa ult of E o o i s a d Busi ess, U i e sitas Dipo ego o,
I do esia
De ia Arda
Maste of Ma age e t P og a , U i e sitas Dipo ego o, I do esia
*Co espo de e:
i
a .pe dha a@u dip.a .id
A stra t
The ai of this stud is to o pa e the ultu al alues of po e dista e a d olle ti is
a o g th ee I do esia su - ultu es: Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s. “i e
ost esea h i the field of oss ultu al a age e t i I do esia ea the p o le of ultu e
ge e alizatio , it is ital to i estigate ultu al alues at the su - ultu al le el. Resea h
fo usi g o su - ultu al le el is a le to e plo e the ua es a d disti guished ha a te isti s
a o g eth i g oups o egio s; espe iall i a ultu all - o ple ou t su h as I do esia.
To o pa e ultu al alues, this stud utilizes Value “u e Module 8 i st u e t a d adopted
its al ulatio fo ula. A Total of 6 espo de ts e e i ol ed, ith the o positio of
Ja a ese, 6 “u da ese a d
Chi ese I do esia s. The Value “u e Module 8
uestio ai es e e dist i uted th ough a uasi-s o all sa pli g ethod to o pa ies
lo ated i Ce t al a d West Ja a.
The a al sis of ua titati e data e ealed the a iatio of po e
s o es a o g the th ee su - ultu es. This fi di g ei fo es the a gu
su - ultu e is u i ue, a d gi es e ide e that easu i g ultu e i a
su h as I do esia is i a u ate. I pli atio s fo theo a d p a ti es
dista e a d olle ti is
e t that ea h I do esia
ultu all - o ple ou t
e e also dis ussed.
Key ords: I do esia, Po e Dista e, Colle ti is , “u - ultu al Co pa iso
. Resear h Ba kgrou d
The ai of this stud is to o pa e the ultu al alues of po e dista e a d
olle ti is
a o g th ee I do esia su - ultu es: Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese
I do esia s. Although ei g the fou th la gest ou t i te
of populatio , I do esia’s
ultu e is fa o e di e sified ith o e ,
eth i g oups o pa ed to Chi a, I dia a d U“A
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“tatisti I do esia,
. With su h eth i o positio , it is ha d to dete i e hi h eth i
g oup that ould e used to ep ese t I do esia’s atio al ultu e .
“i e
s, a
esea h i
a age e t sho s that atio al ultu e has g eat
o se ue es to all aspe t of o ga izatio al a age e t. Resea he s su h as Hofstede
,
; Lau e t
; Adle
; I gleha t a d Bake
stated that a age e t a d
o ga izatio p a ti es does ot lead to u ifo it e ause of the ultu al i flue e i ea h
egio . Lau e t
epo ted that a o g the e is still diffe e es of pe spe ti e a d
eha io i
a age e t p a ti es a o g Eu opea s. I Hofstede’s esea h
,
,
ou t ies ith diffe e t ultu al di e sio s’ s o e de o st ated diffe e t eha io s oth i
so iet a d o ga izatio .
The eha io of the people a d o ga izatio s i a ou t is g eatl i flue ed
the
do i a t ultu e Ka u go a d Me do a,
; “ hei ,
. I the ase of I do esia,
Ja a ese ultu e is ofte o side ed do i a t , a d is o side ed as the atio al ultu e of
I do esia A tlo ,
; Yudia ti a d Goodfello ,
; Mag is-“use o,
; Ma ,
.
The opi io that Ja a ese ultu e is the ep ese tatio of I do esia’s ultu e is
halle ged i this stud . Although it is fa tual that Ja a ese is the la gest eth i g oup i
I do esia, Ja a ese is o l o e out of hu d eds I do esia’s eth i g oup. Fu the o e, the
Ja a ese eth i g oup is o l do i a t i Ja a Isla d – the s allest a o g I do esia’s fi e ig
isla ds. The lai that Ja a ese ultu e is the ep ese tatio of I do esia’s ultu e is i alid,
si e othe egio i I do esia o othe I do esia eth i g oup ight ot sha e the sa e
alues a d eliefs as the Ja a ese.
To de o st ate the lai , this stud o pa es the ultu al alues of po e dista e
a d olle ti is a o g th ee I do esia su - ultu es: Ja a ese, “u da ese, a d Chi ese
I do esia . Ja a ese a d “u da ese e e hose e ause it is the la gest a d se o d la gest
eth i g oup i I do esia, a d oth eth i g oups is do i a t i Ja a Isla d. The Chi ese
I do esia s e e hose ased o the fa t that out of
i hest I do esia s a e Chi ese
I do esia s Fo es,
. Those th ee eth i g oups ill e o pa ed usi g Hofstede’s
ultu al f a e o k of po e dista e a d olle ti is usi g Value “u e Module
i st u e t. Co se ue tl , the esea h uestio i this esea h is:
Do Su da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s shares the sa e cultural alues ith the
Ja a ese?
. Theory
. Hofstede’s Fra e ork
Based o a esea h i ol i g
,
espo de ts i
ou t ies, Hofstede fou d that
atio al ultu e a e plai diffe e es i attitudes a d alues elated to o ga izatio al
eha io Pe dha a,
. Hofstede defi es atio al ultu e as the olle ti e e tal
p og a
i g of the people of a pa ti ula atio alit . A o di g to Hofstede, people i
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pa ti ula atio ha e a olle ti e atio al ha a te that ill efle t thei ultu al e tal
p og a
i g.
To o pa e the ultu al alues of the Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s,
this stud utilize Hofstede’s di e sio of po e dista e a d i di idualis / olle ti is . Po e
Dista e is the e te t to hi h less po e ful e e s of o ga izatio s/i stitutio s a ept that
po e is dist i uted u e uall . This efle ts the alues of the less po e ful e e s i so iet
a d also those ho ha e o e po e Pe dha a,
.
Colle ti is is the te de
of people to joi i a g oup o olle ti e a d taki g a e fo
o e a othe i e ha ge fo lo alt a o g the . Its opposite, I di idualis , is the te de
of
people to at h the sel es a d thei lose elati e o l . Hofstede's easu e the deg ee of
i di idualis i to t o poles of o ti uu : the lo e the deg ee of i di idualis
ea s that
people a e te di g to e olle ti ist. Colle ti is is the te de
of people to joi i a g oup o
olle ti e a d taki g a e fo o e a othe i e ha ge fo lo alt a o g the
Pe dha a,
.
To easu e the po e dista e a d olle ti is s o e, this stud utilize Value “u e
Module , a i st u e t de eloped
Hofstede, Hofstede, Mi ko a d Vi ke
. The
al ulatio fo ula fo po e dista e a d olle ti is di e sio a e as follo s:
Ta le . Cal ulatio For ula S ore for Po er Dista e a d I di idualis /Colle ti is
Power Distance = 35(m07 – m02) + 25(m23 – m26) + C(pd)
Individualism = 35(m04 – m01) + 35(m09 – m06) + C(ic)
. Ja a ese Perspe ti e o Po er Dista e a d Colle ti is
I elatio to the ultu al di e sio of po e dista e, the e a e se e al Ja a ese
ultu al alues that should e take i to atte tio . The fi st Ja a ese alue is the p i iple of
espe t. Ja a ese people, oth i spee h o eha io , ha e to espe t othe people i
a o da e ith thei so ial status Mag is-“use o,
. I di iduals should k o
he to
ho ou a d espe t people i highe positio , hile espo si le a d a ti g as fathe / othe to
those i lo e positio s Mag is-“use o,
. This a tio also efle ted i the use of la guage
a d gestu e he so eo e talks to othe people i highe usi g Ja a ese k a a o lo e
usi g Ja a ese goko positio .
The p i iple of espe t is ased o a ie that all so ial elatio ship a e hie a hi all
o de ed, a d o the o al i pe ati e to ai tai a d e p ess this ode of so ial o de as a
good i itself Gee tz,
. E e o e should k o thei positio a d pla e o the so iet .
Those ho i highe positio should e espe ted a d these people should espo si le, a ti g
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like pa e ts to those ho i lo e positio Mag is-“use o,
. Quoti g Mulde
that
a itio , i polite ess, a d pe so al ishes fo
ate ial gai a d po e a e sou es of
dis uptio , disha o a d o t adi tio that should e a oided a d ep essed , the Ja a ese
ust a ept, satisfied a d e espo si le fo thei status as su h o ditio s ill lead to so ial
ha o Mag is-“use o,
.
The se o d Ja a ese alue elated to po e dista e is the feeli g of edi fea , isi
asha ed a d su gka . I a Ja a ese fa il , hild e
e e taught he the ha e to feel fea
edi , sha e isi a d su gka . Fo e a ple, he hild e pla i g ith thei f ie ds a d
the the o e ho e late, the ha e to feel edi, e e efo e the fa e thei pa e ts, e ause
the ha e ade istake diso e i g thei pa e ts fo o i g ho e late. The ha e to feel isi
he the a t i p ope l i.e: ois , ua eli g, eha i g outside the o
i f o t of st a ge
people. “u gka is al ost si ila ith isi , ut it is o e asso iated ith eha io patte s of
eti uette Gee tz,
, fo e a ple he othe people offe so e food to a hild, the
ust
politel eje t it at fi st. The people ho offe the food ill also politel offe the food o e
o e, a d the the hild is allo ed to a ept it. Both people k o that this is a Ja a ese
eti uette of su gka , the efo e the ha e to u de sta d he to use the e p essio of
su gka .
The last Ja a ese alue elated to po e dista e di e sio is fathe figu e . As
e tio ed ea lie , the Ja a ese elie ed that all so ial elatio ship is hie a hi all o de ed.
I di iduals should k o
he to ho o a d espe t people i highe positio , hile espo si le
a d a ti g as fathe / othe to those i lo e positio s Mag is-“use o,
. “o eo e i
highe positio ill e o side ed as Bapak fathe s , ho eithe ele ted o appoi ted a d
takes espo si ilit fo his hild e
ot just fo a li ited ti e; a fathe s o ligatio s a d
autho it last as lo g as his life A tlo ,
. I additio , Mulde
stated that a leade
is Bapak, a fathe a d elia le pat o
ho should e ho ou ed a d follo ed, hose hi a d
ish is a o
a d, a d ho a es fo his su je ts a ak uah .
As the feed a k fo the leade as Bapak , su o di ates ha e to e o edie t a d
tha kful fo hat he does fo the . “upe io s a t thei su o di ates to sho o edie e, o i
Ja a ese o d; a ut Koe tja a i g at,
. U g ateful su o di ates ill e o side ed
as ku a g aja , ill- ed A tlo ,
, a d those ho go i thei o
a , ho a e a itious
a d o pete ith the leade a e o side ed as e ellious du aka,
alelo Mulde ,
.
I life, the Ja a ese o side gi es high ega ds to a d so ial elatio . The elie e that
a pe so a ot li e ithout the othe s, thus, the ha e to al a s sha i g as u h as possi le
ith othe s Koe tja a i g at,
. The a ifestatio of su h elie es a e o se ed i the
o ept of goto g o o g a d
us a a ah . Goto g Ro o g is a philosoph ased o the
ie that people ust help ea h othe , o k togethe to a hie e utual e efit; he eas
us a a ah ill efe s to the fa t that e e opi io should e espe ted, a de isio should e
ade o l afte a o se sus o o p o ise a hie ed Mag is-“use o,
.
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. Method
With the o side atio that ot all of the espo de ts ha i g good p ofi ie
i
E glish, the Value “u e Module
Hofstede et al.,
e e t a slated i to I do esia .
Fi e I do esia g aduate stude ts ho a e ha i g good p ofi ie
i E glish had pa ti ipated
i pilot testi g to o fi the a u a .
Respo de ts of ou su e s e e iddle a age s o ki g i
Ja a ese o ed a d
Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies ased i Ce t al Ja a p o i e, I do esia. The
“u da ese sa ples o igi ated f o
o pa ies i West Ja a. All uestio ai es e e
dist i uted th ough a uasi-s o all sa pli g ethod. I ea h o pa , esea he s asked
the Hu a Resou e Depa t e t to dist i ute the uestio ai e to a age s ho et the
ite ia. “pe ifi fo the Ja a ese a d “u da ese sa ples, all espo de ts ide tified the sel es
as Ja a ese a d “u da ese . I Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies, Chi ese-I do esia
espo de ts so eti es did ot a t to ide tif the sel es as Chi ese-I do esia . The
p efe to all the sel es I do esia . “u h o ditio is u de sta da le, o side i g that i
the past, Chi ese-I do esia
as a gued to suffe f o dis i i atio f o the Ne O de
go e
e t Ta ,
.
All o pa ies pa ti ipati g i this esea h fulfil e tai
ite ia su h as ha i g at least
e plo ees a d i i u
et asset of Billio Rupiah e e applied. I ou su e s,
pa ti ipated Ja a ese a d Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies
e e ope ati g i
a ufa tu i g, fi a ial, health a e, tele o
u i atio , i i g, o st u tio a d t adi g
se to s. “u da ese o pa ies e e all ope ati g i the a ufa tu i g se to o l .
Fo the pu pose of this stud , all e plo ees ho e e i ha ge of te o
oe
su o di ate e e o side ed as iddle a age s. The a age s should also ha e o ked i
the o pa fo at least fi e ea s.
Fo the data olle tio , esea he s
ade o ta t ith the Hu a Resou es
Depa t e t of ea h o pa
e- ail. Afte the pe issio is g a ted, esea he s o e i
pe so a d ha ded o e the ha d op fo of the uestio ai e. A o e lette as p o ided
to e plai the pu pose of the stud a d spe ifi di e tio s ho to fill the uestio ai es.
Ma age s e e asked to olu ta il pa ti ipate i e aluati g thei ultu al alues. The
ee
pe itted to o plete the su e s up to th ee eeks ti e du i g thei
o ki g hou s.
Respo de t’s ide tit
e e kept o fide tial a d a o
it
e e assu ed. Co pleted
uestio ai es e e put i e losed e elope, e e etu ed to Hu a Resou es Depa t e t
i the su e ed o ga izatio s to e olle ted
esea he . As the fi al esults, esea he s
e e a le to olle t
espo ses f o Ja a ese sa ples,
espo ses f o Chi eseI do esia sa ples a d
espo ses f o the “u da ese sa ples.
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The al ulatio of the ultu al alue s o e of po e dista e a d olle ti is
ee
ased o Hofstede et al.’s V“M fo ula. The utilizatio of V“M s o e e a le this stud to
o pa es the ultu al alues of the Ja a ese, “u da ese a d Chi ese I do esia s.
. Result a d Dis ussio
The al ulatio esults of this stud a e p ese ted alo gside the ultu al alue s o es of
po e dista e a d i di idualis / olle ti is a o di g to Hofstede et al.
esult. It
should e oted ho e e ; that the s o es of this esea h a ot e di e tl o pa ed ith
Hofstede et al.’s
s o es e ause of the diffe e e i espo de t ite ia, sa ple size,
a d i ple e tatio ti e of the esea h. Thus, this stud a al ulate its o
di e sio
s o es fo
a age s i Ja a ese, “u da ese, a d Chi ese-I do esia
o pa ies. The
al ulatio i this stud
as ased o the data p o ided
a
at hi g sa ple of
a age s, a d a o l a al se a d e aluate the elati e diffe e es a d te de ies of these
s o es ith Hofstede et al’s
s o es.
Ta le . Results of ork related alues of a agers orki g i Ja a ese o pa ies,
Su da ese o pa ies a d Chi ese I do esia s o pa ies
JAVANESE
SUNDANESE
CHINESEINDONESIANS
Po e Dista e
.
.
.
I di idualis
.
.
.
CULTURAL VALUES
/ Colle ti is
HOFSTEDE
The po e dista e s o e of the th ee g oups of espo de ts is ot as high as
Hofstede’s po e dista e s o e of I do esia. A o di g to Hofstede
, the lo e le el of
po e dista e a e e plai ed; espe iall e ause depe de e o the po e of othe s i a
la ge pa t of ou o ld has ee edu ed o e the past t o ge e atio s p.
. The de li e
i the po e dista e s o e is ai l aused
the i ease of li e atio a d e a ipatio
o e e t, politi al t e ds, a d the i eased edu atio al le els i
a
ou t ies. All these
aspe ts gi e o t i utio to a d the lo e s o e of po e dista e.
“u adi ata
, stated that Co fu ia alues of e ti al a d ho izo tal so ial o de
a e efle ted i Chi ese I do esia s. People a e e pe ted to u de sta d thei positio i the
so iet a d o e thei ole, supposi g that the Chi ese I do esia so iet is o side ed to ha e
high po e dista e.
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O the othe ha d, Ja a ese people also fa ous fo thei ie ega di g status a d
so ial o de . O e of the e a ple ega di g this issue is the ie of the Ja a ese that people
ho a e doi g a ual la o a e o side ed ha i g lo status; hile those ea i g p ope
d ess a d gi e atte tio to pe so al h gie e ill e o side ed ha i g highe status Hofstede,
. Also, Ja a ese a e fa ous fo thei high espe t a d o edie e to a d autho it
Mag is-“use o,
; Mulde ,
a d hie a h Mulde ,
. The eha io of Ja a ese
people est o the p i iple of espe t Mag is-“use o,
, the p i iple of o edie e
Mulde ,
, the p i iple of fea a d hesitatio Gee tz,
a d the o ept of fathe ’s
figu e A tlo ,
; Mag is-“use o,
; Mulde ,
.
The ost i te esti g fa t f o this fi di g is that the po e dista e le el of Ja a ese
a age s is the lo est o pa ed to the othe g oups. This fi di g o tests the ge e al elief
that Ja a ese ultu e is al a s asso iated ith high po e dista e. The po e dista e i
“u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia so iet a e highe o pa ed to the Ja a ese.
High po e dista e o all li ked ith a st o g te de
fo autho itati e
leade ship st le “ha e, Ve kata a a & Ma Milla ,
. Autho it is defi ed a o di g to
positio s that i di ate a e ti al hie a h , a d people i the top positio o side the sel es
to e sepa ate ith those i lo e positio s Tuleja
, p.
. De isio - aki g te ds to e
o e - e t alized e ause supe io s t eat it as solel thei espo si ilit . “u o di ated a e
ie ed as i apa le of o t i uti g to de isio - aki g Begle et al.,
. As a esult,
su o di ates a e likel to o ti ue a epti g e t alized po e a d depe de e o supe io s
fo di e tio s. Pe so al i itiati e
su o di ates is ot alues a d the a e o l e pe ted to
i ple e t p o edu es o edie tl . Based o the esult, the highe s o e of po e dista e f o
“u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia
a age s i plies that the ha e te de ies to a d
autho itati e leade ship st le.
Lo i di idualis
o olle ti is
is a o
o the e i lite atu e o I do esia
Koe tja a i g at,
. This stud , ho e e , fou d that a age s i Ja a ese o ed
o pa ies put less alue o the g oup a d o e o the i di idual o pa ed to “u da ese o
Chi ese-I do esia
a age s. The esult i plies that a age s i Ja a ese o ed o pa ies
ha e a highe te de ies to spe d o e ti e fo the sel es a d thei fa ilies; hi h;
a o di g to Hofstede et al.
is the i di atio of i di idualis . Fo a age s o ki g i
Chi ese-I do esia o pa ies, spe di g ti e fo fa ilies a d the sel es is ot too i po ta t,
the efo e, it gi es a age s o ki g i Chi ese-I do esia o pa ies highe olle ti is
s o e.
. Co lusio s
This stud fou d diffe e e i the po e dista e s o e a o g the g oup of o pa ies,
he e
a age s
o ki g i “u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia o ed o pa ies
de o st ate a g eate a epta e to a d the i e ualit of po e dist i utio o pa ed to
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a age s o ki g i Ja a ese o ed o pa ies. Ne e theless, the po e dista e of
a age s o ki g i all o pa ies is ot as high as the po e dista e of the I do esia s
Hofstede,
. The de li e i po e dista e s o e o pa ed to Hofstede’s s o e of
I do esia efle ts the ha ge i politi al a d espe iall edu atio se to that has ee happe
o e the last th ee de ades i I do esia.
At the sa e ti e, a age s espe iall f o the Ja a ese o ed o pa ies a e
sho i g te de
to a d i di idualis , o pa ed to the “u da ese a d Chi ese-I do esia
a age s. Although a age s o ki g fo Chi ese-I do esia o pa ies sho a st o ge
olle ti ist attitude, the e is a sig ifi a t diffe e e o pa ed to Hofstede et al.
esult
hi h stati g that I do esia de o st ates a e st o g olle ti ist attitude. The fi di gs
suggest that I do esia s is ad a i g to a d a i di idualisti so iet .
The li itatio of this stud is the ge e aliza ilit . Although this stud a e used to
ep ese t
illio Ja a ese people i I do esia,
illio “u da ese a d
illio of
Chi ese-I do esia ; ho e e ; still o l fo us o
out of hu d eds of ultu al g oups i
I do esia. With all of its o ple it , a p ope
easu e of I do esia atio al ultu e a e
e
o ple i te of ti e a d osts. Fu the stud to o pa e othe su - ultu al g oup i
I do esia is e ou aged; ith p io it gi e to othe la ge eth i g oup su h as Makassa ,
Pada g, A eh, Madu a a d A o ese.
Fi all , the fi di g of this stud ei fo es the a gu e t that I do esia’s ultu e is
u i ue a d a ied. Measu i g ultu e i a ultu all - o ple ou t su h as I do esia a ot
e o du ted ith ge e alizatio app oa h si e it ill lead to false a d i a u ate esult. As
a additio , futu e esea h o I do esia’s su - ultu e eeds to o side appl i g ualitati e
te h i ue to u o e the u i ue ultu al ha a te isti s of the o se ed eth i g oup.
. Refere es
. C oss-Cultu al Ma age e t Resea h: The Ost i h a d the T e d. The
of Ma age e t Re ie , ,
.
Adle , N.J.
A ade
A tlo , H.
. Village Leade s a d the Ne O de . I : CEDERROTH, “. & ANTLOV, H. eds.
Leade ship o Ja a : ge tle hi ts, autho ita ia ule. Ri h o d, “u e : Cu zo P ess.
A tlo ,H.
. E e pla Ce t e, Ad i ist ati e Pe iphe
O de i Ja a, Cu zo P ess.
– Ru al Leade ship a d the Ne
Begle , T.M., Lee, C., Fa g, Y., Li, J.
. Po e dista e as a ode ato of the elatio ship
et ee justi e a d e plo ee out o es i a sa ple of Chi ese e plo ees, Jou al of
Ma age ial Ps holog ,
,
–
.
Fo es.
http://
.
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I do esia's
Ri hest.
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. Cultu e a d O ga izatio s: “oft a e of the Mi d, Lo do , “age.
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