M02059
Diversity of Organic Rice Farming Productivity
Tinjung Mary Prihtanti1 and Maria1
Department of Agribusiness, Agricultural and Business Faculty
Satya Wacana Christian University
Diponegoro 52-60, Salatiga 50711, Central Java, Indonesia
*Correspondence Author, e-mail: tinjung.murjono@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Concurrent with the demand of preserving the environment in farming practices
(GAP), organic farming systems had started to develop in Indonesia; one of which is for
organic rice production. The province of Central Java is relatively responsive to the
movement of organic rice production. This article aims to elaborate the prevailing organic
rice production and productivity potential in four regions. Data were collected using survey
techniques from farmers practicing chemical-free organic system in growing paddy rice and
through literature study. Total respondents interviewed in Pereng village of Mojogedang subdistrict in Karanganyar regency and Sukorejo village of Sambirejo sub-district in Sragen
regency were determined using census technique. Respondents interviewed in Gentungan
village of Mojogedang sub-district in Karanganyar and Ketapang village of Susukan subdistrict in Semarang were selected using quota techniques. Data were analyzed using
descriptive statistics. Three indicators calculated are productivity, variability of productivity,
coefficient of variation between regions. The current practices of organic rice production in
those sites had not yet complied with the SNI especially pertaining crop rotation, variety
selection, and livestock husbandry as farmyard manure producers. The actual productivity,
variability, and coefficients of variation of different farms varied, due to the different
agronomic and non-agronomic aspects. The highest organic rice productivity was achievedby
farms in Pereng village. This study concluded that the average productivity achieved by
organic systems had not been able to reach 7 ton/ha and increment in number of production
factors did not always result in higher productivity.
Keywords: organic, rice farming, productivity, coefficient of variation
BACKGROUND
In Indonesia, rice is most strategic commodity and becomes the target of rice selfsufficiency in economic development. An increase in the productivity of rice farming has
important role for ensuring national food security and reducing poverty. Indonesia’s rice
farming was still depend on wetland rice farming in Java, mainly because of the condition of
the land is relatively more suitable for rice growing requirements as well as the growing
technology. The average productivity of rice farming in Java is 5,7 tonnes/hectare,
meanwhile outside Java farms have average productivity about 4,4 tonnes/hectare (Table 1).
Java was categorized as sustainable sufficient regions, while Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and other
regions were classified as sustainable less sufficient one (Nurmalina, 2008).
Table 1. Harvested Area, Production and Productivity of Rice in Java and outside Java
Description
Harvested area (ha)
- Java
- Outside Java
Production (million tonnes)
- Java
- Outside Java
Productivity (kuintal/ha)
- Java
- Outside Java
2010
2011
2012
(000 tonnes)
2013
2014
Growth
average
6.358
6.895
6.165
7.038
6.186
7.260
6.467
7.368
6.000
7.393
0,20
1,76
36.375
30.094
34.405
31.352
36.527
32.529
37.493
33.787
36.659
34.173
0,29
3,24
57,21
43,65
55,81
44,54
59,05
44,81
57,98
45,85
57,28
46,22
0,08
1,45
Source: Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Agriculture in 2015-2019
Description: (2014 Data of ASEM), the production quality is dry unhusked rice (GKG)
Rice farmng is facing the problem of heavy applications of chemicals input. Rice
farming already promoting dependence on agricultural chemicals, both synthetic fertilizers
and pesticides, thus ignoring the negative effects on health and environment. The excessive
use of agro-chemicals fertilizers has led to a decline of soil quality and productivity (Las, et
al, 2006). Thus it leads the "land hunger" where the land actually require more chemicals.
Consequently, to maintain the productivity, farmers had to rely on agro-chemical inputs.
Though often a phenomenon the fertiizer was rare and difficult to obtain by farmers. In
addition, most chemical fertlisers, pesticides, etc are not the domestic reliance but are
imported inputs. More importantly, the price of modern inputs increases each year, negatively
affecting farmers’ income (Tovignan and Nuppenau, 2004). About 24,43% of the total cost in
conventional rice farming are chemicals fertliser and synthetic pesticide costs (Supadi, 2006),
and it was increases each year, until about 29,19% recently (Prihtanti et al, 2014).
The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation (FAO) uses Good
Agricultural Practices as a collection of priciples to apply for on-farm production and postproduction processes, resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products,
while taking into account economical, social, and environmental sustainability. It encourages
any agricultural business had to pay attention to environmental preservation and imposed to
meet the production standards that was specified in the international market. According to
Brown in (MacKerron et al, 2015) "Demand for organic produce is strong and still growing.
We are determined that consumers should be Able to buy organic produce if they want to.
We must remember that conventional systems Also produce good quality food that is safe to
eat in the quantities consumers demand.
The Indonesia is stepping up its efforts to raise the capability of its agriculture sectors
to meet the country's food security needs, and at the same time strengthen the sustainability
of its agricultural processes and the resource base. Toward this end, the Indonesia’s
government establishes various policies, including “Go Organic Program in 2010”. Organic
farming is defined as a way of farming that was appropriate to support the globalization
phenomenon that farming does not use chemicals fertilizers and pesticides. In Indonesia,
there are about 40.6 million hectares of agricultural land. Based on the SOEL survey, in
Giovannucci (2005), stated that the area of organic farming in Indonesia is about 40,000
hectares (0.09 percent against a broad or equal to 0.33 percent of the total rice area). In 2010,
according to the Indonesian Organic Association (AOI), organic farming reached 0.6% of
agricultural land area of Indonesia, which is managed organically either been certified or not.
Organic farming emerged in Indonesia at some areas, including West Java, East Java
and Central Java. The potential development of organic rice found in the southern region of
West Java, among others, Tasikmalaya, Ciamis, Cianjur, and Sukabumi. Some areas of
organic farming in East Java, among other Ngawi, Bojonegoro, Tulungagung, and
Bondowoso in limited areas. In Central Java province, there was a number of orgamic
farming farmers, which cultivate organic food crops, medicinal, vegetables, and fruits plants.
Organic rice farmers, relatively more than other types of plants. According to data from the
Institute for Machine Tools and Quality Test of Agricultural Products Department of
Agriculture and Horticulture, Central Java (2015), organic rice cultivation in Karanganyar,
Magelang, Boyolali, and Sragen has widely organic cultivation area than other regions.
OBJECTIVE
Accordingly, development of organic rice farming was encourage to examines the
organic farming practices and productivity performance in several areas in Central Java
province, taaking case of wetland rice farming. Variations in productivity was helping better
understanding about the problems faced by farmers and it will lead to increase the
productivity of rice with organic systems.
METHODS
The study was using a quantitative approach on some wetland organic rice growing
regions namely in Karanganyar, Sragen, and Semarang. Primary data were collected using
survey techniques to organic rice farmers, namely rice farming without chemicals inputs;
supported by the literature study. Census technique was applied for farmer respondents, in the
Pereng village, Mojogedang sub-district, Karanganyar regency; Sukorejo village, Sambirejo
sub-district, Sragen regency; and using because there are only a few rice farmers with
organic systems, while samples in Gentungan village, Mojogedang sub-district, Karanganyar
regency, and Ketapang village, Susukan sub-district, Semarang regency, using quota
techniques.
The study areas shown in Figure 1.
Sukorejo Village,
Sambirejo district
Ketapang village,
Susukan district
Pereng dan Gentungan village,
Mojogedang district
Figure 1. The map of wetland organic rice farming areas in Central Java showing the areas of study
Descriptive statistic analysis was applied to summarise the important characteristics
of the rice samples by using simple statistic analysis, i.e. frequency, percentage, and mean.
Variables in this study were include the measurement of productivity, variability, and
coefficient of variation. Productivity calculated by the ratio of production per hectare of land,
while the variability of the data shows the dispersion or variation of productivity achieved by
farmers in each location. The coefficient of variation shows the difference in risk faced by
farmers in each planting site, defined ratio between the standard deviation and the value of
average productivity (Salvatore, 1996). The higher the coefficient of variation, the higher the
risks faced by farmers. According Hernanto (1991), when the CV value is more than 0.5 or
more than 50% means there is a chance farmer will be loss.
RESULTS
Organic Rice Farming Practices
Referring to Indonesia National Standard (SNI), organic production need to pay
attention to the raw materials and processes used in the cultivation process. In the standard of
organic agriculture as specified in ISO 6729: 2013, which refers to the IFOAM Basic
Standards for organic production and processing in 2005, the establishment of a system of
organic food organic food production system, include provisions concerning the production,
preparation, marketing, and labeling of products. Table 2, shows that organic rice farming
practices in the study site. It was observed that organic farming practices at study site had
different application on cultivation. The study site was facilitated by rain and mountain water
to irrigate the rice cultivation. In Pereng, Gentungan, and Sukorejo, rice cultivate three times
planting season in a year, and no crop rotation, but because Ketapang village was lowland
areas, irrigation was not always available throughout the year so there is some organic rice
farmers who grow rice only 2 times a year. Some farmers in Pereng, Gentungan,, and
Sukorejo still planting seeds of the IR-64 and some farmers grows local seeds, among others
Mentik wangi and black rice. Some aspects of organic farming that has not been done in the
research sites, shown in Table 2. Farmers knowledge and practicality aspect were the barriers
to ideal organic rice cultivation.
Table 2. Organic Paddy Farming Practice
Organic cultivation aspect
Pereng ,
Mojogedang
sub-district,
Karanganyar
regency
Gentungan,
Mojogedang
sub-district,
Karanganyar
regency
Sukorejo,
Sambirejo
sub-district,
Sragen
regency
Ketapang,
Susukan subdistrict,
Semarang
regency
Input (fertilizer, pesticide)
√
√
√
√
Seed variety
-
√
-
√
Crop rotation
-
-
-
√
Mechanical tillage
√
√
√
√
Appilcatin of trapping plant
-
-
-
-
Application on green fertilizer and
crop residue
√
√
√
√
Mechanical trap or barriers
-
-
-
-
Application of predator
√
√
√
√
Livestock husbandry as farmyard
-
-
-
-
manure producers
Quality arranged irrigation (rain or
spring
water
that
is not
contaminated
by
chemicals
material)
-
√
-
√
Product labeling
-
√
-
√
Several studies concluded that the awareness of organic farming systems should be
improved. Piadozo et al (2014) studied showed that Philippines rice farmers have only a low
to medium level of awareness on organic activities and markets for organic products. The
development of organic agriculture in Cambodia is supported by the agency CEDAC (organic
rice association in Takeo Province) supports local farmers on technical knowledge in organic
farming and facilitates the marketing of organic rice products from local farmers. However
many farmers in the region could not adapt organic rice farming is possibly due to the lack of
education on the benefits of organic farming. Karki et al (2011) concluded the need on
training and mentoring policy to raise awareness about the benefits of organic farming.
Productivity of Organic Rice Farming
Table 3 shows differences organic farm productivity in four areas of planting. The
highest productivity of organic farming was achieved by farmer in Pereng, Mojogedang
district, Karanganyar regency ie 6.78 tonnes/ha, and the lowest was achieved by organic rice
farmers in Ketapang village, Susukan, Semarang regency.
Table 3. Productivity of Organic Paddy Farming
Pereng , Mojogedang
district, Karanganyar
regency
Gentungan,
Mojogedang district,
Karanganyar regency
Sukorejo, Sambirejo
district, Sragen
regency
Ketapang,
Susukan district,
Semarang regency
Highest (kg/ha)
10.666,67
10.866,67
8.266,67
6.563,00
Lowest (kg/ha)
1.931,17
3.166,67
4.000,00
4.800,00
Mean (kg/ha)
6.784,46
6.536,39
6.296,00
5.850,09
Standard deviation
1.931,17
1.940,52
1.390,97
573,18
Variability
33,50
23,92
19,80
8,19
Coefficient Variation
28,46
29,69
22,66
9,79
Description
Productivity
Source: primary data
Although Ketapang village had lowest productivity, but the variability and coefficient
of variation showed small value as well. This may imply that the productivity achieved
organic rice farmers in Ketapang village relatively similar and risks facing is also relatively
low. Renthiandy et al (2015) studied risk of paddy production in Karanganyar district
Karanganyar (CV risk production) of 0.53 or 53%. Irawan (2004), the coefficient of variation
of rice farming in the province of Central Java in 1996-2000 was 6.1%. Production risk in
farming due to their dependence on nature of agricultural activity so that the adverse effects
of natural greatly affect production.
Distribution of farmers according to the achievement of productivity seen in Figure 2.
It was observed that organic rice productivity in Ketapang village, Semarang regency, was at
a moderate level, while rice productivity performance in other regions varied at a low level
and high.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
% farmer
< 4.5 t/ha
4.51-7.5 t/ha
>7.5 t/ha
Region
Figure 2. Organic Farming Productivity
Farmia (2008) studied showed the average yield of organic rice from 2003 to 2007
was only 2,9 t/ha. The observations and data analysis showed that although the productivity
of organic rice is increasing year by year in these subdistricts, the area of fields under organic
cultivation and the yields of organic rice have remained low because of problems arising
from farmers, extension workers, markets and local government.
Agronomically, the productivity of rice farming is the resultant of the effects of three
factors: physical environmental factors in the location of production activities, production
viability of rice varieties are used, and the quality of farming or quality of cultivation (De
Datta et al., 1987, Dey and Hossain, 1995 in Irawan, 2004). Rice productivity was different
between study site, influenced by differences in site conditions as well as different levels of
input and rice varieties are used. Statistically, there was no significant different productivity
mean between study site (Table 4).
Table 4. t-test Result of Organic Rice Productivity
Areas
Sig. (2-tailed)
Description
Gentungan vs Pereng
0,921
there was no significant
difference
Gentungan vs Sukorejo
0,881
there was no significant
difference
Gentungan vs Ketapang
0,345
there was no significant
difference
Pereng vs Sukorejo
0,993
there was no significant
difference
Pereng vs Ketapang
0,605
there was no significant
difference
Sukorejo vs Ketapang
0,356
there was no significant
difference
The diversity of high productivity occurs in the organic rice cultivation in Pereng,
District Mojogedang, Karanganyar. The high achievement diversity of productivity due to the
high diversity of use of production inputs. Differences production factors can also affect farm
productivity performance. Table 5 shows the differences in the average amount of input
application in production, namely fertilizer, seed and labor.
Table 5. Differences in the use of production factors and Production
Description
Pereng village,
Mojogedang
district,
Karanganyar
regency
Gentungan,
Mojogedang
district,
Karanganyar
regency
17.857,14
1.250,00
6.158,63
5.142,21
10.857,14
2.692,00
7.558,65
1.919,76
12.000,00
2.500,00
5.827,68
2.060,89
8.158,9
7.000,00
7.604,50
362,56
Seed (kg/ha)
Highest
Lowest
Average
Standard deviation
66,67
11,90
35,53
13,61
140,00
11,91
46,24
22,46
100,00
20,00
40,01
24,17
51,00
40,00
45,09
3,36
Labor (HOK/ha)
Highest
Lowest
Average
Standard deviation
248,27
48,68
156,49
48,68
512,00
100,80
193,79
88,07
173,33
101,05
140,06
24,42
1.477,74
836,2
1.085,08
150,09
Organic solid fertilizer (kg/ha)
Highest
Lowest
Average
Standard deviation
Sukorejo,
Sambirejo
district,
Sragen
regency
Ketapang,
Susukan
district,
Semarang
regency
In Table 5, it is showed that organic rice cultivation in Sukorejo was using lowest amount of
solid organic fertilizer than other areas, while farmers in Pereng was using less amount of
seeds than three other areas, and farmers Ketapang village paddy highest in the use of labor.
According to these result, there was indigenous mechanism in organic rice farming at study
site. It is influenced by the physical conditions, social roles, and adaptive skills of local
people, usually derived from many years of experience.
Table 6 shows cross-table distribution that describe the effect of the level of solid
organic fertilizer and seed used towards productivity achievement.
Table 6. Number of Farmers Rice based Fertilizer and Seed with Productivity
No
Description
Pereng village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 ton/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
Gentungan village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 t/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
Sukorejo village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 t/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
Ketapang village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 t/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
low
< 4,5 t/ha
Total farmer based on productivity
moderate
high
Total (%)
4,6 – 7,5 t/ha
> 7,5 t/ha
0
13,33%
6,67%
0
40,0%
6,67%
0
6,67%
6,67%
0
60,0%
40,0%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
40%
0
6,67%
26,67%
0
20,0%
73,33%
6,67%
0
10,0%
6,67%
0
0
56,67%
0
0
26,67%
0
10,0%
90,0%
3,33%
13,33%
0
0
36,67%
20,0%
3,33%
13,33%
10,0%
6,67%
63,33%
30,0%
0
0
9,09%
0
36,36%
31,82%
0
4,55%
18,18%
0
40,91%
59.09%
0
9,09%
0
0
54,55%
13,64%
9,09%
9,09%
4,55%
9,09%
72,73%
18,18%
0
0
0
0
0
100%
0
0
0
0
0
100%
0
0
0
0
96,0%
4,0%
0
0
0
0
96,0%
4,0%
As shown in Table 6, it was indicated that higher amount use of fertilizer and seed, did not
always gave high productivity.
In rice cultivation of organic manure from cow dung is the main fertilizer in the
planting. Solid manure was composted as a source of nutrients, especially N for plants and
can improve the properties of the chemical, biological, and physical soil. To speed up the
ripening of manure, rice farmers in the research sites use decomposers of natural materials or
EM4. The results clearly indicated the use of non-chemical fertilizer is able to produce high
productivity. According to Tati et al., (2009), the plant can grow well in nutrient
concentrations are low, as long as the nutrients in a balanced and consistent. Manure provides
nutrients little but constantly, so it needs to be added in large quantities so that the plant can
produce optimally. According to Sari et al (2014), manure can minimize inorganic fertilizer
impact, seen from parameters of grain weight and yield.
Seeds provide a major influence in the achievement of productivity. Some research
concludes concluded treated varieties of paddy rice shows a significantly different effect on
yields (Hermawati (2012), besides according Muyasir (2012), the number of seeds per
planting hole significantly affect the results of tile rice crop. Farmers organic rice in the
village Pereng, Karanganyar more planting rice variety IR 64, while farmers in the village
Gentungan, Karanganyar, Sukorejo, Sragen, were cultivate IR-64, Mentik wangi; and
Ketapang village, Semarang regency more plant menthik wangi, pandan wangi, and black
rice. Variety menthik wangi is a local seed is actually more ideal as seed of organic rice
farming, but productivity levels are relatively low, causing some organic rice farmers in all
regions of the study still choose to cultivate IR64 variety. Low number of seed not always
gave high productivity, as seen Table 6, as Masdar et al (2006), that the plants growing on the
spacing of the meeting can lead to stress on seedling vigor so that development is hampered.
Spacing less frequently led to the development of the number of tillers and tillers become
more productive as well as the production of rice produced is also higher.
Effect of Institutional Aspect
Institutional aspect is one of the variables that also affect the success of organic rice
farming. Disclosed by Wahyu (2003), farmer groups have an important role in the
development of farming, in which to improve the performance of farming farmers' groups
need to be improved include land tenure members of both groups, the number of group
members, and active cooperation by supporting organizations. Mwaura (2014), membership
to groups resulted in increased yields for banana and cassava. Group members were less
likely to adopt inorganic fertilisers and improved seed than non-groups members.
All organic farmers in the study area are members of a farmers' group. Togetherness
in solving the problem of farming could encourage farmers to avoid the failure anf risk of
organic rice farming. Among the four sites, organic rice farmer groups in Ketapang had most
long experience in organic farming. Organic rice farmers Ketapang village, Semarang
regency incorporated in Al-Barokah Growers Association, a group of farmers who cultivate
rice organically since 1998. Al-Barokah Farmers Association also has many achievements,
both at national and provincial levels associated with the development of organic farming.
CONCLUSION
The practice of rice cultivation with organic systems in the area of research has not
fully follow the national standard (SNI), which in the case of crop rotation, variety selection,
and maintenance of livestock supply organic fertilizer. There are a variety of productivity,
variability, and coefficients of variation were achieved in the study area, due to the different
aspects of the agronomic and non-agronomic. Achieved the highest productivity of organic
rice farmers in the village Pereng, District Mojogedang, Karanganyar, but the coefficient of
variation lowest productivity in organic rice farming in the village of Ketapang, Susukan,
Semarang regency. The study concluded the average productivity achieved by organic
systems have not been able to reach 7 tonnes/ha, and the increase in the number of production
factors does not always result in high productivity.
REFERENCES
Anonim. 2013. ISO 6729: 2013 (http://www.biocert.co.id/)
Farmia, Asih. 2008. Development of Organic Rice Farming in a Rural Area, Bantul Regency,
Yogyakarta Special Region Province, Indonesia. Journal of Developments in
Sustainable Agriculture 3: 135-148
Giovannucci, Daniele. 2005. Organic Agriculture and Poverty Reduction in Asia. IFAD:
Rome,
Hermawati, Tiur. 2012. Growth and Yield Six Lowland Rice Varieties on Tanam.Jurnal
Bioplante difference. Vol 1 No. 2 April-June 2012. online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/
bioplante/article/download/1811/1192
Hernanto, F 1993. The Farm Science. Swadaya. Jakarta
Karki, Lokendra, Rosa Schleenbecker, Ulrich Hamm. 2011. Factors influencing a conversion
to organic farming in Nepalese tea farms. Journal of Agriculture and Rural
Development in the Tropics and Substropics. Vol 112 No. 2 (2011) 113-123.
Kennvidy, SA. 2011. Organic Rice Farming Systems in Cambodia: Socio-Economic Impact
of Smallholder Systems in Takeo Province.
Las, Irsal, Subagyono, AP Setiyanto. Issues and Environmental Management in Agriculture
Revitalization. Agricultural Research and Development Journal Vol 25 No. 3. 2006.
MacKerron, D.K.L, J.M. Duncan, J.R. Hillman, G.R. Mackay, D.J. Robinson, D.L. Trudgill,
and
R.J.
Wheatley.
2015.
Organic
farming:
Science and
Belief.
http://www.scri.ac.uk/scri/file/annualreports/1999/06ORGFAR.PDF
Masdar, Musliar K., Bujang R., Nurhajati H., dan Helmi. 2006. Tingkat Hasil dan Komponen
Hasil Sistem Intensifikasi Padi (SRI) Tanpa Pupuk Organik di Daerah Curah Hujan
Tinggi. Jurnal Ilmu Pertanian, Vol 8 (2). 126-131.
Muyasir. 2012. Effect Plant Spacing, Age, and Total Seed on Yield Rice. Land Resources
Management Journal, Volume 1, Number 2, December 2012: p. 207-212.
www.jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/MSDL/article/download/2190/2146
Mwaura. F. 2014. Effect of Farmer Group Membership on Agricultural Technology
Adoption and Crop Productivity in Uganda. African Crop Science Journal, Vol. 22,
Issue Supplement s4, pp. 917 - 927 ISSN 1021-9730/2014 Printed in Uganda. All rights
reserved ©2014, African Crop Science Society
Numalina, Rita. 2008. Index Analysis and Sustainability Status System Availability Rice in
some Region Indonesia. Agro Ekonomi Journal. Volume 26 No. 1 Mei 2008:47-79.
Piadozo, MA. Eden. Flordeliza A. Lautican, Isabelita M. Pabuayon. Alicia R. Quicoy.
Aprille. M. Suyat, and Paul Kenneth B. Maghirang. 2014. Farmers' Concept and
Awaressness of Organic Agriculture: Implications for Sustainability of phillippine
Organic Agriculture Program. J. ISSAAS Vol 20 No. 2: 142-156.
Prihtani, Tinjung Mary, Suhatmini Hardyastuti, Slamet Hartono, Irham 2014. Social-Cultural
Function of Rice Farming Systems. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural
Development. Vol. 4. No 5-6-7, 2014
Renthiandy, Pratiska Anevi, Joko Sutrisno, Mei Tri Sundari. 2015. Risk Analysis rice
farming in Kecamatan Karanganyar Karanganyar. AGRISTA e-journal.Edisi 2 Vol 2
2014
Sari, Rahma Pramita, Titik Islami, and Titin Sumarni. 2014. Fertilizer Application to
minimizing Inorganic Fertilizer Production in Rice (Oryza sativa L.), Method of SRI.
Journal of Crop Production Vol. 2 No. 4 April 2014: 308-315.
http://download.portalgaruda.org/ article.php? article = 191025 & val = 6473
Salvatore, D. 1996. Managerial Economy in a Global Economy. Third edition. The McGrawHill Companies. Inc.
Supadi. 2010. Cost Structure and Profitability Food Crop Farming (Case Villages of Patanas).
Centre Socio Economic and Policy Bogor. Jurnal Agro Ekonomi. Vol. 30.
Tati Suryati and Sri Aktaviani. 2009. Application of Fertilization On Organic Rice Farming
System Method Of Intensification (SRI) In the village Sukarasa Tasikmalaya regency.
J. agroland. 16 (1): 1-8.
Tovignan, DS and Nuppenau, EA. 2004. Adoption of Organic Cotton in Benin: does gender
play a role? In conference on rural poverty reduction through research for development
and transformation. Deutscher Tropentag, 5-7 October 2004. Benin.
Wahyuni, Sri. Performance 2003. Farmers in Rice Farming Systems and Methods
Pemberdaannya. Journal of Agricultural Research, 22 (1), 2003.
Tinjung Mary Prihtanti1 and Maria1
Department of Agribusiness, Agricultural and Business Faculty
Satya Wacana Christian University
Diponegoro 52-60, Salatiga 50711, Central Java, Indonesia
*Correspondence Author, e-mail: tinjung.murjono@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Concurrent with the demand of preserving the environment in farming practices
(GAP), organic farming systems had started to develop in Indonesia; one of which is for
organic rice production. The province of Central Java is relatively responsive to the
movement of organic rice production. This article aims to elaborate the prevailing organic
rice production and productivity potential in four regions. Data were collected using survey
techniques from farmers practicing chemical-free organic system in growing paddy rice and
through literature study. Total respondents interviewed in Pereng village of Mojogedang subdistrict in Karanganyar regency and Sukorejo village of Sambirejo sub-district in Sragen
regency were determined using census technique. Respondents interviewed in Gentungan
village of Mojogedang sub-district in Karanganyar and Ketapang village of Susukan subdistrict in Semarang were selected using quota techniques. Data were analyzed using
descriptive statistics. Three indicators calculated are productivity, variability of productivity,
coefficient of variation between regions. The current practices of organic rice production in
those sites had not yet complied with the SNI especially pertaining crop rotation, variety
selection, and livestock husbandry as farmyard manure producers. The actual productivity,
variability, and coefficients of variation of different farms varied, due to the different
agronomic and non-agronomic aspects. The highest organic rice productivity was achievedby
farms in Pereng village. This study concluded that the average productivity achieved by
organic systems had not been able to reach 7 ton/ha and increment in number of production
factors did not always result in higher productivity.
Keywords: organic, rice farming, productivity, coefficient of variation
BACKGROUND
In Indonesia, rice is most strategic commodity and becomes the target of rice selfsufficiency in economic development. An increase in the productivity of rice farming has
important role for ensuring national food security and reducing poverty. Indonesia’s rice
farming was still depend on wetland rice farming in Java, mainly because of the condition of
the land is relatively more suitable for rice growing requirements as well as the growing
technology. The average productivity of rice farming in Java is 5,7 tonnes/hectare,
meanwhile outside Java farms have average productivity about 4,4 tonnes/hectare (Table 1).
Java was categorized as sustainable sufficient regions, while Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and other
regions were classified as sustainable less sufficient one (Nurmalina, 2008).
Table 1. Harvested Area, Production and Productivity of Rice in Java and outside Java
Description
Harvested area (ha)
- Java
- Outside Java
Production (million tonnes)
- Java
- Outside Java
Productivity (kuintal/ha)
- Java
- Outside Java
2010
2011
2012
(000 tonnes)
2013
2014
Growth
average
6.358
6.895
6.165
7.038
6.186
7.260
6.467
7.368
6.000
7.393
0,20
1,76
36.375
30.094
34.405
31.352
36.527
32.529
37.493
33.787
36.659
34.173
0,29
3,24
57,21
43,65
55,81
44,54
59,05
44,81
57,98
45,85
57,28
46,22
0,08
1,45
Source: Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Agriculture in 2015-2019
Description: (2014 Data of ASEM), the production quality is dry unhusked rice (GKG)
Rice farmng is facing the problem of heavy applications of chemicals input. Rice
farming already promoting dependence on agricultural chemicals, both synthetic fertilizers
and pesticides, thus ignoring the negative effects on health and environment. The excessive
use of agro-chemicals fertilizers has led to a decline of soil quality and productivity (Las, et
al, 2006). Thus it leads the "land hunger" where the land actually require more chemicals.
Consequently, to maintain the productivity, farmers had to rely on agro-chemical inputs.
Though often a phenomenon the fertiizer was rare and difficult to obtain by farmers. In
addition, most chemical fertlisers, pesticides, etc are not the domestic reliance but are
imported inputs. More importantly, the price of modern inputs increases each year, negatively
affecting farmers’ income (Tovignan and Nuppenau, 2004). About 24,43% of the total cost in
conventional rice farming are chemicals fertliser and synthetic pesticide costs (Supadi, 2006),
and it was increases each year, until about 29,19% recently (Prihtanti et al, 2014).
The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation (FAO) uses Good
Agricultural Practices as a collection of priciples to apply for on-farm production and postproduction processes, resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products,
while taking into account economical, social, and environmental sustainability. It encourages
any agricultural business had to pay attention to environmental preservation and imposed to
meet the production standards that was specified in the international market. According to
Brown in (MacKerron et al, 2015) "Demand for organic produce is strong and still growing.
We are determined that consumers should be Able to buy organic produce if they want to.
We must remember that conventional systems Also produce good quality food that is safe to
eat in the quantities consumers demand.
The Indonesia is stepping up its efforts to raise the capability of its agriculture sectors
to meet the country's food security needs, and at the same time strengthen the sustainability
of its agricultural processes and the resource base. Toward this end, the Indonesia’s
government establishes various policies, including “Go Organic Program in 2010”. Organic
farming is defined as a way of farming that was appropriate to support the globalization
phenomenon that farming does not use chemicals fertilizers and pesticides. In Indonesia,
there are about 40.6 million hectares of agricultural land. Based on the SOEL survey, in
Giovannucci (2005), stated that the area of organic farming in Indonesia is about 40,000
hectares (0.09 percent against a broad or equal to 0.33 percent of the total rice area). In 2010,
according to the Indonesian Organic Association (AOI), organic farming reached 0.6% of
agricultural land area of Indonesia, which is managed organically either been certified or not.
Organic farming emerged in Indonesia at some areas, including West Java, East Java
and Central Java. The potential development of organic rice found in the southern region of
West Java, among others, Tasikmalaya, Ciamis, Cianjur, and Sukabumi. Some areas of
organic farming in East Java, among other Ngawi, Bojonegoro, Tulungagung, and
Bondowoso in limited areas. In Central Java province, there was a number of orgamic
farming farmers, which cultivate organic food crops, medicinal, vegetables, and fruits plants.
Organic rice farmers, relatively more than other types of plants. According to data from the
Institute for Machine Tools and Quality Test of Agricultural Products Department of
Agriculture and Horticulture, Central Java (2015), organic rice cultivation in Karanganyar,
Magelang, Boyolali, and Sragen has widely organic cultivation area than other regions.
OBJECTIVE
Accordingly, development of organic rice farming was encourage to examines the
organic farming practices and productivity performance in several areas in Central Java
province, taaking case of wetland rice farming. Variations in productivity was helping better
understanding about the problems faced by farmers and it will lead to increase the
productivity of rice with organic systems.
METHODS
The study was using a quantitative approach on some wetland organic rice growing
regions namely in Karanganyar, Sragen, and Semarang. Primary data were collected using
survey techniques to organic rice farmers, namely rice farming without chemicals inputs;
supported by the literature study. Census technique was applied for farmer respondents, in the
Pereng village, Mojogedang sub-district, Karanganyar regency; Sukorejo village, Sambirejo
sub-district, Sragen regency; and using because there are only a few rice farmers with
organic systems, while samples in Gentungan village, Mojogedang sub-district, Karanganyar
regency, and Ketapang village, Susukan sub-district, Semarang regency, using quota
techniques.
The study areas shown in Figure 1.
Sukorejo Village,
Sambirejo district
Ketapang village,
Susukan district
Pereng dan Gentungan village,
Mojogedang district
Figure 1. The map of wetland organic rice farming areas in Central Java showing the areas of study
Descriptive statistic analysis was applied to summarise the important characteristics
of the rice samples by using simple statistic analysis, i.e. frequency, percentage, and mean.
Variables in this study were include the measurement of productivity, variability, and
coefficient of variation. Productivity calculated by the ratio of production per hectare of land,
while the variability of the data shows the dispersion or variation of productivity achieved by
farmers in each location. The coefficient of variation shows the difference in risk faced by
farmers in each planting site, defined ratio between the standard deviation and the value of
average productivity (Salvatore, 1996). The higher the coefficient of variation, the higher the
risks faced by farmers. According Hernanto (1991), when the CV value is more than 0.5 or
more than 50% means there is a chance farmer will be loss.
RESULTS
Organic Rice Farming Practices
Referring to Indonesia National Standard (SNI), organic production need to pay
attention to the raw materials and processes used in the cultivation process. In the standard of
organic agriculture as specified in ISO 6729: 2013, which refers to the IFOAM Basic
Standards for organic production and processing in 2005, the establishment of a system of
organic food organic food production system, include provisions concerning the production,
preparation, marketing, and labeling of products. Table 2, shows that organic rice farming
practices in the study site. It was observed that organic farming practices at study site had
different application on cultivation. The study site was facilitated by rain and mountain water
to irrigate the rice cultivation. In Pereng, Gentungan, and Sukorejo, rice cultivate three times
planting season in a year, and no crop rotation, but because Ketapang village was lowland
areas, irrigation was not always available throughout the year so there is some organic rice
farmers who grow rice only 2 times a year. Some farmers in Pereng, Gentungan,, and
Sukorejo still planting seeds of the IR-64 and some farmers grows local seeds, among others
Mentik wangi and black rice. Some aspects of organic farming that has not been done in the
research sites, shown in Table 2. Farmers knowledge and practicality aspect were the barriers
to ideal organic rice cultivation.
Table 2. Organic Paddy Farming Practice
Organic cultivation aspect
Pereng ,
Mojogedang
sub-district,
Karanganyar
regency
Gentungan,
Mojogedang
sub-district,
Karanganyar
regency
Sukorejo,
Sambirejo
sub-district,
Sragen
regency
Ketapang,
Susukan subdistrict,
Semarang
regency
Input (fertilizer, pesticide)
√
√
√
√
Seed variety
-
√
-
√
Crop rotation
-
-
-
√
Mechanical tillage
√
√
√
√
Appilcatin of trapping plant
-
-
-
-
Application on green fertilizer and
crop residue
√
√
√
√
Mechanical trap or barriers
-
-
-
-
Application of predator
√
√
√
√
Livestock husbandry as farmyard
-
-
-
-
manure producers
Quality arranged irrigation (rain or
spring
water
that
is not
contaminated
by
chemicals
material)
-
√
-
√
Product labeling
-
√
-
√
Several studies concluded that the awareness of organic farming systems should be
improved. Piadozo et al (2014) studied showed that Philippines rice farmers have only a low
to medium level of awareness on organic activities and markets for organic products. The
development of organic agriculture in Cambodia is supported by the agency CEDAC (organic
rice association in Takeo Province) supports local farmers on technical knowledge in organic
farming and facilitates the marketing of organic rice products from local farmers. However
many farmers in the region could not adapt organic rice farming is possibly due to the lack of
education on the benefits of organic farming. Karki et al (2011) concluded the need on
training and mentoring policy to raise awareness about the benefits of organic farming.
Productivity of Organic Rice Farming
Table 3 shows differences organic farm productivity in four areas of planting. The
highest productivity of organic farming was achieved by farmer in Pereng, Mojogedang
district, Karanganyar regency ie 6.78 tonnes/ha, and the lowest was achieved by organic rice
farmers in Ketapang village, Susukan, Semarang regency.
Table 3. Productivity of Organic Paddy Farming
Pereng , Mojogedang
district, Karanganyar
regency
Gentungan,
Mojogedang district,
Karanganyar regency
Sukorejo, Sambirejo
district, Sragen
regency
Ketapang,
Susukan district,
Semarang regency
Highest (kg/ha)
10.666,67
10.866,67
8.266,67
6.563,00
Lowest (kg/ha)
1.931,17
3.166,67
4.000,00
4.800,00
Mean (kg/ha)
6.784,46
6.536,39
6.296,00
5.850,09
Standard deviation
1.931,17
1.940,52
1.390,97
573,18
Variability
33,50
23,92
19,80
8,19
Coefficient Variation
28,46
29,69
22,66
9,79
Description
Productivity
Source: primary data
Although Ketapang village had lowest productivity, but the variability and coefficient
of variation showed small value as well. This may imply that the productivity achieved
organic rice farmers in Ketapang village relatively similar and risks facing is also relatively
low. Renthiandy et al (2015) studied risk of paddy production in Karanganyar district
Karanganyar (CV risk production) of 0.53 or 53%. Irawan (2004), the coefficient of variation
of rice farming in the province of Central Java in 1996-2000 was 6.1%. Production risk in
farming due to their dependence on nature of agricultural activity so that the adverse effects
of natural greatly affect production.
Distribution of farmers according to the achievement of productivity seen in Figure 2.
It was observed that organic rice productivity in Ketapang village, Semarang regency, was at
a moderate level, while rice productivity performance in other regions varied at a low level
and high.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
% farmer
< 4.5 t/ha
4.51-7.5 t/ha
>7.5 t/ha
Region
Figure 2. Organic Farming Productivity
Farmia (2008) studied showed the average yield of organic rice from 2003 to 2007
was only 2,9 t/ha. The observations and data analysis showed that although the productivity
of organic rice is increasing year by year in these subdistricts, the area of fields under organic
cultivation and the yields of organic rice have remained low because of problems arising
from farmers, extension workers, markets and local government.
Agronomically, the productivity of rice farming is the resultant of the effects of three
factors: physical environmental factors in the location of production activities, production
viability of rice varieties are used, and the quality of farming or quality of cultivation (De
Datta et al., 1987, Dey and Hossain, 1995 in Irawan, 2004). Rice productivity was different
between study site, influenced by differences in site conditions as well as different levels of
input and rice varieties are used. Statistically, there was no significant different productivity
mean between study site (Table 4).
Table 4. t-test Result of Organic Rice Productivity
Areas
Sig. (2-tailed)
Description
Gentungan vs Pereng
0,921
there was no significant
difference
Gentungan vs Sukorejo
0,881
there was no significant
difference
Gentungan vs Ketapang
0,345
there was no significant
difference
Pereng vs Sukorejo
0,993
there was no significant
difference
Pereng vs Ketapang
0,605
there was no significant
difference
Sukorejo vs Ketapang
0,356
there was no significant
difference
The diversity of high productivity occurs in the organic rice cultivation in Pereng,
District Mojogedang, Karanganyar. The high achievement diversity of productivity due to the
high diversity of use of production inputs. Differences production factors can also affect farm
productivity performance. Table 5 shows the differences in the average amount of input
application in production, namely fertilizer, seed and labor.
Table 5. Differences in the use of production factors and Production
Description
Pereng village,
Mojogedang
district,
Karanganyar
regency
Gentungan,
Mojogedang
district,
Karanganyar
regency
17.857,14
1.250,00
6.158,63
5.142,21
10.857,14
2.692,00
7.558,65
1.919,76
12.000,00
2.500,00
5.827,68
2.060,89
8.158,9
7.000,00
7.604,50
362,56
Seed (kg/ha)
Highest
Lowest
Average
Standard deviation
66,67
11,90
35,53
13,61
140,00
11,91
46,24
22,46
100,00
20,00
40,01
24,17
51,00
40,00
45,09
3,36
Labor (HOK/ha)
Highest
Lowest
Average
Standard deviation
248,27
48,68
156,49
48,68
512,00
100,80
193,79
88,07
173,33
101,05
140,06
24,42
1.477,74
836,2
1.085,08
150,09
Organic solid fertilizer (kg/ha)
Highest
Lowest
Average
Standard deviation
Sukorejo,
Sambirejo
district,
Sragen
regency
Ketapang,
Susukan
district,
Semarang
regency
In Table 5, it is showed that organic rice cultivation in Sukorejo was using lowest amount of
solid organic fertilizer than other areas, while farmers in Pereng was using less amount of
seeds than three other areas, and farmers Ketapang village paddy highest in the use of labor.
According to these result, there was indigenous mechanism in organic rice farming at study
site. It is influenced by the physical conditions, social roles, and adaptive skills of local
people, usually derived from many years of experience.
Table 6 shows cross-table distribution that describe the effect of the level of solid
organic fertilizer and seed used towards productivity achievement.
Table 6. Number of Farmers Rice based Fertilizer and Seed with Productivity
No
Description
Pereng village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 ton/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
Gentungan village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 t/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
Sukorejo village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 t/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
Ketapang village
1.
Organic Solid Fertilizer
low (< 1 t/ha)
Moderate (1,1 – 5 t/ha)
high (> 5 t/ha)
2.
Seed
Low (< 25 kg/ha)
Moderate (25 – 50 kg/ha)
High (> 50 kg/ha)
low
< 4,5 t/ha
Total farmer based on productivity
moderate
high
Total (%)
4,6 – 7,5 t/ha
> 7,5 t/ha
0
13,33%
6,67%
0
40,0%
6,67%
0
6,67%
6,67%
0
60,0%
40,0%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
40%
0
6,67%
26,67%
0
20,0%
73,33%
6,67%
0
10,0%
6,67%
0
0
56,67%
0
0
26,67%
0
10,0%
90,0%
3,33%
13,33%
0
0
36,67%
20,0%
3,33%
13,33%
10,0%
6,67%
63,33%
30,0%
0
0
9,09%
0
36,36%
31,82%
0
4,55%
18,18%
0
40,91%
59.09%
0
9,09%
0
0
54,55%
13,64%
9,09%
9,09%
4,55%
9,09%
72,73%
18,18%
0
0
0
0
0
100%
0
0
0
0
0
100%
0
0
0
0
96,0%
4,0%
0
0
0
0
96,0%
4,0%
As shown in Table 6, it was indicated that higher amount use of fertilizer and seed, did not
always gave high productivity.
In rice cultivation of organic manure from cow dung is the main fertilizer in the
planting. Solid manure was composted as a source of nutrients, especially N for plants and
can improve the properties of the chemical, biological, and physical soil. To speed up the
ripening of manure, rice farmers in the research sites use decomposers of natural materials or
EM4. The results clearly indicated the use of non-chemical fertilizer is able to produce high
productivity. According to Tati et al., (2009), the plant can grow well in nutrient
concentrations are low, as long as the nutrients in a balanced and consistent. Manure provides
nutrients little but constantly, so it needs to be added in large quantities so that the plant can
produce optimally. According to Sari et al (2014), manure can minimize inorganic fertilizer
impact, seen from parameters of grain weight and yield.
Seeds provide a major influence in the achievement of productivity. Some research
concludes concluded treated varieties of paddy rice shows a significantly different effect on
yields (Hermawati (2012), besides according Muyasir (2012), the number of seeds per
planting hole significantly affect the results of tile rice crop. Farmers organic rice in the
village Pereng, Karanganyar more planting rice variety IR 64, while farmers in the village
Gentungan, Karanganyar, Sukorejo, Sragen, were cultivate IR-64, Mentik wangi; and
Ketapang village, Semarang regency more plant menthik wangi, pandan wangi, and black
rice. Variety menthik wangi is a local seed is actually more ideal as seed of organic rice
farming, but productivity levels are relatively low, causing some organic rice farmers in all
regions of the study still choose to cultivate IR64 variety. Low number of seed not always
gave high productivity, as seen Table 6, as Masdar et al (2006), that the plants growing on the
spacing of the meeting can lead to stress on seedling vigor so that development is hampered.
Spacing less frequently led to the development of the number of tillers and tillers become
more productive as well as the production of rice produced is also higher.
Effect of Institutional Aspect
Institutional aspect is one of the variables that also affect the success of organic rice
farming. Disclosed by Wahyu (2003), farmer groups have an important role in the
development of farming, in which to improve the performance of farming farmers' groups
need to be improved include land tenure members of both groups, the number of group
members, and active cooperation by supporting organizations. Mwaura (2014), membership
to groups resulted in increased yields for banana and cassava. Group members were less
likely to adopt inorganic fertilisers and improved seed than non-groups members.
All organic farmers in the study area are members of a farmers' group. Togetherness
in solving the problem of farming could encourage farmers to avoid the failure anf risk of
organic rice farming. Among the four sites, organic rice farmer groups in Ketapang had most
long experience in organic farming. Organic rice farmers Ketapang village, Semarang
regency incorporated in Al-Barokah Growers Association, a group of farmers who cultivate
rice organically since 1998. Al-Barokah Farmers Association also has many achievements,
both at national and provincial levels associated with the development of organic farming.
CONCLUSION
The practice of rice cultivation with organic systems in the area of research has not
fully follow the national standard (SNI), which in the case of crop rotation, variety selection,
and maintenance of livestock supply organic fertilizer. There are a variety of productivity,
variability, and coefficients of variation were achieved in the study area, due to the different
aspects of the agronomic and non-agronomic. Achieved the highest productivity of organic
rice farmers in the village Pereng, District Mojogedang, Karanganyar, but the coefficient of
variation lowest productivity in organic rice farming in the village of Ketapang, Susukan,
Semarang regency. The study concluded the average productivity achieved by organic
systems have not been able to reach 7 tonnes/ha, and the increase in the number of production
factors does not always result in high productivity.
REFERENCES
Anonim. 2013. ISO 6729: 2013 (http://www.biocert.co.id/)
Farmia, Asih. 2008. Development of Organic Rice Farming in a Rural Area, Bantul Regency,
Yogyakarta Special Region Province, Indonesia. Journal of Developments in
Sustainable Agriculture 3: 135-148
Giovannucci, Daniele. 2005. Organic Agriculture and Poverty Reduction in Asia. IFAD:
Rome,
Hermawati, Tiur. 2012. Growth and Yield Six Lowland Rice Varieties on Tanam.Jurnal
Bioplante difference. Vol 1 No. 2 April-June 2012. online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/
bioplante/article/download/1811/1192
Hernanto, F 1993. The Farm Science. Swadaya. Jakarta
Karki, Lokendra, Rosa Schleenbecker, Ulrich Hamm. 2011. Factors influencing a conversion
to organic farming in Nepalese tea farms. Journal of Agriculture and Rural
Development in the Tropics and Substropics. Vol 112 No. 2 (2011) 113-123.
Kennvidy, SA. 2011. Organic Rice Farming Systems in Cambodia: Socio-Economic Impact
of Smallholder Systems in Takeo Province.
Las, Irsal, Subagyono, AP Setiyanto. Issues and Environmental Management in Agriculture
Revitalization. Agricultural Research and Development Journal Vol 25 No. 3. 2006.
MacKerron, D.K.L, J.M. Duncan, J.R. Hillman, G.R. Mackay, D.J. Robinson, D.L. Trudgill,
and
R.J.
Wheatley.
2015.
Organic
farming:
Science and
Belief.
http://www.scri.ac.uk/scri/file/annualreports/1999/06ORGFAR.PDF
Masdar, Musliar K., Bujang R., Nurhajati H., dan Helmi. 2006. Tingkat Hasil dan Komponen
Hasil Sistem Intensifikasi Padi (SRI) Tanpa Pupuk Organik di Daerah Curah Hujan
Tinggi. Jurnal Ilmu Pertanian, Vol 8 (2). 126-131.
Muyasir. 2012. Effect Plant Spacing, Age, and Total Seed on Yield Rice. Land Resources
Management Journal, Volume 1, Number 2, December 2012: p. 207-212.
www.jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/MSDL/article/download/2190/2146
Mwaura. F. 2014. Effect of Farmer Group Membership on Agricultural Technology
Adoption and Crop Productivity in Uganda. African Crop Science Journal, Vol. 22,
Issue Supplement s4, pp. 917 - 927 ISSN 1021-9730/2014 Printed in Uganda. All rights
reserved ©2014, African Crop Science Society
Numalina, Rita. 2008. Index Analysis and Sustainability Status System Availability Rice in
some Region Indonesia. Agro Ekonomi Journal. Volume 26 No. 1 Mei 2008:47-79.
Piadozo, MA. Eden. Flordeliza A. Lautican, Isabelita M. Pabuayon. Alicia R. Quicoy.
Aprille. M. Suyat, and Paul Kenneth B. Maghirang. 2014. Farmers' Concept and
Awaressness of Organic Agriculture: Implications for Sustainability of phillippine
Organic Agriculture Program. J. ISSAAS Vol 20 No. 2: 142-156.
Prihtani, Tinjung Mary, Suhatmini Hardyastuti, Slamet Hartono, Irham 2014. Social-Cultural
Function of Rice Farming Systems. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural
Development. Vol. 4. No 5-6-7, 2014
Renthiandy, Pratiska Anevi, Joko Sutrisno, Mei Tri Sundari. 2015. Risk Analysis rice
farming in Kecamatan Karanganyar Karanganyar. AGRISTA e-journal.Edisi 2 Vol 2
2014
Sari, Rahma Pramita, Titik Islami, and Titin Sumarni. 2014. Fertilizer Application to
minimizing Inorganic Fertilizer Production in Rice (Oryza sativa L.), Method of SRI.
Journal of Crop Production Vol. 2 No. 4 April 2014: 308-315.
http://download.portalgaruda.org/ article.php? article = 191025 & val = 6473
Salvatore, D. 1996. Managerial Economy in a Global Economy. Third edition. The McGrawHill Companies. Inc.
Supadi. 2010. Cost Structure and Profitability Food Crop Farming (Case Villages of Patanas).
Centre Socio Economic and Policy Bogor. Jurnal Agro Ekonomi. Vol. 30.
Tati Suryati and Sri Aktaviani. 2009. Application of Fertilization On Organic Rice Farming
System Method Of Intensification (SRI) In the village Sukarasa Tasikmalaya regency.
J. agroland. 16 (1): 1-8.
Tovignan, DS and Nuppenau, EA. 2004. Adoption of Organic Cotton in Benin: does gender
play a role? In conference on rural poverty reduction through research for development
and transformation. Deutscher Tropentag, 5-7 October 2004. Benin.
Wahyuni, Sri. Performance 2003. Farmers in Rice Farming Systems and Methods
Pemberdaannya. Journal of Agricultural Research, 22 (1), 2003.