Investigating Cognitive Psychology boxes by
EDITION Cognitive Psychology
Robert J. Sternberg Tufts University with contributions of the Investigating Cognitive Psychology boxes by JeffMio California State University-Pomona � ..
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, Contents in Brief C H A P T E R
Subject Index 652
428 Decision Making and Reasoning 479 Human and Artificial Intelligence
380 Problem Solving and Creativity
176 Memory Processes 216 Representation and Manipulation of Knowledge in Memory: Images and Propositions 254 Representation and Organization of Knowledge in Memory: Concepts, Categories, Networks, and Schemas 302 Language: Nature and Acquisition 341 Language in Context
74 Attention and Consciousness 123 Memory: Models and Research Methods
33 Perception
1 Cognitive Neuroscience
Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
Name Index 641
1 C H A P T E R
References 585
13 Glossary 577
12 C H A P T E R
11 C H A P T E R
10 C H A P T E R
3 C H A P T E R C H A P T E R C H A P T E R C H A P T E R C H A P T E R C H A P T E R C H A P T E R
2 C H A P T E R
528
Contents CHA PTER
1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
1 Exploring Cognitive Psychology
2 Cognitive Psychology Defined
2
Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism4 Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology
5
5 Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology
7
8 From Associationism to Behaviorism
10 Gestalt Psychology Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
10
10 Early Role of Psychobiology Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology
I I Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
12 Goals of Research
12 In the Lab of Gordon Bower
14
15
Distinctive Research Methods Investigating Cognitive Psychology22 Key Issues and Fields within Cognitive Psychology
24 Underlying Themes in the Study of Cognitive Psychology
24 Key Ideas in Cognitive Psychology
26 Chapter Previews
29 Summary
30 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions
31 Key Terms
32 Annotated Suggested Readings
32
v Contents
CHA PTER
2 Cognitive Neuroscience
33 Exploring Cognitive Psychology
34 From Neuron to Brain: Organization of the Nervous System
34
35 Neuronal Structure and Function Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain
39
40 Postmortem Studies
40 Animal Studies
41 Electrical Recordings
42 Static Imaging Techniques
42 Metabolic Imaging Cognition in the Brain: Cerebral Cortex and Other Structures
50 Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain,
51 Hindbrain
54 In the Lab of John Gabrieli
58 Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function
67 Brain Disorders Key Themes
71
71 Summary Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions
72
73 Key Terms COOLAB
73 Annotated Suggested Readings
73 CHA PTER
3 Perception
74 Exploring Cognitive Psychology
75 From Sensation to Representation
79
79 Basics of Vision
80 Some Basic Concepts of Perception
82 Perceptual Constancies
86 Depth Perception
90 Approaches to Object and Form Perception Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology
90 In the Lab of Stephen Palmer
96 Theoretical Approaches to Perception 100 100 Direct Perception
102 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Theories 114 Synthesizing Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches
Contents vi
Deficits in Perception 115 115 Agnosias and Ataxias
118
Anomalies in Color Perception119
Akinetopsia and AchromatopsiaKey Themes 119
Summary 120 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 121
Key Terms 122
COG LAB 122
Annotated Suggested Readings 122 CHAPTER
4 Attention and Consciousness 123
Exploring Cognitive Psychology 124 The Nature of Attention and Consciousness 124
125 Preconscious Processing Investigating Cognitive Psychology 129
129 Controlled versus Automatic Processes In the Lab of John Kihlstrom 130 F.
137 Habituation and Adaptation 137
Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology Attention 140
140 Signal Detection
140
The Nature of Signal Detection142 Vigilance 145 Search
Selective and Divided Attention 152 152 Basic Paradigms for Studying Selective Attention
153 Filter and Bottleneck Theories of Selective Attention 157 Attentional-Resource Theories of Selective Attention
159 Additional Considerations in Selective Attention 160 Divided Attention
165 Consciousness of Complex Mental Processes 166 A ttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Cognitive Neuroscientific Approaches to Attention 168 and Consciousness
168 Spatial Neglect 169 A ttentional Systems
170 Using Event-Related Potentials to Measure Attention 171 A Psychopharmacological Approach
Key Themes 171 Summary 173 vii Contents
Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 174 Key Terms 175
COGLAB 175 Annotated Suggested Readings 175 CHAPTER
5 Memory: Models and Research
Methods 176 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 177
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 177 Tasks Used for Measuring Memory 177
178 Recall versus Recognition Tasks 180 Implicit versus Explicit Memory Tasks
Traditional Model of Memory 182 182 Sensory Store
186 Short-Term Store 188 Long-Term Store
The Levels-of-Processing Model 189 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 191
An Integrative Model: Working Memory 191 Multiple Memory Systems 197
In the Lab of M. K. Johnson 198 A Connectionist Perspective 200 Memory in the Real World
201 Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology 202
202 Outstanding Memory: Mnemonists 204 Deficient Memory
210 Role of the Hippocampus and Other Structures Key Themes 212 Summary 213 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 214
Key Terms 214 COGLAB 215
Annotated Suggested Reading 215 viii Contents
C HA PTER
6 Memory Processes 216
Exploring Cognitive Psychology 217
Encoding and Transfer of Information 218
Forms of Encoding 218
Transfer of Information from Short- Term Memory
to Long-Term Memory 220Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 223 Retrieval 228 Retrieval from Short-Term Memory 228
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 228 Retrieval from Long-Term Memory 230 Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion 231 Interference versus Decay Theory 231
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 233
The Constructive Nature of Memory 236
Autobiographical Memory 237 Memory Distortions 237
In the Lab of Elizabeth Loftus 240
Context Effects on Encoding and Retrieval 244 Memory Development 247Metacognitive Skills and Memory Development 247 Key Themes 250 Summary 251 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 252
Key Terms 253 COGLAB 253
Annotated Suggested Readings 253 C HA PTER
7 Representation and Manipulation
of Knowledge in Memory: Images and Propositions 254 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 255 Mental Representation of Knowledge
255
External Representations: Pictures versus Words
257Investigating Cognitive Psychology 258 Mental Imagery
259
Dual-Code Theory: Analogical ImagesContents ix
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 26 1 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 261 In the Lab of Stephen Kosslyn 262
263 Propositional Theory Mental Manipulations of Images 270
270 Mental Rotations Investigating Cognitive Psychology 273
276 Image Scaling Investigating Cognitive Psychology 276
277 Image Scanning Investigating Cognitive Psychology 278
Synthesizing Images and Propositions 280 280 Epiphenomena and Demand Characteristics
282 Johnson-Lairds Mental Models
285
Neuropsychological Evidence jor Multiple Codes286 Visual versus Spatial Images Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps 289
289 Rats, Bees, Pigeons, and Humans Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 289
29 Mental Shortcuts
I 295 Text Maps
296 Development oj Visuospatial Skills 298
Key Themes Summary 299
Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions
300 301
Key Terms COGLAB 30 1
Annotated Suggested Readings 301 CHAPTER
8 Representation and Organization
of Knowledge in Memory: Concepts, Categories, Networks, and Schemas 302 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 303
303 Investigating Cognitive Psychology
Organization of Declarative Knowledge 304 305 Concepts and Categories
313 Semantic Network Models 3 17 Schematic Representations
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 3 19 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 321
Contents x
Representations of Procedural Knowledge 321 Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge 323
323 Combining Representations: ACT-R 326 Models Based on the Human Brain
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 328 329 Parallel Processing: The Connectionist Model
How Domain General or Domain Specific 334 Is Cognition?
In the Lab of James L. McClelland 335 Key Themes 337 Summary
338 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 339
Key Terms 340 COOLAB 340
Annotated Suggested Readings 340 CHAPTER
9 Language: Nature and Acquisition 341
Exploring Cognitive Psychology 342 Properties of Language 343
343 General Description 346 Fundamental Aspects of Language
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 349 Processes of Language Comprehension 350
350 Speech Perception
355
Semantics and SyntaxInvestigating Cognitive Psychology 357 358
In the Lab of Steven Pinker 359
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 364
Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology Language Acquisition 364
365 Stages of Language Acquisition 368 Nature and Nurture
373
Beyond the First Years 374 4nimal LanguageKey Themes 376 Summary 377 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 378
Key Terms 379 COOLAB 3 79
Contents xi CHAPTER
10 Language in Context 380
Exploring Cognitive Psychology 381 Reading: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes 381
383 Perceptual Issues in Reading 383 Lexical Processes in Reading
Language and Thought 387 387 Differences among Languages
394 Bilingualism and Dialects 399 Slips of the Tongue
401 Metaphorical Language Language in a Social Context 403
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 403 404 Speech Acts
407 Conversational Postulates 409 Gender and Language
4 10 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology
410 Discourse and Reading Comprehension Investigating Cognitive Psychology 4 1 1 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 4 1 1 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 4 12 In the Lab of Richard Gerrig 4 14
Neuropsychology of Language 417 417 Aphasia
419 Autism 420 Lesion Studies and Event-Related Potentials Research
423 Other Methods 424
Key Themes 425
Summary Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 426
427 Key Terms
427 COG LAB Annotated Suggested Reading 427
CHAPTER 1 1
Problem Solving and Creativity 428 Exploring Cognitive Psychology
429 The Problem-Solving Cycle 430
Types of Problems 434 434 Well-Structured Problems
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 435
Contents xii
Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving 449 449 Mental Sets, Entrenchment, and Fixation
451 Negative and Positive Transfer 452
In the Lab of K. Anders Ericsson 453
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 453
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 455
Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 457 Incubation
Expertise: Knowledge and Problem Solving 459 459 Organization of Knowledge
466 Innate Talent and Acquired Skill Creativity
468 468 It's How Much You Produce
469 It's W hat You Know 471
It's Who You Are 472
It's Where You Are 472
All of the Above Types of Creative Contributions 474
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 475 Key Themes
475 Summary 476
Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative,
and Practical Questions 477 Key Terms477 COGLAB 478
478 Annotated Suggested Readings
CHA PTER
12 Decision Making and Reasoning 479
Exploring Cognitive Psychology 480 480
Investigating Cognitive Psychology Judgment and Decision Making 481
481 Classical Decision Theory 483 Satisficing
484 Elimination by Aspects 485
Naturalistic Decision Making 486 Group Decision Making
488
Heuristics and Biases Investigating Cognitive Psychology 488 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 494 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 494497 Neuroscience of Decision Making In the Lab of Gerd Gigerenzer 498 Deductive Reasoning 499
Conditional Reasoning 499 Syllogistic Reasoning 505
Contents xiii
512 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 513 Inductive Reasoning 513
Reaching Causal Inferences 515 Categorical Inftrences 519 Reasoning by Analogy 519 Development of Inductive Reasoning 520 An Alternative View of Reasoning 521
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 523 Neuroscience of Reasoning 523
Key Themes 524 Summary 525
Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 526
Key Terms 527 COGLAB 527
Annotated Suggested Readings 527
Linear Syllogisms 505 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 505 Further Aids and Obstacles to Deductive Reasoning
CHA PTER
13 Human and Artificial Intelligence
Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities 538 Guilford: The Structure of Intellect 538 Cattell, Vernon, and Carroll: Hierarchical Models
539
Information Processing and Intelligence 539 Process-Timing Theories 539Working Memory 542 Componential Theory and Complex Problem Solving 542
In the Lab of Randall Engle 544 Biological Bases of Intelligence 546
Alternative Approaches to Intelligence 548 Cultural Context and Intelligence 548 Gardner: Multiple Intelligences 553
Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory 555 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology
558 528
Measures and Structures of Intelligence 531 Spearman: The "g" Factor 536
Exploring Cognitive Psychology Investigating Cognitive Psychology
529 529 xiv Contents
Improving Intelligence: Effective, Ineffective,
and Questionable Strategies 558
Investigating Cognitive Psychology 559 Development of Intelligence in Adults 561 Artificial Intelligence: Computer Simulations 564
564
Can a Computer Program Be "Intelligent"?
Questions about the Intelligence of Intelligent
571
Programs Key Themes 573574 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology
Summary 574 Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative,
and Practical Questions 576 Key Terms 576
Annotated Suggested Readings 576 Glossary 577 References 585 Name Index 641 Subject Index 652 To the Instructor Every year it was a gamble , and e very year I lost: I had taught cognitive psychology a number of times during my years of teac hing at Yale, and I had never used the same textbook twice. For whatever reason, my students were never taken with any of the books and neither was 1. T he book was too hard or too easy, too narrow or too broad, too dated or too trendy. They were decent books, just not the right books. Finally, I decided to stack t he deck and write t he book myself. In t his preface , I describe my goals for both t he fifth edition and for t he original text in particular.
What's New in Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition In Cognitive Psychology, fifth edition, you will find many c hanges. T he biggest c hange reflects the explosion of knowledge in t he field. T here are more than 5 00 new refer ences , greatly updating the coverage provided by the book. A second c hange , by popular demand, is t hat material on neurons and neurotransmitters t hat had been eliminated in t he fourth edition is back and updated in t he fifth edition. A t hird major
3
4 c hange , also by popular demand, is t hat the order of C hapters and has been re versed, with attention now following perception. A fourth major change is t hat consid erable cogniti ve-neuroscience material has been added to c hapters throughout t he book, including whole sections t hat have not appeared before. A fifth c hange is t hat additional practical examples rele vant to students' e veryday lives have been added to t he book. A sixth general c hange is t hat "In t he Lab " boxes have been updated, with many of the boxes being entirely new. And a seventh general c hange is that e very sentence has been reviewed to ensure its complete readability.
T here are also many specific c hanges:
1. T he usefulness of cogniti ve psyc hology is s hown right from t he start with t he example of the availability heuristic applied to t he 2008 presidential election.
2. T he point is made that either/or thinking can be detrimental to science.
For example , intelligence is not either heritable or environmental , but rather both.
3. A discussion of t he importance of applied cogniti ve psychology is stressed in t his c hapter, giving aviation as an example.
xvi To the Instructor
7. Magnetoencep halography (MEG) is now discussed.
6. The neural bases offace recognition are disc ussed. In general, s ubstantial information on face recognition has been added.
5. Material on t he structuralist approach was deleted at reviewers' request.
4. Landmark-centered representation is now discussed.
3. Material on depth perception has been added.
2. S ubstantial material has been added on vision.
1. T here is now a disc ussion of t he ways in w hic h humans are s uperior to robots.
12. Material on Brodmann areas has been added.
11. Material on t he lobes of the brain has been added.
10. Material on the hypothalamus has been enhanced.
9. T here is a disc ussion of autism and its brain bases.
8. More material on t he amygdala has been added.
6. Diffusion tensor imaging (DT!) is now discussed.
4. I have added a disc ussion of t he modularity of mind concept.
5. P harmacological magnetic resonance imaging ( phMRI) is now discussed.
4. Material on positron emission tomography (PET) has been enhanced.
3. There is now an improved disc ussion of functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI) .
2. T here is an enhanced and updated disc ussion of e vent-related potentials (ERP) methods.
1. T he material on neurons and neural transmitters and their functioning, taken o ut of the last edition, is back by pop ular demand.
10. T he disc ussion of artificial intelligence has been enhanced.
9. More material on the validity of self-reports has been added.
8. Disc ussions of Genie and P hineas Gage have been added to explore the e ffects of trauma.
7. The s ubtraction metho d, now used in many studies in cognitive neurosci ence, is explained.
6. The discussion of experimental design and correlation has also been up graded and clarified.
5. T he disc ussion of statistical inference has been upgraded and clarified.
7. T here is a new disc ussion on perception in a utism. •
To the Instructor x vii
8. The expert-indi viduation hypothesis is now presented.
9. The material contrasting bottom-up and top -down processing has been modified substantially and pared down at reviewers' request.
10. The lengthy dis cussion of Hubel and Wiesel's early findings has been pared down greatly be cause they are now out of date, and the discussion has been updated with recent findings.
11. Ataxias are now dis cussed.
12. Agnosias are mentioned.
13. Different forms of pro sop agnosia are dis cussed.
14. The dis cussion of anomalies in color perception has been upgraded and updated.
15 . Achromatopsia is now dis cussed.
Chapter 4 1. A discussion of visual priming has been added.
2. Material on the tip -of-the-tongue phenomenon has been added.
3. The potential e ffe ct of a stroke on the visual cortex is dis cussed.
4. Material on dyslexia has been added.
5. Tinnitus is now dis cussed in relation to auditory habituation.
6. Coverage of signal-detection theory (SDT) has been broadened to note that it can be applied in a variety of cognitive contexts.
7. The brain bases of vigilance are now dis cussed.
8. The dis cussion of movement-filter theory was deleted at re viewers' request.
9. Cherry'S co cktail party phenomenon is related to working memory.
10. There is an enhanced dis cussion of the Stroop effect.
II. Talking on cell phones is dis cussed in terms of attentional theory.
12. Cultural di fferences in attentional processes are dis cussed.
13. Neural bases of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are dis cussed in some detail.
Chapter 5 1. There is a new discussion of savings.
2. There is new material on the effe cts of informing students in advance of how their memory will be tested.
3. Impli cit memory and expli cit memory are compared across the life span.
4. There is new material on the role of the cerebellum in procedural memory. x viii To the Instructor
5. T here is new material on American Sign Language (AS L).
6. More practical material has been added, suc h as remembering street names from your c hildhood.
7. T here is expanded discussion of the self-reference e ffect.
8. T here is new material on subvocal rehearsal.
9. T here is an added discussion of the episodic buffer.
10. There is further material on resource allocation in working-memory tasks.
11. There is further discussion of whether episodic memory and semantic
memory comprise distinct stores of information.
12. T here is further discussion of the role of relating new information to old information to facilitate learning of material.
13. There is inclusion of updated material on H. M.
14. T here is further information on amnesia and its relation to procedural knowledge.
1. Additional information is included on the relationship between stress and memory.
2. New material has been added on sleep and memory.
3. There is further discussion of t he role of t he hippocampus in attempts at learning during sleep.
4. T here is a new discussion of reconsolidation.
5. There is new discussion of the relation between age and prospecti ve memory.
6. There is an added discussion of probability models for separating storage from retrieval.
7. Proactive interference in alcoholic and nonalcoholic individuals is dis cussed, particularly in relation to Brodmann area 45.
8. T here is a new discussion of t he relation of self-esteem to autobiograph ical memory.
9. T here is new material on the role of stress in eyewitness identification.
10. There is new material on memory development.
11. T here is new material on how suggestion can influence memory.
12. T here is new material on t he Roediger-McDermott-Deese paradigm.
13. Spreading acti vation is now explained more clearly.
14. There is new material on flashbulb memory and emotional invol vement , as well as on t he potential for distortion of flashbulb memories.
15. Re hearsal is discussed in relation to ADHD.
To the Instructor xix
Chapter 7 I. There is a new discussion of mental imagery among c hildren with Down syndrome.
2. T here is further discussion of how analogue and propositional representa tions can coexist.
3. There is new material on how viewing an image or imagining it activates t he same brain areas.
4. There is a new discussion of mental imagery in patients with schizophrenia.
5. The role of t he motor cortex in mental rotation is discussed.
6. There is new material on sex differences in spatial imagery and t he brain bases of t he di fferences.
7. There is new material on how training can decrease sex differences in spatial visualization tasks.
8. There is an entirely new section on representational neglect.
9. There is new material on haptic imagery and its relation to visual imagery.
10. There is new material on mental models.
11. There is new material on neuropsyc hological bases of mental maps.
1. There is new information on speed of assigning information to natural versus artifact categories.
2. There is further discussion of exemplar t heories of categorization.
3. T here is new information on semantic networks.
4. There is new information on cogniti ve impairments (e.g. , semantic de mentia) and how t hey affect categorization.
5. There is new information on cogniti ve impairment (e.g. , schizop hrenia) and scripts.
6. T here is furt her information on spreading acti vation in mental repre sentation.
7. Practical examples of proceduralization, suc h as air traffic control and learning p hone numbers , are discussed.
8. Dyslexia is discussed in the context of parallel distributed processing (PDP) models.
9. Use of fMRl methods to study face recognition is discussed.
Chapter 9 1. A discussion of how language e vol ves over time has been added.
2. T here is a new discussion of language extinction.
xx To the Instructor
3. There is a new presentation of material on coarticulation.
4. There is a discussion of the use of phonological information by people with and without reading disabilities.
5. T here is further discussion of the McGurk effect.
6. T here is new discussion of denotation and connotation.
7. There is further discussion of syntactical priming.
8. There is new material on infants and how they respond to emotional in formation contained in communication.
9. T here is a new presentation of material on cooing in c hildren with cere- bral palsy.
10. There is new material on babbling and ASL.
I I.
T here is further material on innate language abilities.
12. There is new material on the role of imitation in language learning.
13. There is new information on c hild-directed speec h.
14. New material appears on Koko the gorilla.
Chapter 10 I. T here is more material on the sentence-superiority effect.
2. There is a discussion, in the context of linguistic relati vity, of how famil iarity with computers may breed more words for computer-associated concepts.
3. There is an enhanced discussion of how language c hoice affects other aspects of information processing.
4. There is now a discussion of how teac hers may discourage bilingualism.
5. T here is an added discussion of bilingualism and age of acquisition of second language.
6. T here is a discussion of ap hasia and how it affects bilingualism.
7. There is a discussion of how judgments of dialects can lead to biases in e valuating people.
8. There is a new discussion of personal space -both across cultures and in virtual-reality environments.
9. There is more material on indirect requests.
10. There is a discussion of language and autism, whic h includes the theory of executive dysfunction.
I I.
Gender differences in use of written language is discussed.
12. T he relation of vocabul ary size to other cognitive skills is discussed.
13. The role of Broca's area in sign production is discussed.
14. T here is new material on neuropsyc hological analysis of language with fMRI and ERP.
To the Instructor xxi
Chapter 1 1 1. The relation of emotional intelligence to proble m solving is discussed.
2. A be tter explanation is provided of types of errors in the hobbits and orcs problem.
3. Neuropsychological bases of insight are discussed.
4. The role of sleep in helping to produce insightful solutions is no ted.
5. New material is presented on the relatively young age at which analogical thinking can be observed.
6. The effects of brain injury on problem solving are discussed in some detail.
7. As a real-world example , expe rt-novice differences are discussed in the context of tasting beers.
8. I t is noted that expert mathe maticians use visual i magery in problem solving even for problems that do not require i t.
9. Further discussion has been added of the effec ts o f verbal protocols on problem solving.
10. Preparation in problem solving is discussed in the con tex t of A SL produc tion.
II. There is new discussion of how knowledge helps creativity.
12. There is further discussion of the role of rewards in creative behavior.
13. A sec tion has been added on the neuroscience of creativi ty.
Chapter 1 2 1. A new sec tion on naturalistic decision making has been added.
2. A new sec tion on group decision making has been added.
3. A new sec tion on groupthink has been added.
4. A new sec tion on antido tes for groupthink has been added.
5. An expanded discussion of the inclusion fallacy has been added.
6. A further discussion of fas t and frugal heuristics has been added.
7. A sec tion on the neuroscience o f decision making has been added.
8. Evidence on the trainabili ty of mental models has been added.
9. A further discussion of confirmation bias is included.
10. The use of analogy in politics is discussed.
I I.
A sec tion on the neuroscience of reasoning has been added.
Chapter 13 I. New material on emo tional intelligence has been added.
2. New material on cultural intelligence has been added.
To the Instructor xxii
3. The use of the Wechsle r scale in neuropsychological assessment is discussed.
4. More mate rial on the relationship of working memo ry to intelligence is included.
5. C rystallized intelligence is related to the brain and to brain damage.
6. More mate rial on the relationship of intelligence to b rain function has been included.
7. More material on cultu ral differences in thought p rocesses is included.
8. New empirical material on using b road theories of intelligence to p redict college success is included.
9. More material updating findings on the Abecedarian Project is included.
10. New mate rial about the importance of students' beliefs on the malleabil ity of intelligence is included.
11. New mate rial on intelligent systems is included.
12. New mate rial on mode rn applications of artificial intelligence
IS included.
The Original Goals of This Book When I fi rst unde rtook to write this textbook, I knew what I wanted in a textbook, and I knew what my students wanted; or at least I thought I did. We wanted a book that would achieve a number of objectives.
1. Combine readability with integrity. I have chosen books that were so chewy that only the strongest stomachs could digest thei r contents , and I have chosen ones that melted like cotton candy, with substance to match. I have tried to w rite a book that would give students something to chew on , but one that they could easily digest.
Balance a clear presentation of the big questions of cognitive psychology 2. with a respect for the important details of the field. Perhaps in no course more than in cognitive psychology are both the fo rest and the trees im po rtant. The best and most lasting work in the field is driven by enduring and fundamental questions. Howeve r, that work also respects the details of methods and data analysis needed to p roduce meaningful results. In order to achieve the balance, I have opened each chapte r with a p review of the big questions dealt with in that chapter and ended each chapte r with a summary of what we have learned in the field that addresses each question. Within the chapte rs , the writing has been guided by the big questions , while conveying to students the kinds of details to which cog nitive psychologists need to attend in both thei r theo ry and research.
Balance the learning of subject matter with thinking about the subject 3. matter. An expert cognitive psychologist knows the discipline but can also use the knowledge. Knowledge without thought is useless, but
To the Instructor xxiii s ubject matter with an e qual respect for its use. Every chapter ends with dive rse questions that emphasize comp rehension of the s ubject matter, as well as analytical , creative , and p ractical thinking with that s ubject mat ter. Students using this book will not only learn the basic ideas and facts of cognitive psychology, b ut also how to think with the m.
4. Recognize both the traditional and emerging trends in the field.
This book has all the traditional topics fo und in the chapters of the majority of text books , including the nature of cognitive psychology and how people think about issues in cognitive psychology (Chapter 1) , pe rception
4), (Chapte r 3) , attention and consciousness (Chapter me mo ry (Chapters
6), S and knowledge rep resentation (Chapters 7 and 8) , language (Chap
9 ters and 10) , p roble m solving and creativity (Chapter 11) , and decision making and reasoning (Chapter 12).
I have also incl uded two chapte rs that are not typically incl uded as chapters in other books. The chapte r on cognitive neuroscience (Chapter 2) is incl uded beca use the dividing line between cognitive psychology and psychobiology is becoming inc reasingly indistinct. A g reat deal of excit ing wo rk today is at the interface between the two fields , and so , whereas the cognitive psychologist of 20 years ago might have been able to get away witho ut an understanding of biological fo undations , I believe that today s uch a cognitive psychologist would be ill served.
H uman and artificial intelligence (Chapte r 13) are becoming increas ingly important to the field of cognitive psychology. Twenty years ago , the field of h uman inteIligence was do minated by psychometric (test-based) approaches. The field of artificial inteIligence was dominated by p rog rams that were functionally rather remote fro m h uman thought p rocesses. To day both fields of intelligence are more heavily influenced by cognitive models of how people p rocess information. I include both h uman- and comp ute r-based models in the same chapter because I believe that their goals are ulti mately the same-namely, to understand h uman cognition.
Although the book ends with the chapter on intelligence, intelligence also plays a major role in the beginning and the middle of the book be cause it is the o rganizing framewo rk within which cognitive psychology is presented. This framework is not in terms of a traditional psychometric model of intelligence, b ut rather in te rms of intelligence as the fundamen tal organizing framewo rk fo r all of h uman cognition.
I have tried not only to balance traditional and newer topics, b ut also older and mo re recent citations. So me books see m to s uggest that almost nothing new has happened ove r the past decade , whe reas othe rs seem to s uggest that cognitive psychology was invented in that decade. The goal of this book is to balance citation and description of classic studies with e qual attention to recent, exciting contributions to the field.
Show the basic unity of cognitive psychology.
S.
On one hand, cognitive psychologists disagree about the extent to which the mechanisms of cog nition are domain specific vers us do main general. On the other hand, I believe that almost all cognitive psychologists believe that there is a fun- To the Instructor xxiv damental functional uni ty to human cognition. This unity, I believe , is
expressed through the concept of human intelligence.
The concept of intelligence can be seen as p roviding a unifying um b rella through which to understand the adaptive nature of human cogni tion. Through this single concept, society, as well as psychological sci ence , acknowledges that as diverse as cognition may be , i t comes toge the r i n p roviding us with a functionally unified way o f making sense o f and adapting to the environment. Thus, the unity of human cognition, as ex p ressed by the concept o f intelligence , serves as an integ rating message fo r this book.
6. Balance various forms of learning and instruction.
Students learn bes t when they learn material in a variety of ways and from di fferent vantage points. To this end, I have sought to achieve a balance among a traditional p resentation o f text, a variety of kinds o f questions about the material ( fac tual , analytical, creative, p rac tical) , demonstrations of key ideas in cognitive psychology, and anno tated sugges ted readings that students can consult i f they wish for further information about a topic. A chapte r out line at the beginning o f each chapte r also se rves as an advance organizer for what is to come. The opening questions and closing answers help students appreciate the main questions in the field, as well as what p rog ress we have made toward answering them. The text i tself e mphasizes how contemporary ideas have evolved from pas t ones , and how these ideas address the key questions cogni tive psychologis ts have sought to answer in their research.