Racial discrimination experienced by the African Americans as reflected in Langston Hughes` Poems Merry-Go-Round and Children`s Rhymes.

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RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
EXPERIENCED BY THE AFRICAN AMERICANS
AS REFLECTED IN LANGSTON HUGHES’ POEMS
MERRY-GO-ROUND AND CHILDREN’S RHYMES
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education

By
Adrian Bayuaji Wicaksono
Student Number: 081214119

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2014

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RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
EXPERIENCED BY THE AFRICAN AMERICANS
AS REFLECTED IN LANGSTON HUGHES’ POEMS
MERRY-GO-ROUND AND CHILDREN’S RHYMES
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By
Adrian Bayuaji Wicaksono
Student Number: 081214119

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2014

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“Life has meaning only in the struggle. Triumph or
defeat is in the hands of the Gods. So let us
celebrate the struggle!”
(Stevie Wonder)

“There is in this world no such force as the force of
a person determined to rise. The human soul
cannot be permanently chained.”
(W.E.B. Dubois)
“Believe me, the reward is not so great without the
struggle.”
(Wilma Rudolph)

DEDICATED TO:
MYSELF
PBI 2008 AND 2009

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ABSTRACT
Wicaksono, Adrian Bayuaji. (2014). Racial Discrimination Experienced by
The African Americans as Reflected in Langston Hughes’ Poems Merry-GoRound and Children’s Rhymes. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study
Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers
Training and Education. Sanata Dharma University.

This research discussed Langston Hughes’ poems Merry-Go-Round and
Children’s Rhymes. Those poems were selected based on the hypothesis that they
would give a clear reflection of African Americans’ struggle. There was one
question to answer in this study: “How is racial discrimination against African
Americans depicted in Langston Hughes’ Merry-Go-Round and Children’s
Rhymes?”
In order to find the answer to the question above, I implemented socio-cultural
historical approach. This approach helped me analyze the cultural and social
content of the literary works. I also applied library research in conducting the
study. There were two data sources contained in this thesis, primary and
secondary sources. The primary sources were the two poems written by Langston
Hughes, Merry-Go-Round and Children’s Rhymes. The secondary resources were
gathered from definition of racism, definition of racial discrimination, types of
discrimination, definition of Jim Crow, and historical review of The United States
between 1920s and 1960s.
After understanding and analyzing the poems, I concluded that both poems
depicted racial discrimination experienced by African Americans. Based on the
theory on types of racial discrimination, the first poem, Merry-Go-Round depicted
that African Americans experienced segregation, denial, and institutional
discrimination in their daily lives. They were not equally treated. They were not

allowed to get the same public facilities as the White Americans. Those
discriminatory actions were supported by a series of law namely Jim Crow
system. Meanwhile, Children’s Rhymes depicted that African Americans
experienced denial. African Americans were denied to get jobs. They were not
given their freedom of life, liberty and justice as the citizens of The United States.
Another conclusion that could be drawn from the both poems was that the racial
discrimination was deeply ingrained in the mind of African American kids. They
often judge themselves as second-class citizens.
In the last part, I gave suggestions to future researchers and English teachers.
For future researchers I suggested them to conduct a deeper study focusing on the
relation between the writer, Langston Hughes and the poems, Merry-Go-Round
and Children’s Rhymes by using biographical approach. In addition, I suggested
English teachers to use both poems as teaching materials for reading activity.

Keywords: racism, racial discrimination, African American

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ABSTRAK
Wicaksono, Adrian Bayuaji. (2014). Racial Discrimination Experienced by
The African Americans as Reflected in Langston Hughes’ Poems Merry-GoRound and Children’s Rhymes. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa
Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu
Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Penelitian ini membahas dua puisi karya Langston Hughes yang berjudul
Merry-Go-Round dan Children’s Rhymes. Kedua puisi tersebut dipilih
berdasarkan anggapan bahwa keduanya bisa memberikan cerminan atas
perjuangan orang-orang Afrika Amerika. Rumusan masalah dari penelitian ini
adalah “Bagaimanakah diskriminasi berdasarkan ras terhadap orang-orang
Afrika Amerika digambarkan dalam puisi-puisi Langston Hughes yang berjudul
Merry-Go-Round dan Children’s Rhymes?”
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut, saya menggunakan pendekatan sosialbudaya dan sejarah. Pendekatan ini membantu saya menganalisa hal yang berifat
budaya dan sosial dari karya-karya sastra tersebut. Saya juga menggunakan studi
pustaka sebagai dasar dari skripsi ini. Terdapat dua sumber data dalam skripsi

ini, yaitu sumber utama dan sekunder. Sumber utamanya adalah kedua puisi
karya Langston Hughes, yaitu Merry-Go-Round dan Children’s Rhymes. Adapun
data-data pendukung diambil dari pengertian dari rasisme, pengertian dari
diskriminasi berdasarkan ras, tipe-tipe diskriminasi berdasarkan ras, pengertian
dari Jim Crow, dan kajian sejarah Amerika Serikat tahun 1920an sampai 1960an.
Setelah memahami dan menganalisa kedua puisi tersebut, saya menyimpulkan
berdasarkan pada teori tentang tipe-tipe diskriminasi berdasarkan ras, bahwa
Merry-Go-Round menggambarkan orang-orang Afrika Amerika mengalami
segregasi, penolakan, dan diskriminasi institusional di kehidupan sehari-hari.
Mereka diperlakukan secara berbeda. Mereka mendapat kendaraan umum yang
berbeda dari orang-orang kulit putih. Tindakan-tindakan diskriminasi tersebut
didukung dengan peraturan-peraturan yang disebut dengan sistem Jim Crow.
Sementara itu, Children’s Rhymes menggambarkan bahwa kaum Afrika Amerika
mengalami penolakan. Mereka dipersulit untuk mendapat pekerjaan. Kebebasan
akan hidup, kemerdekaan, serta keadilan sebagai warga negara Amerika Serikat
tidak mereka dapatkan. Kesimpulan lainnya yang dapat diambil dari kedua puisi
tersebut adalah bahwa diskiminasi berdasarkan ras sudah tertanam dengan
dalam di fikiran anak-anak Afrika Amerika. Mereka cenderung menilai diri
mereka sebagai warga negara kelas dua.
Di bagian terakhir saya memberi saran untuk peneliti-peneliti yang akan

datang dan guru-guru Bahasa Inggris. Untuk peneliti-peneliti yang akan datang,
saya menyarankan mereka untuk meneliti lebih lanjut hubungan Langston Hughes
dan Merry-Go-Round serta Children’s Rhymes dengan menggunakan pendekatan
riwayat hidup. Selain itu, untuk guru-guru Bahasa Inggris saya menyarankan
mereka untuk menggunakan kedua puisi tersebut sebagai materi ajar untuk
kegiatan membaca.
Kata kunci: racism, racial discrimination, African American

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all people who spared their time,
energy, and ideas in helping me finish my thesis.

I praise the Lord, Jesus Christ, for everything. His existence, help, and love
give me strength to live my life, guide me through the hard life. Through His
blessing I become stronger.
My greatest thanks go to my mother, Nyayu Zubaidah, and my father,
Indarto Banu Suprasto, S.Pd., who always push me and support me in my hard
time. Their motivations, in many ways, strengthen me. I also thank my brothers,
Henrik Dimas Ardi Wibowo and Stevanus Angga Wisnu Jatmiko, for their
support and cheers so that I could finish this last exercise in college. I love them.
My deepest gratitude goes to my sponsor, Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum.,
who was willing to guide me in my effort to finish my thesis. I really thank her for
her time, energy, ideas spent to criticize my thesis. Without her help, I bet this
thesis would have never been done. Also, I would like to thank Sanata Dharma
University, all the lecturers in the English Language Education Study
Program, all the staff, Mbak Daniek, Mbak Tari. I thank all of them for these
years. I have learned many things here. To be honest, if I insisted my ego several
semesters ago, I would have been gone from this great university. I love them all.
There is a name that I could not leave behind although I have not seen her
again until now, Aprilia Rejeki Saraswati. Wherever she is now, I thank her for
the time we spent together. Every fight, every tear, every laugh, every hug, I am
grateful for the time we had been through together.

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I deeply thank Bulik Paulina Hastin Kingkinarti, Om Stephanus Andreas
Widyohantoro, Mbak Francisca Imas Soraya for helping me check the
language for my thesis. I would also like to thank my buddies Berlin Adi, Saka
Laksmana, Michael Dhani, Vinsensius Rengga, Yakobus Dewantoro,
Mahatma Primandaru, Margareta Mia, Bella Stasia, Adreana Pritha and
Carolina Karisa who accompanied me in difficult and joyful moments in college.
Then I also thank my high school friends, Adriana Nur Widiaswara,
Bernadetta Lisa, Faradina Samanthi, Muhammad Hendra Setiawan, Gentur
Swandoyo Putro, Rochmad Sulistyawan, Anwar Tri Wibowo for the time we
spent together. I thank my library-mates, Tunggul, Ayon, Aldhy, Anggi
Kristiawan, Liece, Ega, Yogis, Bayu Pamungkas, Rosi, and also Cahyo
Ketchup, Indriyanto Amink, Sasongko Sisak, Paskalis, Bayu Setiawan, Adit,
Indra, Budi, Niko, Bang Grandil. Then my idol and inspiration Nattasha
Nauljam in Thailand, also Mbak Kania, Erna, Mas Guntur, Nong Sirikanda
Sakulpimolrat, Nong Phatranit Meuansingh, for our memories in Thailand. I
would also like to thank YGP Crews; Agung, Mbak Sri, Ikhsan, Shombet,
Okta, Mas Nto, and all fellas I cannot mention one by one here. My days would
not have been colorful without their presence. Last but not least, I would like to
thank the founders of sederet.com, an online dictionary, so that correcting wrong
words is just a click away!
I thank them all. I thank everybody for everything. Khob khun, khrab. Danke!

Adrian Bayuaji Wicaksono

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE ................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION PAGE ............................................................................................ iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ........................................................v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ....................................................... vi
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRAK ............................................................................................................. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... xi
LIST OF APPENDICES ...................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
A. Background of the Study .........................................................................1
B. Problem Formulation ...............................................................................4
C. Objective of the Study .............................................................................4
D. Benefits of the Study ...............................................................................4
E. Definition of Terms .................................................................................5
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .......................................8
A. Review of Related Theories ....................................................................8
1. Socio-Cultural-Historical Approach to Literature .............................8
2. Definition of Racism ..........................................................................9
3. Definition of Racial Discrimination .................................................10
4. Types of Racial Discrimination .......................................................11
a. Institutional Discrimination........................................................11
b. Denial .........................................................................................12
c. Antilocution ................................................................................13
d. Aggression .................................................................................13
e. Segregation .................................................................................14

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5. Jim Crow Law ..................................................................................15
B. Review on Socio-Cultural-Historical Background in the United States
in the 1920s until the 1960s ...................................................................17
C. Theoretical Framework..........................................................................22
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY .......................................................................24
A. Object of the Study................................................................................24
B. Approach of the Study ...........................................................................25
C. Method of the Study ..............................................................................25
CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS ..................................................................................27
A. The Explication of Merry-Go-Round ....................................................27
1. Paraphrase of Merry-Go-Round ......................................................28
2. Theme ..............................................................................................29
3. Figure of Speech, Imagery, and Symbols .......................................35
4. The Relation between Merry-Go-Round and the Life of African
Americans .......................................................................................37
B. The Explication of Children’s Rhymes..................................................39
1. Paraphrase of Children’s Rhymes ...................................................40
2. Theme ..............................................................................................40
3. Figure of Speech, Imagery, and Symbols .......................................47
4. The Relation between Children’s Rhymes and the Life of African
Americans .......................................................................................48
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS......................................51
A. Conclusion.............................................................................................51
B. Suggestions ............................................................................................54
1. Suggestions for the Further Researchers ..........................................55
2. Suggestions for English Teachers ....................................................55
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................57
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................60

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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A
The Poems of Langston Hughes ............................................................................61
Appendix B
The Biography of Langston Hughes ......................................................................62
Appendix C
Syllabus of Basic Reading II ..................................................................................71
Appendix D
Lesson Plan ............................................................................................................75
Appendix E
Teaching Materials .................................................................................................78

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of the background of the study, problem formulation,
objective of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms. The
background of the study explains the background of analysis and the brief
summary of the literary works. The problem formulation focuses on the problem
to be discussed or analyzed through the literary works. The objective of the study
focuses on the aim of this study. The benefits of the study focus on the benefits
for the readers, English teachers, and future researchers. The definition of terms
focuses on some terms related to the study.
A.

Background of the Study
From the very beginning of human history, people who lived in America have

been so various. Not only white people who came from Europe, but also any
colored people such as Asians and Africans. People who are descendants of
African who lived in America are usually called Black Americans, African
Americans (Afro-Americans), or Negro. This group of people often get
maltreatment, not only in the past, as stated on, "For the black Africans, America
was to mean two hundred and fifty years of slavery‖ (Lowy, 2006). Beauchamp
and Bowie (1993) states ―for decades African Americans, women, and many
minorities were excluded from participating in most of the desirable jobs and
institutions.‖

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The United States‘ history shows that policies are needed to stop the
discrimination against African Americans, as Chima and Wharton (2000) states
that ―justice demands effective policies to protect them from human rights
abuses.‖ However, ―even when declared unconstitutional, the discrimination
against minority groups often persisted‖ (Beauchamp and Bowie, 1993).
Discrimination against minority groups has become the problem of the
twentieth century, as Du Bois, cited by Meier, Rudwick, and Broderick (1978),
states that racial discrimination is the problem of the twentieth century that makes
racial differences become ―the basis to denying to over half the world the right of
sharing to the utmost ability the opportunities and privileges of modern
civilization‖ (p. 56).
The portrait of discrimination can be seen in some literary works, containing
the theme of discrimination against black people. One example of the artists who
produces this kind of literary work is Langston Hughes (1902-1967). This African
American poet often writes poems containing the theme of discrimination against
African Americans.
What makes Hughes‘ poems interesting is that he always writes about
discrimination, racism, freedom, and equality issues. He uses phenomena that
happen in the society as the sources of his works. He would like to speak of his
dreams and hopes for the better living, and open people‘s minds about the
suffering of African Americans in the society at that time. In writing his poems,
Hughes uses free verses and a language that is easy to understand. By using that

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language, he would like to express his feeling, mind, and concern about the
condition and the situation that happen in the United States‘ society.
The researcher uses two poems written by Hughes as the main sources for this
study. They are Merry-Go-Round and Children’s Rhymes. The study focuses on
African Americans‘ social life that is reflected in those two poems. The researcher
wants to conduct a study on those poems because the researcher is interested to
the beauty of tolerance. The researcher believes that by being tolerant to others,
we will be able to make a better world, without hatred. However, racial
discrimination is not a part of being tolerant to others as it will only spread hatred
and fear.
During the slavery era, African Americans in the United States suffer a lot of
maltreatments based on racial differences. Moreover, those discrimination still
exist in the present time, although they are fewer than in the past. Through his
works, especially his poems, Hughes reminds us that discrimination should not
exist in this world since it only makes people live in misery. Therefore, people
must learn to live with one another, without hatred and fear, and learn to respect
one another. This study is aimed to see racial discrimination that happens to
African American people in the United States through poems. Thus, the researcher
focuses on two of Hughes‘ poems, namely Merry-Go-Round and Children’s
Rhymes, to limit this study.

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B.

Problem Formulation
This study has one problem formulation that is ―How is racial discrimination

against African Americans depicted in Langston Hughes‘ Merry-Go-Round and
Children’s Rhymes?‖
C.

Objective of the Study
The objective of the study is to reveal how racial discrimination against

African Americans is depicted in Langston Hughes‘ Merry-Go-Round and
Children’s Rhymes.
D.

Benefits of the Study
This study hopefully will give benefits to people. Seeing that tolerance among

people is an expensive thing nowadays, the researcher wants people to know the
importance of tolerance to be considered in daily life. Having more tolerance is
much better than easily discriminating other people. Dealing with education, this
study hopefully will give more options in teaching materials. Firstly, through this
study, the researcher wants the readers to understand that racial discrimination is
dangerous for humanity. Hopefully this research makes the readers aware that
people, anywhere, should live together peacefully and respectfully. In addition,
readers can expand their knowledge of life values through African American
literature, especially about racial discrimination against African Americans, and
the history of Black Americans.
Secondly, for teachers, especially English teachers, hopefully this study may
develop English teaching materials by using poems. Moreover, teachers may not

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only teach English, but also teach moral values of having good tolerance in life.
Lastly, for future researchers who will conduct a study based on these two
Langston Hughes‘ poems, the researcher expects they conduct a better and deeper
research. There are many things that can be studied in poems, such as symbolism
and the relation between the poems and the poet.

E.

Definition of Terms
In order to understand the study, some terms need to be explained clearly.

There are four major terms need to be explained related to the study. Those are
race, discrimination, and African American.

1.

Race
Macionis writes ―a race is a socially constructed category of people who share

biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important.
People may classify one another racially based on physical characteristics such a
skin color, facial features, hair texture, and body shape‖ (2012: 320).
According to Stark, race is ―a human group with some observable, common
biological features. The most prominent of these is skin color, but racial groups
also differ in other observable ways such as eyelid shape and the color and texture
of hair. They also differ in subtle ways that are not visible, such as blood type‖
(1998: 274).
Based on the definitions above, the researcher concludes that a race is a group
of people who have similar biological features that can be distinguished. These
biological features, such as skin color, facial features, hair texture and color, body

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shape, and blood type, are important for the members of the group to differentiate
them from other groups.

2.

Discrimination
Spencer states that discrimination is the act of resisting the ―access to desired

goals‖ of a social category or group based on ―irrelevant or incorrect traits
attributed to it‖ which means wrong judgments on certain social groups or the
members of the social groups (1985: 240). Spencer also states that people can
discriminate other ethnic groups with or without having prejudice, which he
defines as ―having a bad opinion of other people just because they are members of
a certain category‖ (1985: 39). Macionis states that ―discrimination is action on
unequal treatments of various categories of people, ranging from subtle to
extreme, that can be positive (providing special advantages) or negative (creating
obstacle)‖ (2012: 328).
Based on the definitions, the researcher concludes that discrimination is
unequal act done to a certain groups of people, which leads to resisting access to
something they want. This action can be subtle or extreme, and that can be done
by having misjudgments or not.

3.

African American
In Encyclopedia Americana 4, the researcher finds ―black (black American) is

whether called black, Afro-American, or Negroes‖ (1995: 28). It happens that way
because they are the descendants of African people, who are black, and that they
live in America. It goes on that United States‘ citizens of African descent are

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defined as racial group and become subject of discriminatory behavior because of
race. Individual black in United States has suffered racial oppression in various
levels according to ―urban or rural residence, region, and economic class, darken
skin, sex and historical period‖ (1995: 28).

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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of three main parts. The parts are review of related
theories, review on socio-cultural-historical background, and theoretical
framework. Review of related theories is presented in order to give the theories
the researcher uses in the analysis. Review on socio-cultural-historical
background gives images what happened in the society. The theoretical
framework presents how the relevant theories are applied to the analysis.

A. Review of Related Theories
This part presents some theories that are relevant to the study. Those are sociocultural-historical approach to literature, definition of racism, definition and types
of racial discrimination, and definition of Jim Crow. Further discussion will be
delivered as follows.

1.

Socio-Cultural-Historical Approach to Literature
According to Langland, society is ―an imitation of an outside world‖ (1984: 4).

The meaning is that society in literary works is almost the same with society in
real life. Usually the society created by a writer is the reflection of the real life
society. Wilbur Scott, quoted in Kennedy and Gioia, states that literature ―is the
work not simply of a person, but of an author fixed in time and space, answering a
community of which he is an important, because articulate part‖ (1999: 1955).

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Kennedy and Gioia states that the purpose of socio-cultural-historical approach
is to ―examine literary works based on cultural, social, context which produce the
literary works‖ (1999: 1955). This statement is supported by Rohrberger and
Woods as they state that ―actions and attitudes shown by particular civilization
play role as the subject matter of literary works‖ (1971: 9). It means that literary
works can be examined using socio-cultural-historical approach, based on cultural
and social context producing the literary works. Moreover, it can be used to
analyze the relation between the author and the society, to know how the author
feels about his society and how it affects his works, as Kennedy and Gioia (1999)
states that this approach also ―explores the relationships between the author and
the society‖ (p. 1995).
2.

Definition of Racism
According to Merrill and Eldredge (1952), racism comes from the attitudes

occurring from the physical differences. These differences become the separation
of some groups of human being. The attitudes here, according to Feagin (1982),
become an ideology that considers physical characteristics as unchangeable. The
physical characteristics then are linked to cultural or intellectual characteristics
that become the basis to differentiate superior and inferior racial groups. It means
that somebody‘s ability depends on the physical characteristics. In other words,
somebody‘s ability can be assessed by the race. In relation with African
American, Blauner (1970) states racism in America becomes the key that
strengthens black culture. It makes African American people struggle to change

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the social system to solve its inequality on ―life, liberty, and the pursuit of
opportunity‖ (1970: 125).
According to Schaefer (1986), racism is one form of prejudice, meaning the
belief that one race is supreme. Prejudice is ―a negative attitude toward an entire
category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority‖ (1986: 228). Schaefer adds,
―when racism prevails in a society, members of subordinate groups generally
experience prejudice, discrimination, and exploitation‖ (1986: 228). It means that
racial discrimination is a form of racism. Since this study deals with racial
discrimination, the researcher will also provide theory on racial discrimination,
which will be presented in the next section.

3.

Definition of Racial Discrimination
Schaefer (1986) defines racial discrimination as ―the process of denying

opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice‖
(1986: 230). It means that based on the idea that one race or group of people is
superior to others, this superior group can do things to show its superiority. The
actions are often done without any acceptable reasons. According to Zanden
(1988) racial discrimination involves ―arbitrary denial of privilege, prestige, and
power to members of a minority group whose qualifications are equal to those of
members of the dominant group‖ (p.259). If there are two persons, one is an
African American and the other one is a White American, qualified for a job, then
the boss refuses to choose the African American without any reason, the boss is
commiting racial discrimination.

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4.

Types of Racial Discrimination
This section will present the types of discrimination. The types of

discrimination later on will be taken from the work of Schaefer (1986), Zanden
(1988), Macionis (2012) and Rose (1997). Schaefer, Zanden, and Macionis
present the meaning of institutional discrimination. The other types of racial
discrimination are cited from Rose and Schaefer. Those are denial, antilocution,
aggression, and segregation.

a.

Institutional Discrimination
It is not only individuals who practice discrimination. Institutions of society

also systematically discriminate against the members of some groups. Sociologists
define this as institutional discrimination. Schaefer defines institutional
discrimination as ―the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and
groups which results from the normal operations of a society‖ (1986: 230). It
continuously forces more obstacles on specific racial and ethnic groups rather than
to other groups. Charmichael and Hamilton, as cited by Zanden, add the
information about the related institutions where institutional discrimination can
possibly happen, ―Businesses, schools, hospitals, governments, and other key
institutions‖ in which ―need not be staffed by prejudiced people in order for
discrimination to occur‖ (1988: 259). Stokely and Charles, as cited by Macionis
(2012) emphasize that institutional discrimination happens in social institutions,
including schools, hospitals, the police, and the workplace.
Meanwhile, according to Carmichael and Hamilton, cited by Macionis (2012),
it is not easy for people to condemn or recognize institutional discrimination. It is

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because institutional discrimination involves respected public officials and laws or
traditions which have been established for long time. Therefore, people cannot
easily stop it. Instead, according to Zanden (1986), it is difficult to erase
discrimination in America, although there are laws to prohibit it. In 1960s several
pioneering civil rights laws were enforced including the 1964 Civil Rights Act,
which forbids discrimination in public accommodations and publicly owned
facilities in the scope of race, color, creed, national origin, and sex. However, after
two decades, discrimination still happens in almost all areas of American life.
Rose (1997) adds that institutional discrimination has become a daily habit, as
he states that institutional discrimination is accepted as part of everyday life. This
statement somehow shows that the main reason for people to practice institutional
discrimination is not hatred anymore. They practice institutional discrimination
because they expect this to be practiced in society.

b. Denial
Rose (1997) states that denial means avoiding contacts or not giving
opportunities to the prejudiced groups or members of the groups, as he writes that
denial involves ―establishing and maintaining some measure of physical and
social distance from minorities‖ (p. 146). He also states that denial, segregation,
and institutional discrimination are related because denial and segregation are two
effective techniques to perform institutional discrimination.
Discrimination often makes people avoid close contact with specific people.
This action is often taught in early stage of life, as children are taught to choose
groups to associate. Rose (1997) states that children are given some like

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fundamental lessons by their parents or playmates related to which groups or with
whom they should socialize. In adulthood, this lesson appears in the form of
devices to prevent or minimize contact with ―unwanted‖ people. In this case they
are ―group members socially defined as being low repute, unpleasant, or even
untouchable‖ (p. 146). Rose (1997) adds that movement away from neighborhood
where minority-group members are coming is the most common method of
avoidance. People in the area will sell their residence and leave the area.

c.

Antilocution
Racial discrimination is often close to derogatory behavior. One form of

derogatory behavior is name-calling, known as antilocution. Antilocution itself is
a further form of ethnophaulism, as stated by Rose as follows:
―Ethnophaulism is a technical word for derogatory term used by the members
of one ethnic group to describe the members of another. Ethnophaulisms are
the core of the language of prejudice and, when openly expressed, become a
form of discrimination known as antilocution, a fancy word for name-calling‖
(p. 139).
Rose states that name-calling is ―a widely used and highly effective form of
discrimination‖ (p. 145). It is because, according to Rose, this form of derogatory
language is often ―intentionally provocative‖ (p. 143), especially when done by
racist demagogues. They use the name-calling to find victims and also followers
to spread the use, and finally to push people to fight their ‗foes‘, prejudiced
people, African-Americans in this case.

d. Aggression
Rose (1997) writes that history on racial discrimination recognizes the use of
violence, in various ways to keep minorities in their social status. The action can

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be done individually or in group. The forms are various, such as jeer at little
children, gang fights, or organized terror and mob rule. Rose also states that in the
case of racial discrimination done to African Americans, lynch mob is one form of
violence threatening African Americans. It happens, according to Rose, ―mainly
in those areas where the practice of segregation was maintained by the harshest
forms of intimidation‖ (p. 156). He also states that ―social scientists have
interpreted lynching as a means of venting frustrations against a convenient
scapegoat‖ (p. 156). It means that lynching is used to vent somebody‘s anger on
something to somebody that could possibly innocent or knows nothing. Rose
goes on explaining that violence also happens to civil rights workers. People who
cannot accept the civil rights workers‘ ideas of equality and freedom will kill the
workers. He mentions several martyrs that get killed, such as Herbert Lee, Medgar
Evers, Mickey Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, James Chancy, and Martin Luther
King, Jr.

e.

Segregation
Macionis (2012) states that segregation is ―physical and social separation of

categories of people‖ where ―majorities usually segregate minorities by excluding
them‖ (p. 329). According to Schaefer (1986), segregation is an action to separate
two groups of people physically, in the scope of residence, workplace, and social
functions. Segregation is generally committed by a majority group to a minority
group.
Rose (1997) states that segregation deals with ―restrictive and exclusionary‖
(p. 148) law or policy to support the separation. It aims to keep minority group out

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of ―private clubs, certain vocations, schools and colleges, churches and
neighborhoods‖ (p. 148). Moreover, it also aims to keep minority group apart in
certain reservation, barrios, and ghettos. In the United States, there is a system
named Jim Crow, to separate White Americans from colored people, especially
African Americans, which will be defined in the next section.

5.

Jim Crow Law
The ‗Jim Crow‘ term it originally came from an entertainer, Thomas D. Rice.

According to Woodward (1974), Rice wrote a song and dance called ‗Jim Crow‘
in 1832. He was a white entertainer who performed blackface by darkening his
face and imitating African American Vernacular English. There were lots of white
entertainers performing blackface. However, according to Pilgrim (2000), Rice
was the most famous blackface performer at that time. He had tours in the United
States and England for his performance. As a result, Rice‘s ‗Jim Crow‘ become
famous as a character for a white comedian performing blackface. After the
American Civil War (1861-1865), laws denying African Americans‘ rights were
imposed. It is not clear how, but the ‗Jim Crow‘ character performed by Rice was
later on associated with the laws that segregated and demeaned African
Americans.
As cited from an online journal by Dr. David Pilgrim (2000), Professor of
Sociology Ferris State University, ―Jim Crow is the name of racial caste system
operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between
1877 and the middle of 1960s‖. It is stated that Jim Crow is a way of life, not only

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a series of rigid anti-black laws, which makes African-Americans become secondclass citizens.
―Jim Crow represented the legitimization of anti-black racism. Many Christian
ministers and theologians taught that whites were the Chosen people, blacks
were cursed to be servants, and God supported racial segregation.
Craniologists, eugenicists, phrenologists, and Social Darwinists, at every
educational level, buttressed the belief that blacks were innately intellectually
and culturally inferior to whites. Pro-segregation politicians gave eloquent
speeches on the great danger of integration: the mongrelization of the white
race. Newspaper and magazine writers routinely referred to blacks as niggers,
coons, and darkies; and worse, their articles reinforced anti-black stereotypes.
Even children's games portrayed blacks as inferior beings. All major societal
institutions reflected and supported the oppression of blacks‖
http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/what.htm (Accessed on June 12, 2013).
Pilgrim (2000) also states that the Jim Crow system was constructed based on
some beliefs or rationalizations. Those are:
―Whites were superior to blacks in all important ways, including but not
limited to intelligence, morality, and civilized behavior; sexual relations
between blacks and whites would produce a mongrel race which would destroy
America; treating blacks as equals would encourage interracial sexual unions;
any activity which suggested social equality encouraged interracial sexual
relations; if necessary, violence must be used to keep blacks at the bottom of
the racial hierarchy‖ (para. 2).
The following Jim Crow etiquette norms show how inclusive and pervasive
these norms were:
1) A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male
because it implied being socially equal. Obviously, a black male could not
offer his hand or any other part of his body to a white woman, because he
risked being accused of rape.
2) Blacks and whites were not supposed to eat together. If they did eat together,
whites were to be served first, and some sort of partition was to be placed
between them.
3) Under no circumstance was a black male to offer to light the cigarette of a
white female -- that gesture implied intimacy.
4) Blacks were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in
public, especially kissing, because it offended whites.

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5) Jim Crow etiquette prescribed that blacks were introduced to whites, never
whites to blacks. For example: "Mr. Peters (the white person), this is Charlie
(the black person), that I spoke to you about."
6) Whites did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to blacks, for
example, Mr., Mrs., Miss., Sir, or Ma'am. Instead, blacks were called by their
first names. Blacks had to use courtesy titles when referring to whites, and
were not allowed to call them by their first names.
7) If a black person rode in a car driven by a white person, the black person sat
in the back seat, or the back of a truck.
8) White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections.
In the journal, Dr. David Pilgrim also states that Stetson Kennedy, the author
of Jim Crow Guide (1990), offers these simple rules that African Americans are
supposed to observe in conversing with White Americans:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Never assert or even intimate that a white person is lying.
Never impute dishonorable intentions to a white person.
Never suggest that a white person is from an inferior class.
Never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or
intelligence.
5) Never curse a white person.
6) Never laugh derisively at a white person.
7) Never comment upon the appearance of a white female.

B. Review on Socio-Cultural-Historical Background in the United States
between the 1920s and the 1960s
Peter I. Rose describes the life of the African Americans being discriminated
against,
―Numerous studies of race and gender give ample evidence that members of
groups such as African Americans and women often internalize the views
others have of them, including lower esteem, and low rank, and often act
accordingly‖ (1997: 112-113).
Ritchie (1985) describes how civil rights movements affect African
Americans‘ spirit. They fight for equality, and deny their second-class citizenship
as he says that the civil rights movements, which grew stronger and spread rapidly
in 1950s, makes African Americans no longer accept the label of second-class

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citizens. Instead, they fight for equality. This equality covers several aspects in
their lives, such as opportunity in jobs, housing, and education. The resistance,
besides on segregated schools, buses, and trains, also covers separated facilities in
restrooms, restaurants, hotels, libraries, and hospitals. Civil rights movements
finally spread to the Northern United States where, according to Ritchie,
―although segregation was not as easily seen, it was just real‖ (1985: 727).
The researcher provides an example of discrimination which is related to
segregation. It is cited from www.americaslibrary.gov.
―On the evening of December 1, 1955, Parks, an African American, was tired
after a long day of work and decided to take a seat on the bus on her ride home.
Because she sat down and refused to give up her seat to a white passenger, she
was arrested for disobeying an Alabama law requiring black people to
relinquish seats to white people when the bus was full. (Blacks also had to sit at
the back of the bus.) Her arrest sparked a 381-day boycott of the Montgomery
bus system. It also led to a 1956 Supreme Court decision banning segregation
on public transportation‖ (accessed on October 1, 2013).
Meanwhile, in 1964, Golden writes differently in his book, Mr. Kennedy and
the Negroes. He states that in 1963, Good Samaritan, a Negro hospital in
Charlotte, North Carolina, has no intern program for African American medical
students to do medical practice. African American medical students who enter
medical practice in the South have to choose between attending the inferior
segregated schools and starting to practice in a weak and segregated hospital, or
taking advantage of the policy of subsidized out-of-state study by going to a good
medical school in Northern United Stated. By taking the second choice, African
American medical students will not return to inferior hospitals in the South.
However, Golden reveals another fact regarding the second choice, as he states,

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―In the past few years, it is true, the University of North Carolina Medical
School has accepted a few Negroes; but so far, no hospital staff membership
has been open them. And it is not likely that integrated hospital will be a reality
in the near future‖ (1964: 31).
He also states that the African Americans‘ fight for the right to enter public school
was not a fight on education only. They fight for life and death as well. Entering
public school is the first step to obtain adequate hospital care. ―Public schools are
the first step, adequate hospital care the second‖ (1964: 32).
Golden writes more on the discrimination against African American done by
government, as he states that for thirty years Southern legislators and legislatures
launched legal war against African American people. ―They disenfranchised the
Negroes, denied them in schools, hospitals, and access to tax-supported facilities
and public accommodations‖ (1964: 38). White men who lynched African
American, and who regularly defiled African American women were not
prosecuted as the Southern government refused to. Those treatments were
considered as good things by the Southern politicians as they ―boasted of their
parental love, knowing all the time that their strategy would help maintain the
status quo‖ (1964: 39).
The same condition happened also in the Northern United States. According to
Golden (1964), Northerners placed the African Americans into ghettos. African
Americans were left behind as the Northerners kept the African Americans
uneducated, unskilled, and consequently unemployed. Those treatments were
considered as conquest by Golden, as he writes ―It was a war of subjugation and
the Negro was biding his time, the Negro was humiliated and degraded, ruthlessly
proscribed, pushed to the absolute conditions of survival‖ (1964: 39).

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Furthermore, Golden writes other facts regarding racial discrimination
experienced by African American people in daily life. He writes that in 1960,
there was no shoe store owned by African American. This conditio