Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue5.1996:
Integrating information technology into university
teaching: identifying the needs and providing the
support
Sue Johnston, Coralie M cCormack
Ce ntre fo r the Enhanc e me nt o f Le arning, Te ac hing and Sc ho larship, Unive rsity o f
Canbe rra, Canbe rra, Australia
Examines the integration of
information technology (IT)
into Higher Education teaching in the UK. Looks at the
current status of IT in universities and states that IT is
only valuable if it is used in
educationally sound ways.
Highlights the barriers to the
integration of IT and ways in
which it could be more effectively adopted. States that the
majority of staff need support
if they are to use IT to its full
potential and suggests ways
of bringing this about. Concludes that this has to be a
long-term goal and that it
requires many resources.
Introduction
In spite of cla im s a bou t th e im pa ct of tech n ology on u n iver sity tea ch in g a n d th e a ppa r en t
in dica tor s of m a ssive ch a n ge in tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g a ppr oa ch es, th e r ea l ch a n ges bein g
exper ien ced by stu den ts a n d tea ch er s w ith in
ou r u n iver sities a r e fa r less th a n expected.
For th e m a jor ity of u n iver sity tea ch er s, it
seem s th a t th er e a r e still m a n y ba r r ier s to
a n d som e per son a l m isgivin gs a bou t m ovin g
aw ay fr om a sole r elia n ce on tr a dition a l
tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es a n d m ovin g tow a r ds
in te gr a tin g va r iou s tech n ologies in to th eir
tea ch in g. Th is pa per explor es su ch ba r r ier s
a n d su ggests a com bin a tion of n eeds wh ich
m u st be m et befor e u n iver sity tea ch er s a r e
lik ely to give wh oleh ea r ted su ppor t to th ese
m u ch h er a lded ch a n ges. At a tim e wh en m ost
u n iver sities a r e gr a pplin g w ith th ese issu es,
su ggestion s w ith in th e pa per a r e a im ed a t
th ose wh o a r e m a k in g policies, m a n a gin g
r esou r ces a n d im plem en tin g str a te gies to
en cou r a ge u n iver sity tea ch er s to in te gr a te
tech n ology in to th eir tea ch in g.
Information technology in teaching
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [ 1996] 3 6 –4 2
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 36 ]
Un iver sity policy m a k er s a n d sen ior m a n a ger s w ith r espon sibility for su ppor tin g
developm en ts in u n iver sity tea ch in g a r e
u n der som e pr essu r e to in vest r esou r ces to
m ove th eir u n iver sities tow a r ds m or e tech n ology-ba sed a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g[1-3]. Qu estion s a r ise a bou t wh er e
th ese r esou r ces sh ou ld be dir ected a n d wh a t
str a te gies sh ou ld be u sed to pr ovide su ppor t.
It is difficu lt n ot to be per su a ded by a ttem pts
to convin ce u s th a t u n iver sity tea ch in g is
u n der goin g a tech n ologica l r evolu tion . Com m er cia l softw a r e com pa n ies cla im n ew w ays
of pr esen tin g lea r n in g m a ter ia ls wh ich a r e
gu a r a n teed to m otiva te ou r ver y tech n ologica lly liter a te stu den t clien tele. Th e gover n m en t h a s pou r ed r esou r ces in to su ppor tin g
th e Au str a lia n m u ltim edia in du str y a n d h a s
cla im ed its poten tia l to tr a n sfor m th e r ole of
u n iver sities[4]. Open lea r n in g h a s becom e a
ca tch cr y ph r a se a n d is on ly on e exa m ple of
n ew w ays of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g wh ich
ta k e a dva n ta ge of tech n ology. High er
edu ca tion n ew s is r ich w ith cla im s a bou t
th e power of in for m a tion tech n ology to
r evolu tion ize tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g w ith in
u n iver sities[2,3]. Th e Com m ittee for th e
Adva n cem en t of Un iver sity Tea ch in g (CAUT)
is in u n da ted ea ch yea r w ith a pplica tion s for
tea ch in g developm en t gr a n ts wh ich a r e
tech n ologica lly dr iven [5,6]. In 1993, 63 per
cen t of fu n ded CAUT a pplica tion s in volved
com pu ter -ba sed tech n ologies to a sign ifica n t
exten t[7]. Th e a ppa r en t em ph a sis on tech n ology-r ela ted gr a n ts in th e 1995 r ou n d
pr om pted th e Ch a ir m a n of CAUT to m a k e
wh a t a lm ost a ppea r ed to be a discla im er th a t
th ese gr a n ts m er ely r eflected th e pr opor tion
of a pplica tion s r eceived a n d wer e in n o w ay
in dica tive of CAUT pr ior ities[6].
Ter m in ology em er ges a s a difficu lty wh en
discu ssin g th e u se of tech n ology in tea ch in g.
Th e diction a r y defin ition of tech n ology is
br oa d, in clu din g th e a pplica tion of m ech a n ica l a r ts a n d scien tifi c k n ow ledge. In th ese
br oa d ter m s, tech n ology a pplied to tea ch in g
ca n r efer to over h ea d pr ojector s, slide pr ojector s or oth er sim ple a pplica tion s wh ich h ave
been u sed for m a n y yea r s. Th is pa per is con fin ed to com pu ter s a n d com pu ter -r ela ted
a pplica tion s in tea ch in g; h en ce th e ter m
in for m a tion tech n ology is u sed. E ven w ith in
th is pa r a m eter, th er e is a ten den cy to a ssu m e
th a t wh en we a r e th in k in g a bou t in for m a tion
tech n ology wh ich ca n be a pplied to tea ch in g,
we a r e th in k in g a bou t on e for m of tech n ology
or on e for m of tea ch in g. Th e pictu r e is m u ch
m or e com plex th a n th is. Th e types of tech n ologies wh ich ca n be u sed in th e cla ssr oom
in clu de n etwor k in g ca pa bilities su ch a s electr on ic m a il a n d th e In ter n et, com pu ter a ssisted tu tor ia l m a ter ia ls, com pu ter sim u la tion s a n d in ter a ctive m u ltim edia pa ck a ges, to
n a m e a few. Th e n a tu r e of th ese tech n ologica l
a pplica tion s is diver se a s is th e n a tu r e of th e
w ays in wh ich th ey ca n be in cor por a ted in to
tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es. Th u s, cla ssr oom s wh ich
em ploy tech n ology in edu ca tion a l w ays m ay
look a n d feel ver y differ en t fr om on e a n oth er,
a s th ey m ay be ba sed on differ en t tech n ologies a n d differ en t edu ca tion a l ph ilosoph ies.
Com plex tech n ologies m ay be u sed in ver y
sim ple w ays a n d m or e sim ple tech n ologies
m ay be u sed to tr a n sfor m tea ch in g in qu ite
r a dica l a n d com plex w ays. Sever a l a u th or s
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
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h ave a ttem pted typologies wh ich ca te gor ize
th e a ppr oa ch es eith er in ter m s of th e tech n ology on wh ich th ey a r e ba sed or in ter m s of
th e type of tea ch in g th ey a r e u sed to
su ppor t[8,9]. On e difficu lty is th e r a pid r a te a t
wh ich tech n ology is a dva n cin g a n d typologies qu ick ly becom e da ted a s n ew tech n ologies a n d n ew a pplica tion s em er ge[10].
Th e lin k between edu ca tion a l ou tcom es a n d
in for m a tion tech n ology is a lso pr oblem a tic.
In for m a tion tech n ology of itself does n ot h ave
a n edu ca tion a l va lu e u n less it is pu t to wor k
in edu ca tion a lly sou n d w ays. Tech n ology ca n
be m isu sed by tea ch er s a s ca n a n y tea ch in g
tool. Th e in tr odu ction of in for m a tion tech n ology does n ot gu a r a n tee en h a n ced tea ch in g
a n d lea r n in g. E xcellen t tea ch in g m ay or m ay
n ot in volve th e u se of in for m a tion tech n ology; poor tea ch in g m ay or m ay n ot in volve
in for m a tion tech n ology[8]. Th e a im m u st be
to u se in for m a tion tech n ology in w ays wh ich
en h a n ce tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. Th is m ea n s
iden tifyin g edu ca tion a l pr oblem s or a r ea s in
wh ich tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g sh ou ld be
en h a n ced a n d em ployin g in for m a tion tech n ology to over com e th ose pr oblem s or su ppor t tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in specifi c w ays.
Su ch a n a ppr oa ch su ggests th a t m oves to u se
in for m a tion tech n ology m u st be dr iven by
edu ca tion a l n eeds r a th er th a n a desir e to u se
th e tech n ology for its ow n sa k e. Th e a ppr oa ch
a lso dicta tes th a t developm en ts n eed to be
eva lu a ted to en su r e th a t th ey a r e a ch ievin g
th e edu ca tion a l ou tcom es bein g sou gh t a n d
th a t a n y a ssocia ted disa dva n ta ges of u sin g
th e tech n ologica l a ppr oa ch do n ot detr a ct
fr om its over a ll edu ca tion a l va lu e.
Th er e is som e eviden ce th a t cer ta in tech n ology-ba sed tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es wh en
em ployed in cer ta in w ays do h ave ben eficia l
ou tcom es for stu den ts. Stu den ts a t on e Au str a lia n u n iver sity wer e “positive to a n u n a n ticipa ted de gr ee” a bou t th eir u se of com pu ter ba sed edu ca tion , in dica tin g th a t it gave th em
flexibility in follow in g u p fr om lectu r es a n d
r evisin g m a ter ia l[11]. Th e a dva n ta ges of
u sin g tech n ology to deliver h igh er edu ca tion
to th e wor k pla ce h ave been r epor ted by
Ha m er [12]. In a m or e gen er a l w ay, La u r illa r d[8] a n a lyses th e edu ca tion a l str en gth s
a n d wea k n esses of a r a n ge of a ppr oa ch es.
Th e a dva n ta ges a n d disa dva n ta ges of va r iou s
a ppr oa ch es h ave a lso been docu m en ted in a
n u m ber of r epor ts[9,12].
Wh y th en do we n ot see w idespr ea d u se of
in for m a tion tech n ology in tea ch in g? Th e
r ea lity of th e u n iver sity cla ssr oom for m ost of
ou r stu den ts r em a in s a s it h a s been for m a n y
yea r s – a la r ge lectu r e th ea tr e in wh ich th e
pr ofessor deliver s a lectu r e, possibly a ided by
over h ea d tr a n spa r en cies or ch a lk boa r d. Va n
Hom r igh a n d O’Lea r y[13] h ave r epor ted th a t
th e m a jor ity of lectu r er s a t on e Au str a lia n
u n iver sity con tin u ed to u se lectu r e th ea tr es
for tr a dition a l lectu r e pr esen ta tion even
th ou gh a dva n ced tech n ology w a s r ea dily
ava ila ble in th e design of th e lectu r e th ea tr e
a n d th er e wer e in cr ea sed oppor tu n ities ava ila ble for a lter n a tive m odes of pr esen ta tion . In
a su r vey of a ca dem ic sta ff a t th e Un iver sity of
Ca n ber r a in Au str a lia , 61 per cen t in dica ted
th ey u sed electr on ic m a il in th eir tea ch in g, 38
per cen t u sed th e In ter n et a n d on ly 10 per
cen t u sed self-a u th or ed or com m er cia lly
ava ila ble m u ltim edia pa ck a ges[14]. Spotts
a n d Bow m a n [15] h ave r epor ted sim ila r
r esu lts for a u n iver sity in th e USA wh er e
fa cu lty k n ow ledge of com pu ter tech n ology
a n d r ela ted u se of in str u ction a l tech n ology
w a s fou n d to be low.
Spotts a n d Bow m a n [15] a r gu e th a t
in sta n ces of in n ova tive u ses of in for m a tion
tech n ology a ppea r to be th e exception r a th er
th a n th e r u le, w ith th e in cor por a tion in to
pr a ctice of n ew w ays of r ea din g a n d lea r n in g
ta k in g m or e tim e th a n m a n y r ea lize. “With ou t defi n itive da ta to su ppor t th is con ten tion
th a t tech n ology is becom in g w idespr ea d in
a ca dem e, su ch a n a ssu m ption a ppea r s n ot to
be well gr ou n ded in eviden ce” (p. 58). Th u s,
h ea dlin es a n d a r ticles wh ich fea tu r e in n ova tive u ses of in for m a tion tech n ology in u n iver sity tea ch in g a r e m er ely in dica tive th a t th er e
is a ver y sm a ll n u m ber of a ca dem ics a t th is
“cu ttin g edge”, wh ile th e m a jor ity h ave been
left fa r beh in d. In a r eview of liter a tu r e, Ca la din e[16] con clu ded th a t “th e m a jor ity of liter a tu r e su r veyed con cer n ed ‘su ccess stor ies’
a n d h en ce m ay n ot be a va lid in dica tor of th e
fu ll exten t of edu ca tion a l lim ita tion s” (p. 17).
Wh en look in g a t th e wh ole pictu r e of u n iver sity tea ch in g, few ch a n ges a ppea r to h ave
been m a de over th e yea r s.
What are the barriers?
A n u m ber of r esea r ch er s h ave u n der ta k en a
sea r ch for wh y a ca dem ics do n ot a ppea r to be
in te gr a tin g n ew tech n ologies in to th eir tea ch in g. Som e su r veys of a ca dem ic sta ff h igh ligh t
a per ceived la ck of va r iou s r esou r ces, su ch a s
tim e, equ ipm en t or fu n ds, a s ba r r ier s to th e
a doption of n ew a ppr oa ch es[17]. Ha m m on d et
a l.[18], w r itin g a bou t th e UK, r evea led issu es
su ch a s la ck of tim e, fin a n cia l con str a in ts,
la ck of tr a in in g a n d in su fficien t in for m a tion
on softw a r e a s th e m ost sign ifica n t ba r r ier s
to a ca dem ic sta ff u sin g in for m a tion tech n ology in th eir tea ch in g. Th e pictu r e em er gin g
fr om th ese a n d oth er stu dies su ggests a com m on th r ea d of lower th a n expected a doption
of n ew pr a ctices beca u se of ba r r ier s su ch a s
[ 37 ]
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy into unive rsity
te ac hing: ide ntifying the
ne e ds and pro viding the
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in su fficien t tim e, in a dequ a te fa cilities, too
few in cen tives a n d a la ck of su ppor t[19,20].
In ter view s w ith a r a n ge of a ca dem ic sta ff a t
th e Un iver sity of Ca n ber r a pr ovided som e
m or e deta iled in for m a tion a bou t th ese ba r r ier s to th e in te gr a tion of in for m a tion tech n ology in tea ch in g[14]. Th e in ter view s wer e
con du cted w ith sta ff wh o h a d r eceived gr a n ts
w ith in th e u n iver sity for tea ch in g developm en t pr ojects a ssocia ted w ith in for m a tion
tech n ology. In vita tion s for com m en ts wer e
a lso m a de to th e en tir e sta ff a n d a few in dividu a ls, oth er th a n th ose for m a lly con ta cted,
r espon ded to th is in vita tion a n d pr ovided
da ta . Th e m a jor th em es em er gin g fr om th ese
in ter view s wer e con cer n s a bou t:
• th e poten tia l to decr ea se oppor tu n ities for
in ter a ction s between sta ff a n d stu den ts;
• difficu lties w ith in fr a str u ctu r e su ch a s
in a dequ a te equ ipm en t or poor ly equ ipped
tea ch in g spa ces;
• la ck of k n ow ledge a n d sk ills of sta ff;
• in su fficien t tech n ica l su ppor t sta ff;
• a la ck of tim e;
• in a dequ a te r esou r ces; a n d
• th e r isk s a ssocia ted w ith im plem en tin g
in n ova tion s in tea ch in g, pa r ticu la r ly th ose
u sin g tech n ology.
A n u m ber of com m en ts iden tifi ed ba r r ier s
wh ich r ela ted to in su fficien t su ppor t per ceived to be pr ovided by th e in stitu tion .
Respon den ts r efer r ed to in su fficien t pr ovision s in a r a n ge of a r ea s su ch a s tr a in in g,
gen er a l su ppor t wh ile th ey u sed n ew for m s of
tech n ology, a ccess to equ ipm en t of th e for m
r equ ir ed to u se n ew a ppr oa ch es in th eir
tea ch in g, tech n ica l su ppor t, r esou r ces to
pu r ch a se equ ipm en t a n d a r ecogn ition or
a ck n ow ledgem en t of th e extr a effor t in vested
in developin g n ew a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g.
Th e tim e-con su m in g n a tu r e of developin g
tech n ology-ba sed m a ter ia ls a n d a ppr oa ch es
w a s n oted, a s w a s th e sca r city of tim e ava ila ble to com m it to su ch ta sk s. Som e com m en ts
r ela ted to th e ga p in u n der sta n din g between
th e tech n ology exper ts a n d th ose copin g w ith
r ea l cla ssr oom issu es.
Th e r em a in in g ba r r ier s iden tifi ed r ela ted
to th e per ceived a ttitu des a n d k n ow ledge of
a ca dem ic sta ff. A la ck of fa m ilia r ity w ith th e
m a ter ia ls ava ila ble a n d w ith th e poten tia l of
tech n ology to en h a n ce tea ch in g w a s iden tified, a s w a s a la ck of k n ow ledge of issu es
r ela ted to th e design of com pu ter -ba sed m a ter ia ls. Attitu din a l ba r r ier s wh ich wer e iden tified in clu ded a la ck of con fiden ce a m on g
som e sta ff in u sin g th e tech n ology a n d tr yin g
n ew a ppr oa ch es. Som e r espon den ts felt th a t
th eir collea gu es wer e som etim es en tr en ch ed
in tr a dition a l tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es a n d cou ld
n ot see differ en t w ays of tea ch in g a n d
[ 38 ]
lea r n in g. Th er e w a s a m en tion by som e th a t
sta ff wer e n ot n ecessa r ily con vin ced of th e
edu ca tion a l va lu e of ch a n gin g fr om tr a dition a l tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es. Com m en ts a lso
r ela ted to th e ver y la r ge step per ceived to be
n ecessa r y in m ovin g tow a r ds tech n ologyba sed a ppr oa ch es. Th e pictu r e em er gin g fr om
th ese in ter view s is th a t, wh ile som e, th ou gh
n ot a ll, sta ff m ay see th e poten tia l ben efi ts
fr om in te gr a tin g tech n ology in to th eir tea ch in g, th e m ea n s of a ch ievin g th ese ben efits a r e
n ot per ceived to be ea sy. Th ese a ca dem ics
sen d a clea r m essa ge th a t m ovin g in to th e
wor ld of tech n ology a ppea r s tim e-con su m in g
a n d u n cer ta in , w ith in su fficien t in cen tives
a n d su ppor t for th em to m a k e th is m ove w ith
con fiden ce.
Th e difficu lty w ith th ese in ter estin g,
a lth ou gh som ewh a t pr edicta ble, lists of ba r r ier s is th a t th ey give few clu es to th e in ter r ela tion sh ips a m on g th e poin ts listed a n d th e
pr ior ities wh ich m u st be a ddr essed wh en
a ttem ptin g to m in im ize th e ba r r ier s. Th er e is
a lso n o eviden ce th a t r em ovin g th e ba r r ier s
(if th a t is in deed possible) w ill r esu lt in
ch a n gin g existin g pr a ctices. Th u s, th ese lists
do n ot n ecessa r ily a ssist str a te gic pla n n in g
for ch a n ge, pa r ticu la r ly in a clim a te of sca r ce
r esou r ces wh er e a ll ba r r ier s a r e u n lik ely to
be a ddr essed sim u lta n eou sly or dism a n tled
com pletely. We n eed oth er w ays of explor in g
th e issu e. Ra th er th a n iden tifyin g per ceived
ba r r ier s to be over com e, a m or e u sefu l
a ppr oa ch is to ta k e a positive sta n ce a n d look
a t th e n eeds to be m et for tea ch in g pr a ctices
to ch a n ge. Su ch a n a ppr oa ch is n ot n ecessa r ily ea sily a ch ieved beca u se u n iver sity tea ch er s a r e n ot a lw ays a ble to iden tify th eir su ppor t n eeds wh en th ey a r e u n fa m ilia r w ith
edu ca tion a l tech n ology a n d u n aw a r e of th e
edu ca tion a l a n d tech n ica l poten tia l th a t th e
tech n ology h a s to offer th em . It is a ca se of
n ot k n ow in g wh a t th ey n eed to k n ow u n til
th ey a r e well a lon g th e tr a ck of exper im en ta tion a n d im plem en ta tion .
Towards a typology of adoption
Geogh e ga n [21] h a s a ppr oa ch ed th e pr oblem
by focu sin g on th e n eeds of u n iver sity tea ch er s a n d h a s su ggested th a t va r iou s socia l a n d
psych ologica l fa ctor s u n der lie th e spr ea d of
a n y in n ova tion , w ith on ly 10 per cen t of u ser s
ten din g to be ea r ly a dopter s of a n y n ew idea .
In th e ca se of u sin g in for m a tion tech n ology
in tea ch in g, Geogh e ga n a r gu es, th e fa ctor s
h ave com bin ed to “bu ild a ver ita ble ch a sm
between th e ea r ly a dopter s of in str u ction a l
tech n ology (th e visible 10 per cen t) a n d th e
m u ch la r ger, effectively u n en ga ged, m a in str ea m fa cu lty popu la tion ”[21, p. 30]. Th e
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
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a r gu m en t pr ogr esses by su ggestin g th a t th is
ga p h a s been ca u sed by effor ts to su ppor t
developm en ts ba sed on n eeds iden tified by
th e ea r ly a dopter s, n ot th e n eeds of th e
r em a in in g a ca dem ics wh o r equ ir e th e su ppor t:
Th e su ppor t system s th a t m ost ca m pu ses
h ave pu t in to pla ce to foster th e deploym en t
of in str u ction a l tech n ology wer e design ed
by a n d for th e ea r ly a dopter s th em selves,
u n der a n u n sta ted a ssu m ption th a t a ll
poten tia l a dopter s n eed th e sa m e k in ds of
en cou r a gem en t, fa cilities, a n d su ppor t,
differ in g fr om on e a n oth er by de gr ee, per h a ps, bu t n ot by k in d (p. 31).
Geogh e ga n ch a r a cter izes ea r ly a dopter s of
in for m a tion tech n ology in th eir tea ch in g a s:
• favou r in g r evolu tion a r y ch a n ge;
• vision a r y;
• str on g in th eir tech n ology focu s;
• r isk -ta k er s;
• exper im en ter s;
• la r gely self-su fficien t; a n d,
• “h or izon ta lly n etwor k ed” (u sed to wor k in g
a cr oss disciplin es a n d a cr oss gr ou ps).
In con tr a st, th e m a in str ea m m a jor ity is ch a r a cter ized a s:
• favou r in g evolu tion a r y ch a n ge;
• pr a gm a tic or con ser va tive;
• str on g in th eir pr oblem a n d pr ocess focu s;
• r isk -aver se;
• w a n tin g pr oven a pplica tion s of com pellin g
va lu e;
• n eedin g su ppor t; a n d,
• “ver tica lly n etwor k ed” (u sed to wor k in g
w ith in th e bou n da r ies of th eir disciplin e).
Th is con tr a st su ggests differ en t su ppor t
n eeds for ea ch gr ou p a n d a lso h a s th e im plica tion th a t ea r ly a dopter s a r e n ot n ecessa r ily
a ble to defin e th e su ppor t n eeds of th e m or e
ca u tiou s m a in str ea m m a jor ity.
Supporting the needs of the
majority
Given th a t ea r ly a dopter s w ill tr y n ew idea s
a n d be a t th e cu ttin g edge w ith m in im a l su ppor t, it is n ecessa r y to tu r n ou r a tten tion to
th e m or e ca u tiou s m a in str ea m m a jor ity a n d
a ttem pt to m eet th eir su ppor t n eeds if th e fu ll
poten tia l of in for m a tion tech n ology to
en h a n ce tea ch in g is to be r ea lized. Given th e
ch a r a cter iza tion of th is gr ou p, it is im por ta n t
th a t str a te gies ta k e in to a ccou n t th e gr ou p’s
ten den cy tow a r ds evolu tion a r y ch a n ge, pr a gm a tic con sider a tion s, a pr oblem -solvin g
focu s, th e n eed for str on g eviden ce of th e
va lu e of ch a n ge, th e n eed for sign ifica n t su ppor t a n d th e lin k s th a t m em ber s of th is gr ou p
h ave w ith in th eir disciplin e.
Alth ou gh ea r ly a dopter s m igh t a r gu e for
th e in vestm en t of m or e r esou r ces in h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e, th e m a jor ity of a ca dem ics
a r e lik ely to be over wh elm ed by soph istica ted
a n d com plex tech n ology u n less specifi c edu ca tion a l ben efits a r e esta blish ed a n d ch a n ges
a r e br ou gh t a bou t m or e slow ly. Th e im plica tion is th a t su ppor t str a te gies for th e m a in str ea m m a jor ity sh ou ld be gin w ith edu ca tion a l issu es a n d th e edu ca tion a l ben efits of
in te gr a tin g tech n ology in tea ch in g, r a th er
th a n th e tech n ica l a r gu m en ts a n d excitem en t
wh ich often a ccom pa n y tech n ology-ba sed
a ppr oa ch es a n d a ppea l to th ose wh o a r e
str on ger in th eir tech n ology focu s.
Given th a t th e m a in str ea m m a jor ity w ill be
m ost sw ayed by eviden ce th a t in for m a tion
tech n ology w ill over com e specific edu ca tion a l pr oblem s a n d w ill th en r equ ir e on goin g su ppor t in or der to effect a n y ch a n ge, it is
im por ta n t to focu s on th e la r ger edu ca tion a l
pictu r e, esta blish a n edu ca tion a l n eed for th e
in for m a tion tech n ology-ba sed a ppr oa ch a n d
th en su ppor t m oves to a ch ieve th e desir ed
edu ca tion a l ou tcom es[21]. For pr a ctica l r ea son s, it becom es a ca se of n ot pr essu r in g a ll
sta ff to u se in for m a tion tech n ology in th eir
tea ch in g. In stea d, we sh ou ld be a im in g
tow a r ds a scen a r io in wh ich sta ff a r e w illin g
to explor e th eir tea ch in g w ith a view to m a k in g ch a n ges to en h a n ce it; th a t th ey k n ow a n d
u n der sta n d w ays of ch a n gin g th eir tea ch in g
aw ay fr om tr a dition a l a ppr oa ch es wh en th er e
is eviden ce of th e n eed to do so; th a t sta ff
u n der sta n d th e poten tia l for in for m a tion
tech n ology to en h a n ce tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g
in specific w ays; a n d, th a t th ey th en feel con fiden t to pu r su e developm en ts wh ich pr ovide
th em a n d th eir stu den ts w ith th e a dva n ta ges
th ey seek .
An institutional culture which values and
rewards innovation in teaching
With edu ca tion a l issu es a s a sta r tin g poin t,
th er e is a n eed for a m u lti-fa ceted a ppr oa ch .
On e of th ese fa cets in clu des a n in stitu tion a l
cu ltu r e in wh ich tea ch in g is va lu ed a n d
effor ts to im pr ove tea ch in g a r e r ew a r ded.
Ra m sden et a l.[22] h ave con du cted a com pr eh en sive stu dy of wh a t ch a r a cter izes su ch a
cu ltu r e. In su ch cu ltu r es, th e r espon sibility
for th e qu a lity of tea ch in g is sh a r ed between
a ca dem ics a n d th e in stitu tion r a th er th a n
lyin g m er ely w ith th e in dividu a l. Su ch
sh a r ed r espon sibility m ea n s th a t in stitu tion a l r esou r ces a r e com m itted in va r iou s
w ays to su ppor t tea ch in g. A u n iver sity w ith a
cu ltu r e wh ich va lu es tea ch in g a n d r ew a r ds
effor ts to en h a n ce tea ch in g w ill h ave a str on g
sta tem en t a bou t tea ch in g w ith in its m ission .
Th er e w ill be policies a n d pr ocedu r es in pla ce
wh ich tr a n sla te th is m ission fr om r h etor ic
[ 39 ]
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
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in to policies a n d pr ocedu r es wh ich h ave
pr a ctica l ou tcom es for tea ch er s a n d stu den ts.
Sen ior sta ff w ith in th e u n iver sity w ill be seen
to su ppor t a n d va lu e tea ch in g a s on e of th e
cor e a ctivities of a ca dem ic sta ff. Specific
str a te gies in clu de: tea ch in g developm en t
gr a n ts; u n its wh ich pr ovide su ppor t for
tea ch in g; a pr ogr a m m e of pr ofession a l developm en t dir ected a t u n iver sity tea ch er s;
aw a r ds a n d r ew a r ds for excellen ce a n d in n ova tion in tea ch in g; pr om otion oppor tu n ities
ba sed on tea ch in g a ch ievem en ts;
in stitu tion a l su ppor t for a ca dem ics to ga in
tea ch in g qu a lifica tion s; a n d a n en vir on m en t
in wh ich th e r isk s a ssocia ted w ith tr yin g n ew
tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es a r e su ppor ted a n d
r ew a r ded r a th er th a n ign or ed or
pu n ish ed[22].
Assistance with critical reflection on
teaching
Th e n ext fa cet r ela tes to in dividu a l u n iver sity
tea ch er s a n d th e n eed for th ese in dividu a ls to
see tea ch in g a s a pr a ctice in wh ich r efl ection ,
self-m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tion occu r to
develop n ew w ays of im pr ovin g th a t pr a ctice.
Th e m a jor ity of u n iver sity tea ch er s do n ot
h ave for m a l tea ch in g or edu ca tion a l qu a lifi ca tion s a n d th er efor e ba se m u ch of th eir
tea ch in g on a ppr oa ch es w ith wh ich th ey a r e
fa m ilia r [23]. Most a r e u n fa m ilia r w ith th e
edu ca tion a l liter a tu r e a n d w ith edu ca tion a l
con cepts wh ich a llow th em to a r ticu la te th eir
th ou gh ts a bou t tea ch in g, u n der sta n d a n d
cr itiqu e th eir pr a ctice a n d th en explor e a lter n a tive w ays of seein g a n d pr a ctisin g th eir
tea ch in g[22,23]. With str on g a lle gia n ce to
th eir ow n disciplin e a ch a r a cter istic of a ca dem ics, u n iver sity tea ch er s see th e disciplin e of
edu ca tion a s a n u n n ecessa r y, a ddition a l bu r den or a disciplin e n ot n oted for its u ser fr ien dlin ess. In th is r e ga r d, on e ver y su ccessfu l developm en t h a s been th e u n its w ith in
m a n y Au str a lia n u n iver sities wh ich su ppor t
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g th r ou gh wor k sh ops
a n d in dividu a l con su lta n cies specifica lly for
th e a ca dem ic sta ff of th e u n iver sity[24].
Th ese edu ca tion a l developm en t u n its oper a te fr om a disciplin a r y ba se of h igh er edu ca tion a n d pr ovide r esou r ces, wor k sh ops a n d
oth er pr ofession a l developm en t pr ogr a m m es,
in dividu a l a ssista n ce, tea ch in g eva lu a tion
ser vices, policy a dvice a n d som etim es for m a l,
a ccr edited cou r ses on tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g
in h igh er edu ca tion . Th e r esou r ce com m itm en t to su ch u n its is in itself a dem on str a tion
of th e in stitu tion a l com m itm en t to su ppor t
for tea ch in g wh ile th e u n its a ct in pr a ctica l
w ays to pr ovide a ssista n ce to in dividu a ls a s
well a s gr ou ps w ith in th e u n iver sity. On e r ole
of th is for m of a ssista n ce is to h igh ligh t
issu es a n d pr oblem a r ea s wh ich n eed to be
[ 40 ]
a ddr essed, explor e th e option s ava ila ble a n d
to pr ovide su ppor t wh ile a lter n a tive pr a ctices
a r e im plem en ted. Th e Au str a lia n High er
E du ca tion Cou n cil[25] h igh ligh ted th e va lu e
of a u n iver sity tea ch er r eceivin g feedba ck on
tea ch in g wh ich is “a u gm en ted by con ver sa tion w ith som eon e w ith exper t k n ow ledge on
th e tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g con text” (p. 39).
Raising awareness about the potential for
information technology to enhance
teaching and learning
It is in th is ligh t of explor in g edu ca tion a l
issu es a n d pr oblem s, look in g for a lter n a tive
(a n d better ) w ays of a ctin g a n d tr yin g n ew
idea s, th a t in for m a tion tech n ology n a tu r a lly
em er ges a s a n option to be explor ed. In for m a tion tech n ology ca n be u sed to en h a n ce tea ch in g in specifi c w ays to over com e specific
sh or tcom in gs in existin g pr a ctices a n d u n iver sity tea ch er s n eed to becom e aw a r e of its
poten tia l a dva n ta ges a n d disa dva n ta ges a s
th ey con sider th eir option s. Beca u se m a n y
u n iver sity tea ch er s a r e n ot fa m ilia r w ith
tech n ology-ba sed a ppr oa ch es a n d m a ter ia ls,
on e im por ta n t Str a te gy is to pr ovide dem on str a tion s of wor k in g exa m ples a n d to sh ow ca se in n ova tive a pplica tion s a n d th e tea ch er s
wh o u se th em . Th er e is n o dou bt th a t tea ch er s lea r n m u ch fr om discu ssion s w ith oth er
tea ch er s, pa r ticu la r ly th ose in th e sa m e disciplin e, wh o sh a r e th eir exper ien ces in u sin g
pa r ticu la r a ppr oa ch es for pa r ticu la r pu r poses. Th e elem en t of r isk is lessen ed wh en
wor k in g exa m ples a r e ava ila ble a n d th e elem en t of u n cer ta in ty a n d isola tion is r edu ced
by con ta ct w ith som eon e wh o h a s a lr ea dy
been th r ou gh th e im plem en ta tion pr ocess.
Given th e “ver tica l n etwor k in g” of a ca dem ics, th is con ta ct h a s va lu e wh en it occu r s
w ith oth er s in th e sa m e disciplin e. Alter n a tively, th e “ver tica l n etwor k s” n eed to be
con sciou sly su pplem en ted by settin g u p specia l for u m s to fa cilita te sh a r in g of idea s
a cr oss disciplin es.
The need for design assistance
On ce th e poten tia l is r ecogn ized for th e in tegr a tion of in for m a tion tech n ology in to tea ch in g to en h a n ce lea r n in g ou tcom es for stu den ts, it becom es a m a tter of r ea lizin g th a t
poten tia l th r ou gh ca r efu lly con sider ed
in str u ction a l design . Th is n eed is often over look ed in a r u sh to solve tech n ica l issu es a n d
pr oblem s – th e im per a tive of design in g m a ter ia ls wh ich a r e edu ca tion a lly effective is
for gotten [26]. E du ca tion a l tech n ologists or
in str u ction a l design er s h ave a r ole in design in g edu ca tion a lly sou n d, u ser -fr ien dly pr odu cts. Th ey com bin e a k n ow ledge of edu ca tion
w ith a k n ow ledge of tech n ologica l a pplica tion s a n d a r e a ble to a ssist th e su bject m a tter
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
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specia lists to wor k th r ou gh a design pr ocess
wh ich k eeps edu ca tion a l issu es a t th e for efr on t in design decision s. In th is w ay, in str u ction a l design er s pr ovide a lin k between th e
su bject m a tter specia list a n d th e pu r ely tech n ica l in pu t wh ich is n eeded in a n in for m a tion
tech n ology-ba sed pr oject. N e glectin g th ese
edu ca tion a l design issu es in va r ia bly pr odu ces m a ter ia ls wh ich m igh t h ave tech n ica l
ele ga n ce bu t wh ich do n ot n ecessa r ily h ave
edu ca tion a l va lu e.
Support for production and implementation
Th er e is little dou bt th a t exten sive tech n ica l
su ppor t is r equ ir ed for th e pr odu ction a n d
im plem en ta tion of tea ch in g m a ter ia ls wh ich
u se in for m a tion tech n ology. For th ose ven tu r in g in to m u ltim edia pr odu ction , a
m u ltisk illed tea m of tech n ica l su ppor t is
n ecessa r y for th e developm en t ph a se. F u r th er
tech n ica l su ppor t is n eeded du r in g th e im plem en ta tion a n d u se of th e fin ish ed pa ck a ge.
Access to exper tise in pr ogr a m m in g, a u th or in g tools, copyr igh t pr ovision s a n d gr a ph ics
is r equ ir ed. Som e in stitu tion s h ave qu estion ed wh eth er th ey ca n a ffor d th e costs
in volved in su ppor tin g th e pr odu ction of
th eir ow n cou r sew a r e a n d h ave lim ited th eir
su ppor t to th e pu r ch a se a n d deliver y of com m er cia lly ava ila ble m a ter ia ls[27]. E ven u n iver sity tea ch er s wh o pu r ch a se com m er cia lly
ava ila ble softw a r e r equ ir e edu ca tion a l a ssista n ce w ith its selection a n d tech n ica l su ppor t
for its in sta lla tion a n d deliver y to stu den ts.
The need for a technologically comfortable
work environment
Alth ou gh th er e h a s been a n a r gu m en t to k eep
edu ca tion a l issu es a t th e for efr on t in developm en ts r ela ted to in te gr a tin g in for m a tion
tech n ology in to tea ch in g, su ch developm en ts
w ill n ot occu r if th ey a r e m et by too m a n y
tech n ica l ba r r ier s w ith in th e in stitu tion .
E ven u n iver sity tea ch er s con vin ced of th e
edu ca tion a l ben efits of tech n ology-ba sed
a ppr oa ch es w ill be r esista n t to im plem en tin g
su ch ch a n ges if th e en vir on m en t is h ostile.
All ba sic tech n ology n eeds m u st be m et a n d
su fficien t su ppor t pr ovided for a ca dem ics to
feel com for ta ble w ith u sin g tech n ology in
th eir da ily a ca dem ic wor k . Aca dem ics a r e
u n lik ely to in te gr a te in for m a tion in to th eir
tea ch in g if th ey a r e u n com for ta ble a bou t
u sin g com pu ter s in th eir r esea r ch , u sin g
electr on ic m a il to com m u n ica te a n d a ccessin g th e In ter n et for th eir in for m a tion n eeds.
F u r th er m or e, th ey w ill n ot r isk ch a n ges to
tr ied a n d tr u e tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es if th e
a lter n a tives a r e h a m per ed by a ddition a l
wor k , in con ven ien ce, tech n ica l h itch es a n d
som etim es ou tr igh t tech n ica l fa ilu r e. Th er e
m ay be a n eed to pr ovide a m in im u m
sta n da r d of equ ipm en t for a ca dem ics. Th is
m ay m ea n th a t gen er a l tr a in in g a n d su ppor t
for u sin g tech n ology h ave to be u pgr a ded so
th a t a ca dem ics h ave a feelin g of com for t a n d
con fiden ce a bou t th eir a bility to explor e a n d
th en in tr odu ce a pplica tion s of tech n ology
in to th eir tea ch in g.
Conclusions
Wh en pla n n in g str a te gies to en cou r a ge u n iver sity tea ch er s to exploit th e poten tia l of
in for m a tion tech n ology to en h a n ce th eir
tea ch in g a n d th e lea r n in g ou tcom es of th eir
stu den ts, th er e is a ten den cy to be gin th ose
pla n s w ith tech n ica l con sider a tion s of softw a r e a n d h a r dw a r e pr ovision . Alth ou gh th is
pa per a r gu es th a t th er e is a n eed for a wor k
en vir on m en t in wh ich th er e is a de gr ee of
tech n ologica l com for t, it a lso a r gu es th a t th e
m or e ca u tiou s m a in str ea m m a jor ity of a ca dem ics a r e lik ely to be per su a ded by str a te gies
wh ich k eep edu ca tion a l issu es a t th e for efr on t. Th is m ea n s en su r in g a n in stitu tion a l
clim a te in wh ich good tea ch in g is va lu ed a n d
th e r isk s a ssocia ted w ith developin g n ew
a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g a r e su ppor ted a n d
r ew a r ded. With in su ch a clim a te, u n iver sity
tea ch er s th en r equ ir e su ppor t a n d en cou r a gem en t to r eflect on th eir ow n tea ch in g a n d
con sider a lter n a tives wh ich en h a n ce th a t
tea ch in g. On ce a cu ltu r e of su ch qu estion in g
is esta blish ed, th er e is a n eed to r a ise aw a r en ess a bou t th e str en gth s a n d wea k n esses of
th e tech n ology-ba sed option s a s a lter n a tives
to existin g pr a ctices. Th is r equ ir es in dividu a lized a ssista n ce a s well a s a br oa den in g of
aw a r en ess th r ou gh th e esta blish m en t of n etwor k s both w ith in a n d a cr oss disciplin es.
Aw a r en ess a bou t th e option s ava ila ble is th en
exten ded to pa r ticu la r tea ch in g con texts a n d
issu es w ith th e h elp of in str u ction a l design er s wh o a ssist th e tr a n sla tion of edu ca tion a l
issu es in to th e design of a ppr oa ch es wh ich
h ave edu ca tion a l va lu e. Developm en t a n d
pr odu ction of m a ter ia ls r equ ir e exten sive
tech n ica l exper tise wh ich m u st con tin u e in to
th e im plem en ta tion a n d deliver y ph a se.
Th e str a te gies descr ibed a bove ca n n ot be
a ch ieved qu ick ly n or w ith ou t su bsta n tia l
r esou r ces. As Ma cKn igh t[27] h a s str essed,
“th e level of com for t fa cu lty r ea ch in in te gr a tin g differ en t in for m a tion r esou r ces in to th e
cu r r icu lu m is n ot a ch ieved in a sin gle even t
bu t th r ou gh con tin u ou s exposu r e, en cou r a gem en t, a n d su ppor t fr om collea gu es, stu den ts,
a n d a ca dem ic su ppor t per son n el” (p. 35).
Disa ppoin tm en t a t th e r a te of ch a n ge in u n iver sity tea ch in g m igh t r eflect u n r ea listic
expecta tion s th a t ever yon e w ill a u tom a tica lly
follow th e tr en d set by ea r ly a dopter s.
[ 41 ]
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy into unive rsity
te ac hing: ide ntifying the
ne e ds and pro viding the
suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
Disa ppoin tm en t w ill con tin u e if su ppor t
str a te gies do n ot distin gu ish between th e
n eeds of th e ea r ly a dopter s a n d th e ver y differ en t n eeds of th e m or e ca u tiou s
m a in str ea m m a jor ity. Th er e m u st be r ecogn ition th a t th e la tter r equ ir e exten sive edu ca tion a l a n d tech n ica l su ppor t befor e th ey w ill
ch a n ge th eir tea ch in g.
References
1 P la ter, W., “F u tu r e wor k : fa cu lty tim e in th e
21st cen tu r y”, Ch a n ge, May/ J u n e 1995,
pp. 22-33.
2 Ca m pu s R eview , “In cr ea se u n iver sity in vestm en t in off-ca m pu s a ccess”, 19-25 J u n e 1995,
p. 10.
3 Ca m pu s R eview , “Have book s by-pa ssed th eir
u se-by da te?”, 4-10 Apr il 1995, p. 11.
4 Crea tiv e N a tion , “Sta tem en t by th e P r im e
Min ister, th e Hon . P a u l Kea tin g”, 18 October
1994.
5 CAUT, Im provin g Un iv ersity T ea ch in g 1994:
N a tion a l T ea ch in g Dev elopm en t Projects,
Au str a lia n Gover n m en t P u blish in g Ser vice
(AGP S), Ca n ber r a , 1993.
6 CAUT, Im provin g Un iv ersity T ea ch in g 1995:
N a tion a l T ea ch in g Dev elopm en t Gra n t Projects,
AGP S, Ca n ber r a , 1994.
7 Hayden , M. a n d Speedy, G., Eva lu a tion of th e
1993 N a tion a l T ea ch in g Dev elopm en t Gra n ts,
Sou th er n Cr oss Un iver sity, Lism or e, 1995.
8 La u r illa r d, D., R eth in k in g Un iv ersity T ea ch in g:
A Fra m ew ork for th e Effectiv e Use of Ed u ca tion a l T ech n ology, Rou tledge, Lon don , 1993.
9 N a tion a l Boa r d of E m ploym en t, E du ca tion a n d
Tr a in in g, Costs a n d Qu a lity in R esou rce-B a sed
L ea r n in g On - a n d Off-Ca m pu s, AGP S, Ca n ber r a , 1994.
10 Tk a l, L. (ser ies editor ), T ech n olog y S u r v ey
R epor t: Ed u ca tion a l T ech n ologies 1994, Th e
Open Tr a in in g a n d E du ca tion N etwor k , Redfer n , 1993.
11 Coch r a n e, T., E llis, H. a n d J oh n ston , S.L.,
Com pu ter B a sed Ed u ca tion in A u stra lia n
High er Ed u ca tion , AGP S, Ca n ber r a , 1993.
12 Ha m er, G., T h e Use of T ech n ology to Deliv er
High er Ed u ca tion in th e Work pla ce, AGP S,
Ca n ber r a , 1993.
13 Va n Hom r igh , P. a n d O’Lea r y, J ., “Blen din g
tr a dition a n d tech n ology: per ception s of th e
u se of tech n ology in la r ge cla sses”, R esea rch
a n d Dev elopm en t in High er Ed u ca tion , Vol. 18,
1995, pp. 728-33.
14 Cla r k , E ., Ada m s, D., An n ice, C., Ba ttye, G.,
Bla ck , S., Bou vin , P., Br ook s, R., Ch eeth a m , A.,
F avr e, J .-P., J oh n ston , S., Klein , D.,
[ 42 ]
15
16
17
18
19
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21
22
23
24
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26
27
McCor m a ck , C., Th om pson , B. a n d Ma n sbr idge, L., T h e R ole of In for m a tion T ech n olog y
a n d Un iv ersity T ea ch in g: Un iv ersity of Ca n b er ra Work in g Pa r ty R epor t, Un iver sity of
Ca n ber r a , Ca n ber r a , 1995.
Spotts, T. a n d Bow m a n , M., “F a cu lty u se of
in str u ction a l tech n ologies in h igh er edu ca tion ”, Ed u ca tion a l T ech n ology, Ma r ch -Apr il
1995, pp. 56-64.
Ca la din e, R., Ov ersea s Ex per ien ce in N on T ra d ition a l M od es of Deliv er y in High er Ed u ca tion Usin g S ta te-of-th e-a r t T ech n ologies: A
L itera tu re R eview , AGP S, Ca n ber r a , 1993.
Spotts, T. a n d Bow m a n , M., “In cr ea sin g fa cu lty
u se of in str u ction a l tech n ology: ba r r ier s a n d
in cen tives”, Ed u ca tion a l M ed ia In ter n a tion a l,
Vol. 30 N o. 4, 1993, pp. 199-203.
Ha m m on d, N., Ga r dn er, N., Hea th , S., Kibby,
M., Mayes, T., McAleese, R., Mu llin gs, C. a n d
Tr a pp, A., “Block s to th e effective u se of in for m a tion tech n ology in h igh er edu ca tion ”,
Com pu ters Ed u ca tion , Vol. 18 N o. 1-3, 1992,
pp. 155-62.
Ha n sen , E . a n d Per r y, D., “Ba r r ier s to colla bor a tive su ppor t system s in h igh er edu ca tion ”,
Ed u ca tion a l T ech n olog y, Vol. 33 N o. 11,
pp. 46-52.
Her lin g, T., R esista n ce to th e A d option of Com pu ter Com m u n ica tion T ech n ology b y Com m u n ica tion Fa cu lty, pa per pr esen ted a t th e An n u a l
Meetin g of th e Associa tion for E du ca tion in
J ou r n a lism a n d Ma ss Com m u n ica tion ,
Atla n ta , GA, 10-13 Au gu st 1994, (E RIC Docu m en t E D 374 480).
Geogh e ga n , W., “Stu ck a t th e ba r r ica des: ca n
in for m a tion tech n ology r ea lly en ter th e m a in str ea m of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g?”, Ch a n ge,
Vol. 27 N o. 2, pp. 30-32.
Ra m sden , P., Ma r getson , D., Ma r tin , E . a n d
Cla r k e, S., R ecogn isin g a n d R ew a rd in g Good
T ea ch in g in A u stra lia n High er Ed u ca tion ,
AGP S, Ca n ber r a , 1995.
Ra m sden , P., L ea r n in g to T ea ch in High er
Ed u ca tion , Rou tledge, Lon don , 1992.
Moses, I., “Aca dem ic developm en t u n its a n d
th e im pr ovem en t of tea ch in g”, High er Ed u ca tion , Vol. 14, 1995, pp. 75-100.
High er E du ca tion Cou n cil, A ch ievin g Qu a lity,
AGP S, Ca n ber r a , 1992.
Ba r r itt, M., Ash h u r st, C., J oh n ston , S. a n d
Pea r son , M., In tegra tin g In for m a tion T ech n olog y in to T ea ch in g, Un iver sity of Ca n ber r a ,
Ca n ber r a , 1995.
Ma cKn igh t, C., “Ma n a gin g tech n ologica l
ch a n ge in a ca dem e”, CAUS E/ EFFECT , Spr in g
1995, pp. 29-39.
teaching: identifying the needs and providing the
support
Sue Johnston, Coralie M cCormack
Ce ntre fo r the Enhanc e me nt o f Le arning, Te ac hing and Sc ho larship, Unive rsity o f
Canbe rra, Canbe rra, Australia
Examines the integration of
information technology (IT)
into Higher Education teaching in the UK. Looks at the
current status of IT in universities and states that IT is
only valuable if it is used in
educationally sound ways.
Highlights the barriers to the
integration of IT and ways in
which it could be more effectively adopted. States that the
majority of staff need support
if they are to use IT to its full
potential and suggests ways
of bringing this about. Concludes that this has to be a
long-term goal and that it
requires many resources.
Introduction
In spite of cla im s a bou t th e im pa ct of tech n ology on u n iver sity tea ch in g a n d th e a ppa r en t
in dica tor s of m a ssive ch a n ge in tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g a ppr oa ch es, th e r ea l ch a n ges bein g
exper ien ced by stu den ts a n d tea ch er s w ith in
ou r u n iver sities a r e fa r less th a n expected.
For th e m a jor ity of u n iver sity tea ch er s, it
seem s th a t th er e a r e still m a n y ba r r ier s to
a n d som e per son a l m isgivin gs a bou t m ovin g
aw ay fr om a sole r elia n ce on tr a dition a l
tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es a n d m ovin g tow a r ds
in te gr a tin g va r iou s tech n ologies in to th eir
tea ch in g. Th is pa per explor es su ch ba r r ier s
a n d su ggests a com bin a tion of n eeds wh ich
m u st be m et befor e u n iver sity tea ch er s a r e
lik ely to give wh oleh ea r ted su ppor t to th ese
m u ch h er a lded ch a n ges. At a tim e wh en m ost
u n iver sities a r e gr a pplin g w ith th ese issu es,
su ggestion s w ith in th e pa per a r e a im ed a t
th ose wh o a r e m a k in g policies, m a n a gin g
r esou r ces a n d im plem en tin g str a te gies to
en cou r a ge u n iver sity tea ch er s to in te gr a te
tech n ology in to th eir tea ch in g.
Information technology in teaching
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [ 1996] 3 6 –4 2
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 36 ]
Un iver sity policy m a k er s a n d sen ior m a n a ger s w ith r espon sibility for su ppor tin g
developm en ts in u n iver sity tea ch in g a r e
u n der som e pr essu r e to in vest r esou r ces to
m ove th eir u n iver sities tow a r ds m or e tech n ology-ba sed a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g[1-3]. Qu estion s a r ise a bou t wh er e
th ese r esou r ces sh ou ld be dir ected a n d wh a t
str a te gies sh ou ld be u sed to pr ovide su ppor t.
It is difficu lt n ot to be per su a ded by a ttem pts
to convin ce u s th a t u n iver sity tea ch in g is
u n der goin g a tech n ologica l r evolu tion . Com m er cia l softw a r e com pa n ies cla im n ew w ays
of pr esen tin g lea r n in g m a ter ia ls wh ich a r e
gu a r a n teed to m otiva te ou r ver y tech n ologica lly liter a te stu den t clien tele. Th e gover n m en t h a s pou r ed r esou r ces in to su ppor tin g
th e Au str a lia n m u ltim edia in du str y a n d h a s
cla im ed its poten tia l to tr a n sfor m th e r ole of
u n iver sities[4]. Open lea r n in g h a s becom e a
ca tch cr y ph r a se a n d is on ly on e exa m ple of
n ew w ays of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g wh ich
ta k e a dva n ta ge of tech n ology. High er
edu ca tion n ew s is r ich w ith cla im s a bou t
th e power of in for m a tion tech n ology to
r evolu tion ize tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g w ith in
u n iver sities[2,3]. Th e Com m ittee for th e
Adva n cem en t of Un iver sity Tea ch in g (CAUT)
is in u n da ted ea ch yea r w ith a pplica tion s for
tea ch in g developm en t gr a n ts wh ich a r e
tech n ologica lly dr iven [5,6]. In 1993, 63 per
cen t of fu n ded CAUT a pplica tion s in volved
com pu ter -ba sed tech n ologies to a sign ifica n t
exten t[7]. Th e a ppa r en t em ph a sis on tech n ology-r ela ted gr a n ts in th e 1995 r ou n d
pr om pted th e Ch a ir m a n of CAUT to m a k e
wh a t a lm ost a ppea r ed to be a discla im er th a t
th ese gr a n ts m er ely r eflected th e pr opor tion
of a pplica tion s r eceived a n d wer e in n o w ay
in dica tive of CAUT pr ior ities[6].
Ter m in ology em er ges a s a difficu lty wh en
discu ssin g th e u se of tech n ology in tea ch in g.
Th e diction a r y defin ition of tech n ology is
br oa d, in clu din g th e a pplica tion of m ech a n ica l a r ts a n d scien tifi c k n ow ledge. In th ese
br oa d ter m s, tech n ology a pplied to tea ch in g
ca n r efer to over h ea d pr ojector s, slide pr ojector s or oth er sim ple a pplica tion s wh ich h ave
been u sed for m a n y yea r s. Th is pa per is con fin ed to com pu ter s a n d com pu ter -r ela ted
a pplica tion s in tea ch in g; h en ce th e ter m
in for m a tion tech n ology is u sed. E ven w ith in
th is pa r a m eter, th er e is a ten den cy to a ssu m e
th a t wh en we a r e th in k in g a bou t in for m a tion
tech n ology wh ich ca n be a pplied to tea ch in g,
we a r e th in k in g a bou t on e for m of tech n ology
or on e for m of tea ch in g. Th e pictu r e is m u ch
m or e com plex th a n th is. Th e types of tech n ologies wh ich ca n be u sed in th e cla ssr oom
in clu de n etwor k in g ca pa bilities su ch a s electr on ic m a il a n d th e In ter n et, com pu ter a ssisted tu tor ia l m a ter ia ls, com pu ter sim u la tion s a n d in ter a ctive m u ltim edia pa ck a ges, to
n a m e a few. Th e n a tu r e of th ese tech n ologica l
a pplica tion s is diver se a s is th e n a tu r e of th e
w ays in wh ich th ey ca n be in cor por a ted in to
tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es. Th u s, cla ssr oom s wh ich
em ploy tech n ology in edu ca tion a l w ays m ay
look a n d feel ver y differ en t fr om on e a n oth er,
a s th ey m ay be ba sed on differ en t tech n ologies a n d differ en t edu ca tion a l ph ilosoph ies.
Com plex tech n ologies m ay be u sed in ver y
sim ple w ays a n d m or e sim ple tech n ologies
m ay be u sed to tr a n sfor m tea ch in g in qu ite
r a dica l a n d com plex w ays. Sever a l a u th or s
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy into unive rsity
te ac hing: ide ntifying the
ne e ds and pro viding the
suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
h ave a ttem pted typologies wh ich ca te gor ize
th e a ppr oa ch es eith er in ter m s of th e tech n ology on wh ich th ey a r e ba sed or in ter m s of
th e type of tea ch in g th ey a r e u sed to
su ppor t[8,9]. On e difficu lty is th e r a pid r a te a t
wh ich tech n ology is a dva n cin g a n d typologies qu ick ly becom e da ted a s n ew tech n ologies a n d n ew a pplica tion s em er ge[10].
Th e lin k between edu ca tion a l ou tcom es a n d
in for m a tion tech n ology is a lso pr oblem a tic.
In for m a tion tech n ology of itself does n ot h ave
a n edu ca tion a l va lu e u n less it is pu t to wor k
in edu ca tion a lly sou n d w ays. Tech n ology ca n
be m isu sed by tea ch er s a s ca n a n y tea ch in g
tool. Th e in tr odu ction of in for m a tion tech n ology does n ot gu a r a n tee en h a n ced tea ch in g
a n d lea r n in g. E xcellen t tea ch in g m ay or m ay
n ot in volve th e u se of in for m a tion tech n ology; poor tea ch in g m ay or m ay n ot in volve
in for m a tion tech n ology[8]. Th e a im m u st be
to u se in for m a tion tech n ology in w ays wh ich
en h a n ce tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. Th is m ea n s
iden tifyin g edu ca tion a l pr oblem s or a r ea s in
wh ich tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g sh ou ld be
en h a n ced a n d em ployin g in for m a tion tech n ology to over com e th ose pr oblem s or su ppor t tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in specifi c w ays.
Su ch a n a ppr oa ch su ggests th a t m oves to u se
in for m a tion tech n ology m u st be dr iven by
edu ca tion a l n eeds r a th er th a n a desir e to u se
th e tech n ology for its ow n sa k e. Th e a ppr oa ch
a lso dicta tes th a t developm en ts n eed to be
eva lu a ted to en su r e th a t th ey a r e a ch ievin g
th e edu ca tion a l ou tcom es bein g sou gh t a n d
th a t a n y a ssocia ted disa dva n ta ges of u sin g
th e tech n ologica l a ppr oa ch do n ot detr a ct
fr om its over a ll edu ca tion a l va lu e.
Th er e is som e eviden ce th a t cer ta in tech n ology-ba sed tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es wh en
em ployed in cer ta in w ays do h ave ben eficia l
ou tcom es for stu den ts. Stu den ts a t on e Au str a lia n u n iver sity wer e “positive to a n u n a n ticipa ted de gr ee” a bou t th eir u se of com pu ter ba sed edu ca tion , in dica tin g th a t it gave th em
flexibility in follow in g u p fr om lectu r es a n d
r evisin g m a ter ia l[11]. Th e a dva n ta ges of
u sin g tech n ology to deliver h igh er edu ca tion
to th e wor k pla ce h ave been r epor ted by
Ha m er [12]. In a m or e gen er a l w ay, La u r illa r d[8] a n a lyses th e edu ca tion a l str en gth s
a n d wea k n esses of a r a n ge of a ppr oa ch es.
Th e a dva n ta ges a n d disa dva n ta ges of va r iou s
a ppr oa ch es h ave a lso been docu m en ted in a
n u m ber of r epor ts[9,12].
Wh y th en do we n ot see w idespr ea d u se of
in for m a tion tech n ology in tea ch in g? Th e
r ea lity of th e u n iver sity cla ssr oom for m ost of
ou r stu den ts r em a in s a s it h a s been for m a n y
yea r s – a la r ge lectu r e th ea tr e in wh ich th e
pr ofessor deliver s a lectu r e, possibly a ided by
over h ea d tr a n spa r en cies or ch a lk boa r d. Va n
Hom r igh a n d O’Lea r y[13] h ave r epor ted th a t
th e m a jor ity of lectu r er s a t on e Au str a lia n
u n iver sity con tin u ed to u se lectu r e th ea tr es
for tr a dition a l lectu r e pr esen ta tion even
th ou gh a dva n ced tech n ology w a s r ea dily
ava ila ble in th e design of th e lectu r e th ea tr e
a n d th er e wer e in cr ea sed oppor tu n ities ava ila ble for a lter n a tive m odes of pr esen ta tion . In
a su r vey of a ca dem ic sta ff a t th e Un iver sity of
Ca n ber r a in Au str a lia , 61 per cen t in dica ted
th ey u sed electr on ic m a il in th eir tea ch in g, 38
per cen t u sed th e In ter n et a n d on ly 10 per
cen t u sed self-a u th or ed or com m er cia lly
ava ila ble m u ltim edia pa ck a ges[14]. Spotts
a n d Bow m a n [15] h ave r epor ted sim ila r
r esu lts for a u n iver sity in th e USA wh er e
fa cu lty k n ow ledge of com pu ter tech n ology
a n d r ela ted u se of in str u ction a l tech n ology
w a s fou n d to be low.
Spotts a n d Bow m a n [15] a r gu e th a t
in sta n ces of in n ova tive u ses of in for m a tion
tech n ology a ppea r to be th e exception r a th er
th a n th e r u le, w ith th e in cor por a tion in to
pr a ctice of n ew w ays of r ea din g a n d lea r n in g
ta k in g m or e tim e th a n m a n y r ea lize. “With ou t defi n itive da ta to su ppor t th is con ten tion
th a t tech n ology is becom in g w idespr ea d in
a ca dem e, su ch a n a ssu m ption a ppea r s n ot to
be well gr ou n ded in eviden ce” (p. 58). Th u s,
h ea dlin es a n d a r ticles wh ich fea tu r e in n ova tive u ses of in for m a tion tech n ology in u n iver sity tea ch in g a r e m er ely in dica tive th a t th er e
is a ver y sm a ll n u m ber of a ca dem ics a t th is
“cu ttin g edge”, wh ile th e m a jor ity h ave been
left fa r beh in d. In a r eview of liter a tu r e, Ca la din e[16] con clu ded th a t “th e m a jor ity of liter a tu r e su r veyed con cer n ed ‘su ccess stor ies’
a n d h en ce m ay n ot be a va lid in dica tor of th e
fu ll exten t of edu ca tion a l lim ita tion s” (p. 17).
Wh en look in g a t th e wh ole pictu r e of u n iver sity tea ch in g, few ch a n ges a ppea r to h ave
been m a de over th e yea r s.
What are the barriers?
A n u m ber of r esea r ch er s h ave u n der ta k en a
sea r ch for wh y a ca dem ics do n ot a ppea r to be
in te gr a tin g n ew tech n ologies in to th eir tea ch in g. Som e su r veys of a ca dem ic sta ff h igh ligh t
a per ceived la ck of va r iou s r esou r ces, su ch a s
tim e, equ ipm en t or fu n ds, a s ba r r ier s to th e
a doption of n ew a ppr oa ch es[17]. Ha m m on d et
a l.[18], w r itin g a bou t th e UK, r evea led issu es
su ch a s la ck of tim e, fin a n cia l con str a in ts,
la ck of tr a in in g a n d in su fficien t in for m a tion
on softw a r e a s th e m ost sign ifica n t ba r r ier s
to a ca dem ic sta ff u sin g in for m a tion tech n ology in th eir tea ch in g. Th e pictu r e em er gin g
fr om th ese a n d oth er stu dies su ggests a com m on th r ea d of lower th a n expected a doption
of n ew pr a ctices beca u se of ba r r ier s su ch a s
[ 37 ]
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy into unive rsity
te ac hing: ide ntifying the
ne e ds and pro viding the
suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
in su fficien t tim e, in a dequ a te fa cilities, too
few in cen tives a n d a la ck of su ppor t[19,20].
In ter view s w ith a r a n ge of a ca dem ic sta ff a t
th e Un iver sity of Ca n ber r a pr ovided som e
m or e deta iled in for m a tion a bou t th ese ba r r ier s to th e in te gr a tion of in for m a tion tech n ology in tea ch in g[14]. Th e in ter view s wer e
con du cted w ith sta ff wh o h a d r eceived gr a n ts
w ith in th e u n iver sity for tea ch in g developm en t pr ojects a ssocia ted w ith in for m a tion
tech n ology. In vita tion s for com m en ts wer e
a lso m a de to th e en tir e sta ff a n d a few in dividu a ls, oth er th a n th ose for m a lly con ta cted,
r espon ded to th is in vita tion a n d pr ovided
da ta . Th e m a jor th em es em er gin g fr om th ese
in ter view s wer e con cer n s a bou t:
• th e poten tia l to decr ea se oppor tu n ities for
in ter a ction s between sta ff a n d stu den ts;
• difficu lties w ith in fr a str u ctu r e su ch a s
in a dequ a te equ ipm en t or poor ly equ ipped
tea ch in g spa ces;
• la ck of k n ow ledge a n d sk ills of sta ff;
• in su fficien t tech n ica l su ppor t sta ff;
• a la ck of tim e;
• in a dequ a te r esou r ces; a n d
• th e r isk s a ssocia ted w ith im plem en tin g
in n ova tion s in tea ch in g, pa r ticu la r ly th ose
u sin g tech n ology.
A n u m ber of com m en ts iden tifi ed ba r r ier s
wh ich r ela ted to in su fficien t su ppor t per ceived to be pr ovided by th e in stitu tion .
Respon den ts r efer r ed to in su fficien t pr ovision s in a r a n ge of a r ea s su ch a s tr a in in g,
gen er a l su ppor t wh ile th ey u sed n ew for m s of
tech n ology, a ccess to equ ipm en t of th e for m
r equ ir ed to u se n ew a ppr oa ch es in th eir
tea ch in g, tech n ica l su ppor t, r esou r ces to
pu r ch a se equ ipm en t a n d a r ecogn ition or
a ck n ow ledgem en t of th e extr a effor t in vested
in developin g n ew a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g.
Th e tim e-con su m in g n a tu r e of developin g
tech n ology-ba sed m a ter ia ls a n d a ppr oa ch es
w a s n oted, a s w a s th e sca r city of tim e ava ila ble to com m it to su ch ta sk s. Som e com m en ts
r ela ted to th e ga p in u n der sta n din g between
th e tech n ology exper ts a n d th ose copin g w ith
r ea l cla ssr oom issu es.
Th e r em a in in g ba r r ier s iden tifi ed r ela ted
to th e per ceived a ttitu des a n d k n ow ledge of
a ca dem ic sta ff. A la ck of fa m ilia r ity w ith th e
m a ter ia ls ava ila ble a n d w ith th e poten tia l of
tech n ology to en h a n ce tea ch in g w a s iden tified, a s w a s a la ck of k n ow ledge of issu es
r ela ted to th e design of com pu ter -ba sed m a ter ia ls. Attitu din a l ba r r ier s wh ich wer e iden tified in clu ded a la ck of con fiden ce a m on g
som e sta ff in u sin g th e tech n ology a n d tr yin g
n ew a ppr oa ch es. Som e r espon den ts felt th a t
th eir collea gu es wer e som etim es en tr en ch ed
in tr a dition a l tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es a n d cou ld
n ot see differ en t w ays of tea ch in g a n d
[ 38 ]
lea r n in g. Th er e w a s a m en tion by som e th a t
sta ff wer e n ot n ecessa r ily con vin ced of th e
edu ca tion a l va lu e of ch a n gin g fr om tr a dition a l tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es. Com m en ts a lso
r ela ted to th e ver y la r ge step per ceived to be
n ecessa r y in m ovin g tow a r ds tech n ologyba sed a ppr oa ch es. Th e pictu r e em er gin g fr om
th ese in ter view s is th a t, wh ile som e, th ou gh
n ot a ll, sta ff m ay see th e poten tia l ben efi ts
fr om in te gr a tin g tech n ology in to th eir tea ch in g, th e m ea n s of a ch ievin g th ese ben efits a r e
n ot per ceived to be ea sy. Th ese a ca dem ics
sen d a clea r m essa ge th a t m ovin g in to th e
wor ld of tech n ology a ppea r s tim e-con su m in g
a n d u n cer ta in , w ith in su fficien t in cen tives
a n d su ppor t for th em to m a k e th is m ove w ith
con fiden ce.
Th e difficu lty w ith th ese in ter estin g,
a lth ou gh som ewh a t pr edicta ble, lists of ba r r ier s is th a t th ey give few clu es to th e in ter r ela tion sh ips a m on g th e poin ts listed a n d th e
pr ior ities wh ich m u st be a ddr essed wh en
a ttem ptin g to m in im ize th e ba r r ier s. Th er e is
a lso n o eviden ce th a t r em ovin g th e ba r r ier s
(if th a t is in deed possible) w ill r esu lt in
ch a n gin g existin g pr a ctices. Th u s, th ese lists
do n ot n ecessa r ily a ssist str a te gic pla n n in g
for ch a n ge, pa r ticu la r ly in a clim a te of sca r ce
r esou r ces wh er e a ll ba r r ier s a r e u n lik ely to
be a ddr essed sim u lta n eou sly or dism a n tled
com pletely. We n eed oth er w ays of explor in g
th e issu e. Ra th er th a n iden tifyin g per ceived
ba r r ier s to be over com e, a m or e u sefu l
a ppr oa ch is to ta k e a positive sta n ce a n d look
a t th e n eeds to be m et for tea ch in g pr a ctices
to ch a n ge. Su ch a n a ppr oa ch is n ot n ecessa r ily ea sily a ch ieved beca u se u n iver sity tea ch er s a r e n ot a lw ays a ble to iden tify th eir su ppor t n eeds wh en th ey a r e u n fa m ilia r w ith
edu ca tion a l tech n ology a n d u n aw a r e of th e
edu ca tion a l a n d tech n ica l poten tia l th a t th e
tech n ology h a s to offer th em . It is a ca se of
n ot k n ow in g wh a t th ey n eed to k n ow u n til
th ey a r e well a lon g th e tr a ck of exper im en ta tion a n d im plem en ta tion .
Towards a typology of adoption
Geogh e ga n [21] h a s a ppr oa ch ed th e pr oblem
by focu sin g on th e n eeds of u n iver sity tea ch er s a n d h a s su ggested th a t va r iou s socia l a n d
psych ologica l fa ctor s u n der lie th e spr ea d of
a n y in n ova tion , w ith on ly 10 per cen t of u ser s
ten din g to be ea r ly a dopter s of a n y n ew idea .
In th e ca se of u sin g in for m a tion tech n ology
in tea ch in g, Geogh e ga n a r gu es, th e fa ctor s
h ave com bin ed to “bu ild a ver ita ble ch a sm
between th e ea r ly a dopter s of in str u ction a l
tech n ology (th e visible 10 per cen t) a n d th e
m u ch la r ger, effectively u n en ga ged, m a in str ea m fa cu lty popu la tion ”[21, p. 30]. Th e
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Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
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a r gu m en t pr ogr esses by su ggestin g th a t th is
ga p h a s been ca u sed by effor ts to su ppor t
developm en ts ba sed on n eeds iden tified by
th e ea r ly a dopter s, n ot th e n eeds of th e
r em a in in g a ca dem ics wh o r equ ir e th e su ppor t:
Th e su ppor t system s th a t m ost ca m pu ses
h ave pu t in to pla ce to foster th e deploym en t
of in str u ction a l tech n ology wer e design ed
by a n d for th e ea r ly a dopter s th em selves,
u n der a n u n sta ted a ssu m ption th a t a ll
poten tia l a dopter s n eed th e sa m e k in ds of
en cou r a gem en t, fa cilities, a n d su ppor t,
differ in g fr om on e a n oth er by de gr ee, per h a ps, bu t n ot by k in d (p. 31).
Geogh e ga n ch a r a cter izes ea r ly a dopter s of
in for m a tion tech n ology in th eir tea ch in g a s:
• favou r in g r evolu tion a r y ch a n ge;
• vision a r y;
• str on g in th eir tech n ology focu s;
• r isk -ta k er s;
• exper im en ter s;
• la r gely self-su fficien t; a n d,
• “h or izon ta lly n etwor k ed” (u sed to wor k in g
a cr oss disciplin es a n d a cr oss gr ou ps).
In con tr a st, th e m a in str ea m m a jor ity is ch a r a cter ized a s:
• favou r in g evolu tion a r y ch a n ge;
• pr a gm a tic or con ser va tive;
• str on g in th eir pr oblem a n d pr ocess focu s;
• r isk -aver se;
• w a n tin g pr oven a pplica tion s of com pellin g
va lu e;
• n eedin g su ppor t; a n d,
• “ver tica lly n etwor k ed” (u sed to wor k in g
w ith in th e bou n da r ies of th eir disciplin e).
Th is con tr a st su ggests differ en t su ppor t
n eeds for ea ch gr ou p a n d a lso h a s th e im plica tion th a t ea r ly a dopter s a r e n ot n ecessa r ily
a ble to defin e th e su ppor t n eeds of th e m or e
ca u tiou s m a in str ea m m a jor ity.
Supporting the needs of the
majority
Given th a t ea r ly a dopter s w ill tr y n ew idea s
a n d be a t th e cu ttin g edge w ith m in im a l su ppor t, it is n ecessa r y to tu r n ou r a tten tion to
th e m or e ca u tiou s m a in str ea m m a jor ity a n d
a ttem pt to m eet th eir su ppor t n eeds if th e fu ll
poten tia l of in for m a tion tech n ology to
en h a n ce tea ch in g is to be r ea lized. Given th e
ch a r a cter iza tion of th is gr ou p, it is im por ta n t
th a t str a te gies ta k e in to a ccou n t th e gr ou p’s
ten den cy tow a r ds evolu tion a r y ch a n ge, pr a gm a tic con sider a tion s, a pr oblem -solvin g
focu s, th e n eed for str on g eviden ce of th e
va lu e of ch a n ge, th e n eed for sign ifica n t su ppor t a n d th e lin k s th a t m em ber s of th is gr ou p
h ave w ith in th eir disciplin e.
Alth ou gh ea r ly a dopter s m igh t a r gu e for
th e in vestm en t of m or e r esou r ces in h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e, th e m a jor ity of a ca dem ics
a r e lik ely to be over wh elm ed by soph istica ted
a n d com plex tech n ology u n less specifi c edu ca tion a l ben efits a r e esta blish ed a n d ch a n ges
a r e br ou gh t a bou t m or e slow ly. Th e im plica tion is th a t su ppor t str a te gies for th e m a in str ea m m a jor ity sh ou ld be gin w ith edu ca tion a l issu es a n d th e edu ca tion a l ben efits of
in te gr a tin g tech n ology in tea ch in g, r a th er
th a n th e tech n ica l a r gu m en ts a n d excitem en t
wh ich often a ccom pa n y tech n ology-ba sed
a ppr oa ch es a n d a ppea l to th ose wh o a r e
str on ger in th eir tech n ology focu s.
Given th a t th e m a in str ea m m a jor ity w ill be
m ost sw ayed by eviden ce th a t in for m a tion
tech n ology w ill over com e specific edu ca tion a l pr oblem s a n d w ill th en r equ ir e on goin g su ppor t in or der to effect a n y ch a n ge, it is
im por ta n t to focu s on th e la r ger edu ca tion a l
pictu r e, esta blish a n edu ca tion a l n eed for th e
in for m a tion tech n ology-ba sed a ppr oa ch a n d
th en su ppor t m oves to a ch ieve th e desir ed
edu ca tion a l ou tcom es[21]. For pr a ctica l r ea son s, it becom es a ca se of n ot pr essu r in g a ll
sta ff to u se in for m a tion tech n ology in th eir
tea ch in g. In stea d, we sh ou ld be a im in g
tow a r ds a scen a r io in wh ich sta ff a r e w illin g
to explor e th eir tea ch in g w ith a view to m a k in g ch a n ges to en h a n ce it; th a t th ey k n ow a n d
u n der sta n d w ays of ch a n gin g th eir tea ch in g
aw ay fr om tr a dition a l a ppr oa ch es wh en th er e
is eviden ce of th e n eed to do so; th a t sta ff
u n der sta n d th e poten tia l for in for m a tion
tech n ology to en h a n ce tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g
in specific w ays; a n d, th a t th ey th en feel con fiden t to pu r su e developm en ts wh ich pr ovide
th em a n d th eir stu den ts w ith th e a dva n ta ges
th ey seek .
An institutional culture which values and
rewards innovation in teaching
With edu ca tion a l issu es a s a sta r tin g poin t,
th er e is a n eed for a m u lti-fa ceted a ppr oa ch .
On e of th ese fa cets in clu des a n in stitu tion a l
cu ltu r e in wh ich tea ch in g is va lu ed a n d
effor ts to im pr ove tea ch in g a r e r ew a r ded.
Ra m sden et a l.[22] h ave con du cted a com pr eh en sive stu dy of wh a t ch a r a cter izes su ch a
cu ltu r e. In su ch cu ltu r es, th e r espon sibility
for th e qu a lity of tea ch in g is sh a r ed between
a ca dem ics a n d th e in stitu tion r a th er th a n
lyin g m er ely w ith th e in dividu a l. Su ch
sh a r ed r espon sibility m ea n s th a t in stitu tion a l r esou r ces a r e com m itted in va r iou s
w ays to su ppor t tea ch in g. A u n iver sity w ith a
cu ltu r e wh ich va lu es tea ch in g a n d r ew a r ds
effor ts to en h a n ce tea ch in g w ill h ave a str on g
sta tem en t a bou t tea ch in g w ith in its m ission .
Th er e w ill be policies a n d pr ocedu r es in pla ce
wh ich tr a n sla te th is m ission fr om r h etor ic
[ 39 ]
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy into unive rsity
te ac hing: ide ntifying the
ne e ds and pro viding the
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in to policies a n d pr ocedu r es wh ich h ave
pr a ctica l ou tcom es for tea ch er s a n d stu den ts.
Sen ior sta ff w ith in th e u n iver sity w ill be seen
to su ppor t a n d va lu e tea ch in g a s on e of th e
cor e a ctivities of a ca dem ic sta ff. Specific
str a te gies in clu de: tea ch in g developm en t
gr a n ts; u n its wh ich pr ovide su ppor t for
tea ch in g; a pr ogr a m m e of pr ofession a l developm en t dir ected a t u n iver sity tea ch er s;
aw a r ds a n d r ew a r ds for excellen ce a n d in n ova tion in tea ch in g; pr om otion oppor tu n ities
ba sed on tea ch in g a ch ievem en ts;
in stitu tion a l su ppor t for a ca dem ics to ga in
tea ch in g qu a lifica tion s; a n d a n en vir on m en t
in wh ich th e r isk s a ssocia ted w ith tr yin g n ew
tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es a r e su ppor ted a n d
r ew a r ded r a th er th a n ign or ed or
pu n ish ed[22].
Assistance with critical reflection on
teaching
Th e n ext fa cet r ela tes to in dividu a l u n iver sity
tea ch er s a n d th e n eed for th ese in dividu a ls to
see tea ch in g a s a pr a ctice in wh ich r efl ection ,
self-m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tion occu r to
develop n ew w ays of im pr ovin g th a t pr a ctice.
Th e m a jor ity of u n iver sity tea ch er s do n ot
h ave for m a l tea ch in g or edu ca tion a l qu a lifi ca tion s a n d th er efor e ba se m u ch of th eir
tea ch in g on a ppr oa ch es w ith wh ich th ey a r e
fa m ilia r [23]. Most a r e u n fa m ilia r w ith th e
edu ca tion a l liter a tu r e a n d w ith edu ca tion a l
con cepts wh ich a llow th em to a r ticu la te th eir
th ou gh ts a bou t tea ch in g, u n der sta n d a n d
cr itiqu e th eir pr a ctice a n d th en explor e a lter n a tive w ays of seein g a n d pr a ctisin g th eir
tea ch in g[22,23]. With str on g a lle gia n ce to
th eir ow n disciplin e a ch a r a cter istic of a ca dem ics, u n iver sity tea ch er s see th e disciplin e of
edu ca tion a s a n u n n ecessa r y, a ddition a l bu r den or a disciplin e n ot n oted for its u ser fr ien dlin ess. In th is r e ga r d, on e ver y su ccessfu l developm en t h a s been th e u n its w ith in
m a n y Au str a lia n u n iver sities wh ich su ppor t
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g th r ou gh wor k sh ops
a n d in dividu a l con su lta n cies specifica lly for
th e a ca dem ic sta ff of th e u n iver sity[24].
Th ese edu ca tion a l developm en t u n its oper a te fr om a disciplin a r y ba se of h igh er edu ca tion a n d pr ovide r esou r ces, wor k sh ops a n d
oth er pr ofession a l developm en t pr ogr a m m es,
in dividu a l a ssista n ce, tea ch in g eva lu a tion
ser vices, policy a dvice a n d som etim es for m a l,
a ccr edited cou r ses on tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g
in h igh er edu ca tion . Th e r esou r ce com m itm en t to su ch u n its is in itself a dem on str a tion
of th e in stitu tion a l com m itm en t to su ppor t
for tea ch in g wh ile th e u n its a ct in pr a ctica l
w ays to pr ovide a ssista n ce to in dividu a ls a s
well a s gr ou ps w ith in th e u n iver sity. On e r ole
of th is for m of a ssista n ce is to h igh ligh t
issu es a n d pr oblem a r ea s wh ich n eed to be
[ 40 ]
a ddr essed, explor e th e option s ava ila ble a n d
to pr ovide su ppor t wh ile a lter n a tive pr a ctices
a r e im plem en ted. Th e Au str a lia n High er
E du ca tion Cou n cil[25] h igh ligh ted th e va lu e
of a u n iver sity tea ch er r eceivin g feedba ck on
tea ch in g wh ich is “a u gm en ted by con ver sa tion w ith som eon e w ith exper t k n ow ledge on
th e tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g con text” (p. 39).
Raising awareness about the potential for
information technology to enhance
teaching and learning
It is in th is ligh t of explor in g edu ca tion a l
issu es a n d pr oblem s, look in g for a lter n a tive
(a n d better ) w ays of a ctin g a n d tr yin g n ew
idea s, th a t in for m a tion tech n ology n a tu r a lly
em er ges a s a n option to be explor ed. In for m a tion tech n ology ca n be u sed to en h a n ce tea ch in g in specifi c w ays to over com e specific
sh or tcom in gs in existin g pr a ctices a n d u n iver sity tea ch er s n eed to becom e aw a r e of its
poten tia l a dva n ta ges a n d disa dva n ta ges a s
th ey con sider th eir option s. Beca u se m a n y
u n iver sity tea ch er s a r e n ot fa m ilia r w ith
tech n ology-ba sed a ppr oa ch es a n d m a ter ia ls,
on e im por ta n t Str a te gy is to pr ovide dem on str a tion s of wor k in g exa m ples a n d to sh ow ca se in n ova tive a pplica tion s a n d th e tea ch er s
wh o u se th em . Th er e is n o dou bt th a t tea ch er s lea r n m u ch fr om discu ssion s w ith oth er
tea ch er s, pa r ticu la r ly th ose in th e sa m e disciplin e, wh o sh a r e th eir exper ien ces in u sin g
pa r ticu la r a ppr oa ch es for pa r ticu la r pu r poses. Th e elem en t of r isk is lessen ed wh en
wor k in g exa m ples a r e ava ila ble a n d th e elem en t of u n cer ta in ty a n d isola tion is r edu ced
by con ta ct w ith som eon e wh o h a s a lr ea dy
been th r ou gh th e im plem en ta tion pr ocess.
Given th e “ver tica l n etwor k in g” of a ca dem ics, th is con ta ct h a s va lu e wh en it occu r s
w ith oth er s in th e sa m e disciplin e. Alter n a tively, th e “ver tica l n etwor k s” n eed to be
con sciou sly su pplem en ted by settin g u p specia l for u m s to fa cilita te sh a r in g of idea s
a cr oss disciplin es.
The need for design assistance
On ce th e poten tia l is r ecogn ized for th e in tegr a tion of in for m a tion tech n ology in to tea ch in g to en h a n ce lea r n in g ou tcom es for stu den ts, it becom es a m a tter of r ea lizin g th a t
poten tia l th r ou gh ca r efu lly con sider ed
in str u ction a l design . Th is n eed is often over look ed in a r u sh to solve tech n ica l issu es a n d
pr oblem s – th e im per a tive of design in g m a ter ia ls wh ich a r e edu ca tion a lly effective is
for gotten [26]. E du ca tion a l tech n ologists or
in str u ction a l design er s h ave a r ole in design in g edu ca tion a lly sou n d, u ser -fr ien dly pr odu cts. Th ey com bin e a k n ow ledge of edu ca tion
w ith a k n ow ledge of tech n ologica l a pplica tion s a n d a r e a ble to a ssist th e su bject m a tter
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
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specia lists to wor k th r ou gh a design pr ocess
wh ich k eeps edu ca tion a l issu es a t th e for efr on t in design decision s. In th is w ay, in str u ction a l design er s pr ovide a lin k between th e
su bject m a tter specia list a n d th e pu r ely tech n ica l in pu t wh ich is n eeded in a n in for m a tion
tech n ology-ba sed pr oject. N e glectin g th ese
edu ca tion a l design issu es in va r ia bly pr odu ces m a ter ia ls wh ich m igh t h ave tech n ica l
ele ga n ce bu t wh ich do n ot n ecessa r ily h ave
edu ca tion a l va lu e.
Support for production and implementation
Th er e is little dou bt th a t exten sive tech n ica l
su ppor t is r equ ir ed for th e pr odu ction a n d
im plem en ta tion of tea ch in g m a ter ia ls wh ich
u se in for m a tion tech n ology. For th ose ven tu r in g in to m u ltim edia pr odu ction , a
m u ltisk illed tea m of tech n ica l su ppor t is
n ecessa r y for th e developm en t ph a se. F u r th er
tech n ica l su ppor t is n eeded du r in g th e im plem en ta tion a n d u se of th e fin ish ed pa ck a ge.
Access to exper tise in pr ogr a m m in g, a u th or in g tools, copyr igh t pr ovision s a n d gr a ph ics
is r equ ir ed. Som e in stitu tion s h ave qu estion ed wh eth er th ey ca n a ffor d th e costs
in volved in su ppor tin g th e pr odu ction of
th eir ow n cou r sew a r e a n d h ave lim ited th eir
su ppor t to th e pu r ch a se a n d deliver y of com m er cia lly ava ila ble m a ter ia ls[27]. E ven u n iver sity tea ch er s wh o pu r ch a se com m er cia lly
ava ila ble softw a r e r equ ir e edu ca tion a l a ssista n ce w ith its selection a n d tech n ica l su ppor t
for its in sta lla tion a n d deliver y to stu den ts.
The need for a technologically comfortable
work environment
Alth ou gh th er e h a s been a n a r gu m en t to k eep
edu ca tion a l issu es a t th e for efr on t in developm en ts r ela ted to in te gr a tin g in for m a tion
tech n ology in to tea ch in g, su ch developm en ts
w ill n ot occu r if th ey a r e m et by too m a n y
tech n ica l ba r r ier s w ith in th e in stitu tion .
E ven u n iver sity tea ch er s con vin ced of th e
edu ca tion a l ben efits of tech n ology-ba sed
a ppr oa ch es w ill be r esista n t to im plem en tin g
su ch ch a n ges if th e en vir on m en t is h ostile.
All ba sic tech n ology n eeds m u st be m et a n d
su fficien t su ppor t pr ovided for a ca dem ics to
feel com for ta ble w ith u sin g tech n ology in
th eir da ily a ca dem ic wor k . Aca dem ics a r e
u n lik ely to in te gr a te in for m a tion in to th eir
tea ch in g if th ey a r e u n com for ta ble a bou t
u sin g com pu ter s in th eir r esea r ch , u sin g
electr on ic m a il to com m u n ica te a n d a ccessin g th e In ter n et for th eir in for m a tion n eeds.
F u r th er m or e, th ey w ill n ot r isk ch a n ges to
tr ied a n d tr u e tea ch in g a ppr oa ch es if th e
a lter n a tives a r e h a m per ed by a ddition a l
wor k , in con ven ien ce, tech n ica l h itch es a n d
som etim es ou tr igh t tech n ica l fa ilu r e. Th er e
m ay be a n eed to pr ovide a m in im u m
sta n da r d of equ ipm en t for a ca dem ics. Th is
m ay m ea n th a t gen er a l tr a in in g a n d su ppor t
for u sin g tech n ology h ave to be u pgr a ded so
th a t a ca dem ics h ave a feelin g of com for t a n d
con fiden ce a bou t th eir a bility to explor e a n d
th en in tr odu ce a pplica tion s of tech n ology
in to th eir tea ch in g.
Conclusions
Wh en pla n n in g str a te gies to en cou r a ge u n iver sity tea ch er s to exploit th e poten tia l of
in for m a tion tech n ology to en h a n ce th eir
tea ch in g a n d th e lea r n in g ou tcom es of th eir
stu den ts, th er e is a ten den cy to be gin th ose
pla n s w ith tech n ica l con sider a tion s of softw a r e a n d h a r dw a r e pr ovision . Alth ou gh th is
pa per a r gu es th a t th er e is a n eed for a wor k
en vir on m en t in wh ich th er e is a de gr ee of
tech n ologica l com for t, it a lso a r gu es th a t th e
m or e ca u tiou s m a in str ea m m a jor ity of a ca dem ics a r e lik ely to be per su a ded by str a te gies
wh ich k eep edu ca tion a l issu es a t th e for efr on t. Th is m ea n s en su r in g a n in stitu tion a l
clim a te in wh ich good tea ch in g is va lu ed a n d
th e r isk s a ssocia ted w ith developin g n ew
a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g a r e su ppor ted a n d
r ew a r ded. With in su ch a clim a te, u n iver sity
tea ch er s th en r equ ir e su ppor t a n d en cou r a gem en t to r eflect on th eir ow n tea ch in g a n d
con sider a lter n a tives wh ich en h a n ce th a t
tea ch in g. On ce a cu ltu r e of su ch qu estion in g
is esta blish ed, th er e is a n eed to r a ise aw a r en ess a bou t th e str en gth s a n d wea k n esses of
th e tech n ology-ba sed option s a s a lter n a tives
to existin g pr a ctices. Th is r equ ir es in dividu a lized a ssista n ce a s well a s a br oa den in g of
aw a r en ess th r ou gh th e esta blish m en t of n etwor k s both w ith in a n d a cr oss disciplin es.
Aw a r en ess a bou t th e option s ava ila ble is th en
exten ded to pa r ticu la r tea ch in g con texts a n d
issu es w ith th e h elp of in str u ction a l design er s wh o a ssist th e tr a n sla tion of edu ca tion a l
issu es in to th e design of a ppr oa ch es wh ich
h ave edu ca tion a l va lu e. Developm en t a n d
pr odu ction of m a ter ia ls r equ ir e exten sive
tech n ica l exper tise wh ich m u st con tin u e in to
th e im plem en ta tion a n d deliver y ph a se.
Th e str a te gies descr ibed a bove ca n n ot be
a ch ieved qu ick ly n or w ith ou t su bsta n tia l
r esou r ces. As Ma cKn igh t[27] h a s str essed,
“th e level of com for t fa cu lty r ea ch in in te gr a tin g differ en t in for m a tion r esou r ces in to th e
cu r r icu lu m is n ot a ch ieved in a sin gle even t
bu t th r ou gh con tin u ou s exposu r e, en cou r a gem en t, a n d su ppor t fr om collea gu es, stu den ts,
a n d a ca dem ic su ppor t per son n el” (p. 35).
Disa ppoin tm en t a t th e r a te of ch a n ge in u n iver sity tea ch in g m igh t r eflect u n r ea listic
expecta tion s th a t ever yon e w ill a u tom a tica lly
follow th e tr en d set by ea r ly a dopter s.
[ 41 ]
Sue Jo hnsto n and
Co ralie Mc Co rmac k
Inte grating info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy into unive rsity
te ac hing: ide ntifying the
ne e ds and pro viding the
suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
Disa ppoin tm en t w ill con tin u e if su ppor t
str a te gies do n ot distin gu ish between th e
n eeds of th e ea r ly a dopter s a n d th e ver y differ en t n eeds of th e m or e ca u tiou s
m a in str ea m m a jor ity. Th er e m u st be r ecogn ition th a t th e la tter r equ ir e exten sive edu ca tion a l a n d tech n ica l su ppor t befor e th ey w ill
ch a n ge th eir tea ch in g.
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