Learning strategies in writing used by writing III students of the english language education study program of Sanata Dharma University - USD Repository

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  LEARNING STRATEGIES IN WRITING USED BY WRITING III STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY A Thesis

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Ruminingsih

  Student Number: 021214075 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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  Douglas Malloch

  IF YOU CAN’T BE a pine on the top of the hill, Be a scrub in the valley-but be The best little scrub by the side of the rill; Be a bush if you can’t be a tree.

  If you can’t be a bush be a bit of the grass, And some highway happier make; If you can’t be a muskie then just be a bass- But the liveliest bass in the lake! We can’t all be captains, we’ve got to be crew, There’s something for all of us here, There’s big work to do, and there’s lesser to do, And the task you must do is the near.

  If you can’t be a highway then just be a trail, If you can’t be the sun be a star; It isn’t by size that you win or you fail- Be the best of whatever you are!

  I dedicate this thesis to: Jesus Christ

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  First of all, I would like to praise and thank the Lord, Jesus Christ, for the grace, guidance, and blessing. Without His grace, guidance, and blessing, I doubt that this thesis could be completed.

  A debt and gratitude is owed to F.X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd., my major sponsor, for the enormous guidance, suggestions, and inputs during the accomplishment of the thesis. My gratitude also goes to Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd., my co-sponsor, for the great patience to read and correct my thesis. I also thank her for the discussions, support, and suggestions.

  I would like to express my gratitude to C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for giving me the chance to conduct the research in her Writing III class. I am also grateful to the students of Writing III class E of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University for the cooperation and willingness to be the respondents of this research.

  I would like to thank A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., the Head of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University, for every discussion and input and also for lending me the books on researches and language learning strategies. I also thank the lecturers and staff of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University for the guidance and help.

  My special thanks go to my father, Ignatius Poniran, my mother, Ignatia Tumini, and my sister, Yuliana Dwi, for their support, love, and understanding during my study. I am very lucky to be with them. I also thank my whole family

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  Great thanks go to my best friends, Lisa, Wulan, Haryana, Daru, Santi, Woro, Lukita, Cipluk, Ayu, Rina, and Vivin, for the great time and friendship. For support, advices, and friendship, my appreciation also goes to Bin2, Nuri, Retno, Shella, Endah, Vindi, Anas, Hani, Septi, and Reni.

  Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to thank many friends, students, and people who have inspired me and helped me but names I could not mention here.

  Ruminingsih

  PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................... i PAGE OF APPROVAL ................................................................................... ii BOARD OF EXAMINERS ............................................................................. iii PAGE OF DEDICATION ............................................................................... iv STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .............................................. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. viii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... xiii LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................. xiv ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... xv

  ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xvi

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background ............................................................

  1 B. Problem Identification ...........................................................

  3 C. Problem Limitation ................................................................

  3 D. Problem Formulation .............................................................

  4 E. Research Objectives ..............................................................

  4 F. Research Benefits ..................................................................

  5 G. Definition of Terms ...............................................................

  5 CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description .........................................................

  8

  1. Writing ............................................................................. 8 a. Description of Writing ................................................

  9

  b. Processes of Writing .................................................... 10 1) Prewriting ............................................................... 10 2) Outlining ................................................................ 11

  Page 3) Writing the First Draft ............................................ 11 4) Revising ................................................................. 11 5) Proofreading ........................................................... 11

  c. Elements of Writing .................................................... 12 1) Content ................................................................... 12 2) Organization ........................................................... 12 3) Discourse ................................................................ 12 4) Syntax ..................................................................... 13 5) Vocabulary ............................................................. 13 6) Mechanics ............................................................... 13

  d. The Nature of Writing ................................................. 13 1) Product Approach ................................................... 14 2) Process Approach ................................................... 14

  2. Learning Strategies .......................................................... 15

  a. Description of Learning Strategies .............................. 15

  b. Features of Language Learning Strategies .................. 16

  c. Kinds of Learning Strategies ....................................... 18 1) Direct Strategies ..................................................... 20 2) Indirect Strategies ................................................... 20

  3. Learning Strategies in Writing ......................................... 21

  a. Memory Strategies ...................................................... 22

  b. Cognitive Strategies .................................................... 22

  c. Compensation Strategies ............................................. 25

  d. Metacognitive Strategies ............................................. 26

  e. Affective Strategies ..................................................... 28

  f. Social Strategies .......................................................... 30

  B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................... 31

  CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method .................................................................. 34 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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  Page

  B. Research Participants ........................................................... 34

  C. Research Instruments ........................................................... 35

  1. Questionnaire ................................................................... 35

  a. Validity .......................................................................... 37 1) Content Validity ...................................................... 37 2) Criterion-Related Evidence of Validity ................... 38 3) Construct Validity ................................................... 38

  b. Reliability ..................................................................... 39

  2. Observation Forms ........................................................... 40

  D. Data Gathering Technique .................................................... 40

  E. Data Analysis Technique ...................................................... 41

  F. Research Procedure .............................................................. 42

  CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Data Presentation ............................................................... 44

  1. Learning Strategies Used by Students ........................ 45

  a. Memory Strategies ................................................. 45

  b. Cognitive Strategies ............................................... 45

  c. Compensation Strategies ....................................... 47

  d. Metacognitive Strategies ....................................... 47

  e. Affective Strategies ............................................... 48

  f. Social Strategies .................................................... 49

  2. Learning Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing ..................... 51

  a. Memory Strategies ................................................. 51

  b. Cognitive Strategies ............................................... 53

  c. Compensation Strategies ....................................... 57

  d. Metacognitive Strategies ....................................... 58

  e. Affective Strategies ............................................... 60

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  Page

  B. Discussion .......................................................................... 63

  1. Learning Strategies Used by the Students .................. 64

  a. Questionnaire Results ............................................ 64

  b. Class Observation Results ..................................... 64

  2. Learning Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing ..................... 68

  CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ......................................................................... 71 B. Suggestions ......................................................................... 72

REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 74

APPENDICES .................................................................................................. 76

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LIST OF TABLES

  Page

Table 4.1 Memory Strategies Used by the Students ........................................ 45Table 4.2 Cognitive Strategies Used by the Students ...................................... 46Table 4.3 Compensation Strategies Used by the Students ............................... 47Table 4.4 Metacognitive Strategies Used by the Students ............................... 48Table 4.5 Affective Strategies Used by the Students ....................................... 49Table 4.6 Social Strategies Used by the Students ............................................ 50Table 4.7 Learning Strategies Used by the Students ........................................ 50Table 4.8 Memory Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

  Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 52

Table 4.9 Cognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

  Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 55

Table 4.10 Compensation Strategies Used by Students with Different

  Proficiency Levels in Writing .......................................................... 57

Table 4.11 Metacognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different

  Proficiency Levels in Writing .......................................................... 59

Table 4.12 Affective Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

  Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 61

Table 4.13 Social Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

  Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 63

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LIST OF FIGURE

  Page

Figure 2.1 Diagram of the Strategy System: Overview (Oxford, 1990:16) ...... 19

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LIST OF APPENDICES

  Page Appendix A. Writing III Course Outline ........................................................... 76 Appendix B. Data on the Students’ Final Grades .............................................. 77 Appendix C. The Questionnaire on Learning Strategies in Writing .................. 79 Appendix D. Raw Data on the Questionnaire Results ....................................... 82 Appendix E. Observation Results ...................................................................... 95 Appendix F. The Reliability Analysis ................................................................ 104

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  ABSTRACT

Ruminingsih. 2007. Learning Strategies in Writing Used by Writing III

Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

  In learning processes, students set different goals and strategies. The different goals and strategies lead to the different achievements. Some other factors such as students’ cultural backgrounds, ages, gender, motivation, and learning styles also influence the students’ achievements. The research was focused on the learning strategies employed by the students in writing. Six learning strategies, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social were investigated in the research. There were two objectives of the research. The first was to find out the learning strategies in writing used by the students in Writing III class. The second objective was to investigate how students with different proficiency levels in writing use the learning strategies in writing. The method used in the research was descriptive research method. In

order to find out the students’ learning strategies, the researcher used a

questionnaire and class observation checklists as the research instruments. The participants of the research were Writing III students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/ 2007 academic year. There were twenty-five students selected as the subjects of the research. They were divided into three groups, high proficient, medium proficient, and low proficient learners, based on their final grades. The research findings showed that the students in Writing III

employed the six learning strategies, memory, cognitive, compensation,

metacognitive, affective, and social. Memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies were used less frequently by the students. Compensation and social strategies were used more frequently by the students. The students employed compensation strategies more frequently than the other strategies. It was also found that memory and metacognitive strategies were mostly used by the high proficient learners. Cognitive, compensation, and social strategies

were more frequently used by the medium proficient learners. Affective

strategies were mostly employed by the low proficient learners.

  Some suggestions are addressed to writing lecturers, students, and

other researchers. The lecturers may provide trainings on the learning

strategies to help the students to improve their learning strategies in writing.

  The researcher suggests that the students study the learning strategies and use the strategies wisely because learning strategies contribute to students’

academic success. Finally, other researchers may use the research as a

reference in conducting further studies on the learning strategies used by students.

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   ABSTRAK

Ruminingsih. 2007. Learning Strategies in Writing Used by Writing III

Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

  Dalam proses belajar, siswa mempunyai tujuan dan strategi yang

berbeda. Tujuan dan strategi yang berbeda tersebut menyebabkan

perbedaan pencapaian belajar. Faktor-faktor lain seperti latar belakang budaya, usia, jenis kelamin, motivasi dan gaya belajar juga mempengaruhi pencapaian belajar siswa. Penelitian ini berfokus pada strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh siswa dalam mengarang. Enam strategi belajar, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, dan social diteliti dalam penelitian ini. Ada dua

tujuan dari penelitian ini. Tujuan yang pertama adalah menemukan

strategi-strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh mahasiswa di kelas Writing III.

  Tujuan kedua adalah menemukan bagaimana mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan yang berbeda menggunakan strategi belajar dalam mengarang. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode penelitian deskriptif. Untuk menemukan strategi-strategi belajar mahasiswa, peneliti menggunakan kuesioner dan lembar observasi sebagai instrumen penelitian. Partisipan dalam penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa Writing III Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma tahun akademik 2006/2007. Ada dua puluh lima mahasiswa yang menjadi subyek penelitian

ini. Berdasarkan nilai akhir mahasiswa, mahasiswa kemudian dibagi

menjadi tiga, yaitu mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan tinggi, mahasiswa

dengan tingkat kecakapan menengah dan mahasiswa dengan tingkat

kecakapan rendah.

Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa Writing III

menggunakan enam strategi-strategi belajar memory, cognitive,

compensation, metacognitive, affective, dan social. Strategi-strategi memory, cognitive, metacognitive dan affective lebih jarang digunakan oleh mahasiswa.

  

Strategi-strategi compensation dan social lebih sering digunakan oleh

mahasiswa. Mahasiswa menggunakan strategi compensation lebih sering daripada strategi-strategi lainnya. Dalam penelitian ini ditemukan bahwa strategi-strategi memory dan metacognitive paling sering digunakan oleh mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan tinggi. Strategi-strategi cognitive, compensation dan social lebih sering digunakan oleh mahasiswa dengan

tingkat kecakapan menengah. Strategi- strategi affective paling sering

digunakan oleh mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan rendah.

  Beberapa saran ditujukan untuk dosen dan mahasiswa writing serta untuk peneliti-peneliti lain. Dosen bisa menyediakan training strategi belajar untuk membantu mahasiswa meningkatkan strategi belajar mereka. Peneliti menyarankan agar mahasiswa mempelajari strategi-strategi belajar dan menggunakan strategi-strategi belajar dengan bijak karena strategi-strategi belajar berkontribusi untuk kesuksesan akademis mahasiswa. Peneliti- peneliti lain dapat menggunakan penelitian ini sebagai referensi untuk melakukan penelitian lebih lanjut tentang strategi-strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh siswa.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The chapter provides background information for the research and

  describes the research problems that become the focus of the research. It consists of research background, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

  Writing is not only an end result but also a process that helps the writers to develop their ideas. It is a complicated skill to master since there are many aspects that should be considered in writing. “Writing is not simply a series of action, but a series of decisions which involves setting goals and selecting strategies to achieve them” (Hyland, 2002: 183). Nunan (1999: 271) states that “in terms of skill, producing a coherent, fluent, extended piece of writing is probably the most difficult thing there is to do in a language.” Furthermore, he states that writing is a kind of language skill that is concerned with process and product (Nunan, 1991: 86-87). He adds that a product-oriented approach focuses on the end result of the learning process. On the other hand, a process approach focuses more on the various activities that are believed to support the development of the language users.

  Learning strategies are parts of the language learning processes. Therefore, it is important to investigate the students’ learning strategies in writing since writing is concerned with not only products, but also processes. In the learning

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  processes, students have different goals and strategies. The different goals and strategies lead to different achievements. Besides the students’ goals and strategies, there are some other factors influencing the students’ achievements such as their cultural backgrounds, ages, gender, motivation, and learning styles.

  Oxford (1990: 1) states that learning strategies are important for language learning because if students use appropriate learning strategies, their proficiency and self-confidence will improve. It means that if the students apply appropriate strategies based on language tasks and their personality factors such as motivation and learning styles, they will complete the language tasks successfully. For this reason, many experts conduct researches on language learning strategies.

  Oxford (1990: 14) divides language learning strategies into six. They are memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. The strategies can be used to learn the four language skills in English, listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

  In the study, the researcher concentrates on the learning strategies used by Writing III students. The focus of Writing III is more on the content, organization, and language. The content, organization, and language of compositions are supported by vocabulary, mechanics, and grammar. From the researcher’s investigation, it is found that the third semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University have weaknesses in writing. The weaknesses include the content, organization, and language of the composition.

  In the study, the researcher investigates the learning strategies in writing used by the students in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study

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  Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year. Besides, the researcher also investigates how students with different proficiency levels in writing use the learning strategies in writing. It is important to conduct researches in this field because the students need to improve their writing skills. Moreover, by using appropriate learning strategies, the students will have better writing skills.

  B. Problem Identification

  Students have different abilities in writing. The different abilities may be influenced by learning strategies that they use in writing. It is important to investigate the learning strategies used by the students since the students may set different learning strategies in writing.

  In the research, the researcher investigates the learning strategies in writing used by the students who took Writing III class. The researcher also investigates how students with different proficiency levels in writing employ the learning strategies in writing. Therefore, from this point on, the focus of the study should be specified; that is, on the investigation of learning strategies used by the students in Writing III.

  C. Problem Limitation

  In the research, a limitation was established in order to specify the scope of the research. The subjects of the research were students who took Writing III of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year. The researcher chose Writing III students because

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  the researcher wanted to give them a view about learning strategies in writing so that they can improve their learning strategies at the next level of their Writing classes. Moreover, in the future, students who are taking Writing III can consider the learning strategies which are appropriate for the language tasks and apply the strategies for learning writing. In the research, one class was randomly chosen. The focus was on the learning strategies in writing used by the students. This focus was due to the fact that there are many factors that should be considered in learning writing.

  D. Problem Formulation

  As previously stated, the research is concerned with learning strategies in writing used by students in Writing III. Therefore, the problems of the research are formulated as follows:

  1. What are the learning strategies used by the students in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University?

  2. How do students with different proficiency levels in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University use the learning strategies in writing?

  E. Research Objectives

  The objectives of the research are to answer the two questions mentioned in the problem formulation. The objectives are:

  1. To investigate the learning strategies in writing used by the students in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University.

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  2. To investigate how students with different proficiency levels in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University use the learning strategies in writing.

  F. Research Benefits

  The research is aimed at bringing valuable inputs and information to writing lecturers, students of English major in Indonesia, and other researchers.

  Hopefully, the information about learning strategies used by the students in writing may be used by the lecturers to help the students to improve their learning strategies in writing. It is based on the fact that learning strategies can be trained. The researcher also expected that the information about the learning strategies in writing may be used by students of English major in Indonesia to develop their learning strategies in writing. As a result, the quality of their writing will improve. Finally, other researchers and those who are interested in language teaching and learning could use this research as a reference in conducting further studies about foreign language learners' learning strategies in writing.

  G. Definition of Terms

  There are some keywords used in the study. In order to avoid misinterpretation, the researcher would discuss them. The keywords of the research are defined as follows:

  1. Writing Zimmerman and Rodriguez (1992: 4) state that “writing is a way of thinking, a way of learning, and a way of sharing idea with others.” They add that

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  it is much more than putting letters together in a meaningful pattern. Moreover, writing includes both processes and products. When someone treats each task as a process, he/she will be a skillful writer. With each step, his/her skill becomes sharper and the product becomes better. In the research, writing is viewed as processes and products.

  2. Writing III of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University

  Writing III is a compulsory subject in the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Writing III has two credits.

  According to Panduan Akademik of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University, the goal of Writing III is to make the students able to write well several written genres. The students are expected to be able to deconstruct generic or schematic structure of each genre, to find the social purposes and linguistic features of texts, and to write texts with the learned genre.

  The evaluation is focused on the content, organization, and language.

  3. Learning strategies Strategies are specific means that the learners use to improve or to learn their language. The term strategies has been used to refer to general approaches and to specific actions or techniques used for learning a second language. Cohen (1998: 12) states that ”strategies are sometimes labeled as belonging to 'successful' or 'unsuccessful' learners.”

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  “Learning strategies are learning processes which are consciously selected by the learners” (Cohen, 1998: 4). Chamot, as cited in Wenden and Rubin (1987: 71), states that “learning strategies are defined as techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistics and content area information.” Learning strategies do not operate by themselves. They are directly related to learners' learning styles. They are also related to demographic factors such as sex, age, and ethnic differences. In the research, the focus is on language learning strategies used by students in Writing

  III of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year.

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW The research is conducted to investigate learning strategies in writing used

  by Writing III students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. In order to answer the research questions, it is necessary to describe theories that are relevant to the research. In the chapter, the researcher clarifies some related theories that become the bases of the study.

  The chapter comprises two main parts. The first part is theoretical description. In this part, the researcher clarifies main issues and other issues related to writing and the learning strategies in writing. The second part is theoretical framework. This part provides the theoretical answers to the research questions.

A. Theoretical Description

  In the theoretical description, the researcher reviews theories of writing, language learning strategies, and learning strategies used in writing.

1. Writing

  Since the research deals with writing, it is necessary to review some theories of writing that become the references in conducting the research. In the research, the researcher elaborates some definitions of writing, processes of writing, nature of writing, and elements of writing.

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  a. Description of Writing Sokolik, as cited in Nunan (2003: 88), defines writing in a series of contrasts. The first definition is that writing is both physical and mental acts. The second definition is that the purposes of writing are to express and to impress. Finally, writing is both a process and a product.

  Writing is a physical act of committing words or ideas to some medium, for example an email message typed into a computer and a composition written by a student. Besides, it is a mental act of inventing ideas and thinking about how to express the ideas. Moreover, writers have to think about how to organize the ideas into statements and paragraphs.

  Writers write to express their ideas or feelings. They write not only for their own desires, but also for the readers. Their compositions should be free from grammar mistakes. Hence, the readers can enjoy reading the compositions. Moreover, the contents of the compositions should be meaningful so that the readers understand the ideas of the compositions.

  Sokolik (2003: 88) adds that a writer imagines, organizes, drafts, edits, reads, and rereads to serve a product (an essay, letter, or story). It reveals that writing is not only an end result but also a process that helps the writers to develop their ideas. In Writing III of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year, the lecturer helped the students to improve their writings by developing their writing processes. The students were also expected to be able to develop the content, organization, and language of their writings. The students learnt to revise their writing and exchanged their compositions with their colleagues.

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  In addition, Richards (1990: 100) states that “learning writing in either a first or a second language is a difficult task a learner encounters and one that few people can be said to fully master.” The goal of a written language is to convey information correctly, effectively, and appropriately. It is not merely the linguistic organization of written discourse that makes writing a difficult skill to acquire. Nevertheless, it is also influenced by processes of moving from concepts, thoughts, and ideas to written texts, which are considered complex processes.

b. Processes of Writing As previously stated, writing is not merely a product, but also a process.

  Langan (2002: 630-633) divides the process of writing into five steps, prewriting, outlining, drafting, revising, and proofreading. The steps are described as follows.

1) Prewriting

  Prewriting is the first step that allows writers to generate ideas, organize thoughts, and prepare for writing the first draft. There are several prewriting strategies. They are freewriting, questioning, mapping, and brainstorming.

  In freewriting, writers write whatever comes into their minds about certain topics, without stopping and without worrying the spelling and grammar rules.

  The spelling and grammar can be revised later. In questioning, the writers think about the topic by writing down questions and then answer them. In mapping, the writers begin by stating a subject in a few words at the center of a blank sheet of paper. They draw lines to connect some words related to the subject. By drawing maps, the writers will be able to develop their ideas in later stages. In

  

brainstorming, the writers make lists of ideas and details that could be included in

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  their compositions. The writers should not worry to put the lists in special order. The writers may use bits and pieces of all four since the prewriting strategies are not in order. The writers can choose what they will generate first.

  2) Outlining

  An outline is a brief plan for a paragraph. The outline becomes a foundation of the paragraph. There are main ideas included in the outline. The ideas are supported by some supporting details.

  3) Writing the First Draft

  The next step is writing the first draft. This step is concentrated on contents, not on mechanics. It should be written quickly. If the writers have problems in making the first draft, the writers may go back to the prewriting stage.

  4) Revising

  In the revising strategy, the writers look at the writings again and develop them. They revise words, order, and flow to provide a better sequence of events.

  They may omit sentences and paragraphs if they do not contribute to effective pieces of writing.

  5) Proofreading

  In this final stage of writing processes, the writers check their compositions carefully for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. They may

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  grammar, and punctuation errors. However, in this step, the writers also check the contents of their compositions.

c. Elements of Writing

  There are elements that should be considered in writing. Brown (2001: 357) divides the elements into six. They are the content, organization, discourse, syntax, vocabulary, and mechanics. The six elements must fulfill some criteria.

  Below is the discussion of elements of writing.

  1) Content

  The writers should have clear main ideas. Moreover, the paragraph should be convincing. It means that there should be enough logical points to support the main ideas. In addition, there are no important points left out and no irrelevant points included. The focus of the writing must be consistent.

  2) Organization

  Written texts should be well-organized so that readers want to continue reading. The main ideas and supporting points should be understood easily after the readers read the compositions. The writers should consider the effectiveness of introductions, logical sequence of ideas, concluding sentences, and length of the compositions.

  3) Discourse

  Here, the writers should concentrate on the topic sentences, paragraph

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  order of the compositions. As a result, the writers can convey the intended meaning successfully.

  4) Syntax

  In the compositions, there should be no crucial errors in grammar in order not to create ambiguity. Ambiguous sentences may be wrongly interpreted by the readers. As a result, the writers may fail to convey their intended ideas.

  5) Vocabulary

  Word choice is important in order to write good-quality compositions. The writers should use the appropriate vocabulary based on the type of writing tasks.

  The writers may consult dictionaries and thesauruses in choosing the right vocabulary.

  6) Mechanics

  Spelling, punctuation, citation of references, neatness, and appearance of the writings also need to be focused on. If there are errors in mechanics, the readers may not enjoy reading the compositions. Moreover, the meaning which wants to be conveyed by the writers may be differently perceived by the readers if there are errors in mechanics.

d. The Nature of Writing

  Since the study is concerned with writing, it is important to review the

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  approaches in teaching writing. The first approach is a product-oriented approach and the second approach is a process-oriented approach. Below is the discussion of the two approaches.

  1) Product Approach

  According to Richards (1990: 106), the focus of a product approach is on the ability to produce correct texts or products. ”This approach is regarded as the traditional approach in teaching writing” (Cohen, 1990: 105). He also states that the major focus of this approach is on the finished product of writing.

  Furthermore, the emphasis of the product approach is also put on the grade. Nunan (1991: 86) states that “a product oriented approach is focused on the end result of the learning processes - that the learners are expected to be able to do as fluent and competent users.” He also states that “writing teachers who subscribe to the product approach will be concerned to see that the end product is readable, grammatically correct, and obeys discourse conventions related to main points, supporting details, and so on” (Nunan, 1989: 36).

  “A product approach concentrates on ends rather than means” (Richards, 1990: 108). The focus of this approach is on the final result and not on the process. By focusing on the form and structure of writing rather than on how writers create writing that has form and structure, the composing processes of good writers are ignored.

  2) Process Approach

  In contrast to the writing product approach, the writing process approach is

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  this approach emphasizes the notion that writing is a process whereby a finished product emerges after series of drafts. He adds that “it puts emphasis on an incubation period in which the written piece takes shape.” The process approach focuses more on the various classroom activities that are believed to promote the development of skilled language users. The approach focuses on means/processes whereby complete texts were created rather than on the end product itself.

  Richards (1990: 109) states that successful writers appear to produce better-quality writing because they use more appropriate writing processes. The successful use of writing processes such as planning, organizing, and revising gives the learners better control on the content and form of what they write. A number of changes toward the teaching of writing are emerging in order to apply a process perspective into second language writing programs. These changes affect the role of the learners, teachers, and kinds of teaching learning activities that are employed in writing classrooms. Nonetheless, teachers should not only extremely put emphasis on the writing process. ”Process is not the end. It is the means to the end” (Brown, 2001: 337).

2. Learning Strategies

a. Description of Learning Strategies

  “Learning strategies refer to actions taken by second and foreign language learners to control and improve their own learning” (Oxford, 1990: ix). She adds that “learning strategies are keys to greater autonomy and more meaningful learning.” Learning strategies are employed by the students. However, teachers play an important role in helping students to develop and employ the learning

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  Wenden, as cited in Wenden and Rubin (1987: 6), defines the term learning strategies as “language learning behaviors learners actually engage in order to learn and regulate the learning of a second language.” It can be inferred that students are often conscious that they are applying strategies when they learn a language. While Nunan (1991: 168) defines learning strategies as “the mental processes which are employed by learners to learn and use the target language.”

  Learning strategies are not inherently good or bad, but have the potential to be used effectively. The effectiveness may depend on the characteristics of the learners, the language structure, the context, or the interaction of these. According to Nunan (1999: 183), some strategies are used more frequently than others depending on the age and proficiency of the students, the skills being focused on, and the needs of the individual learner.

  In the study, the language learning strategies meant by the researcher are the learning behaviors that are employed by the learners in order to complete the language learning tasks. The language task that becomes the focus of this study is writing. The strategies that are employed by certain learners may differ from other learners.

b. Features of Language Learning Strategies

  Oxford (1990: 8-14) discusses some features of language learning strategies. The first feature is that communicative competence is the main goal.

  The emphasis of communicative competence is put on the semantic and communicative dimensions rather than merely on the grammatical characteristics of a language.