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  STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES A THESIS

  Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By

  Gabriel Adi Wartanta Student Number: 03 1214 016 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

  

STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES

A THESIS

  Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By

  

Gabriel Adi Wartanta

Student Number: 03 1214 016

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

  When you were born, You were crying and everyone around you was smiling.

  Live your life so that when you die, you’re smiling and everyone around you is crying.

  (Taken from: The Story of Love) Trust the Past to The mercy of God…

  The Present to His love, The future to His providence

  (Augustine)

  I dedicate this thesis to Jesus Christ, my beloved mother, father, brother, and sisters.

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ for everything that He has given me. Without His everlasting love and wonderful blessing, it is impossible for me to finish this thesis. I thank Mother Mary for accompanying me through my hard times.

  My deepest appreciation goes to my major sponsor, Made Frida Yulia,

  

S.Pd., M.Pd., for her willingness to spend her precious time to read and check my

  thesis thoroughly. Her advice, criticisms, and suggestions are useful for me in accomplishing this thesis. I am greatly indebted to my co-sponsor, Christina

  

Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for her kindness to read my thesis continually and give

me beneficial inputs.

  I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to

  

Agustinus Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum.,

  and Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., for the permission to administer the test in their classes. I would like to thank the sixth semester students in classes A, B, and C of RELT classes of the academic year 2007/2008 for their willingness to be the respondents of this research.

  I owe a great debt to all lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University for guiding me during my study. I thank them all for providing me with knowledge and other valuable things. I also thank

  I would like to express my deepest love and appreciation to my beloved parents, Robertus Sutardjo and Agnes Sumiyati. I could not have finished this thesis without all their love, supports, patience, and never ending prayers. My sincere gratitude goes to all my brother and sisters, for always encouraging me to finish my study and for their beneficial advice. I would like to express thanks to my funny niece and nephews for cheering me up in my bad times.

  My special thanks go to the English Education Production (EEPRO) members for giving me the chance to express myself. My sincere appreciation goes to PBI Play Performance’s Lighting Crew: Deddy Kurniawan, I Gede

  

Agus, Taufik, Galih Purnomo, Sudartomo, Satrio Nugroho, Eduardus

Erwan, Krisna, Dudy, Antonius Jido, Marshell, and Listiyan for the

  unforgettable moments and spirit of working together in facing the exhausting event we had every semester. I express my gratitude to my friends during consultation time: Yusta, Mba Ayuk, Anas, Rere, Toni, Lala, Nita, and Ratna. I thank them for their sharing and laughter.

  I deliver my best thanks to Ratri Wahyuningtyas for the time allocated, help given, and stories shared. I thank her for her assistance, supports, and prayers.

  Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those whose names I cannot mention here one by one. May God bless them all.

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

  TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGES ............................................................................. ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ....................................... v

  

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ....................... vi

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................. xv LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... xvi LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................ xvii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... xviii

  ABSTRAK ............................................................................................... xx

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study...........................................................

  1 B. Problem Formulation.................................................................

  3 C. Problem Limitation....................................................................

  3 D. Objectives of the Study .............................................................

  4 E. Benefits of the Study ................................................................

  5 F. Definition of Terms ..................................................................

  6

  CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ............................................................

  9 1. Complex Sentences ..............................................................

  9 a. Adjective Clauses ..............................................................

  10 b. Adverbial Clauses .............................................................

  12 1)

  13 Clause of Place ............................................................ 2) Clause of Time ............................................................

  13 3)

  13 Clause of Manner ........................................................ 4) Clause of Degree ..........................................................

  13 5) Clause of Cause ...........................................................

  14 6)

  14 Clause of Condition .................................................... 7) Clause of Concession ..................................................

  15 8)

  15 Clause of Purpose......................................................... 9) Clause of Means...........................................................

  15 c. Noun Clauses.....................................................................

  16 2. The Finite and the Non-Finite Clauses.................................

  17 a. The Finite Clauses .............................................................

  18 b. The Non-Finite Clauses ....................................................

  18 1) The Non-Finite Adjective Clauses ..............................

  20

  a) 21 –Ing Participle .......................................................

  b) –Ed Participle ........................................................

  22

  2)

  23 The Non-Finite Noun Clauses .....................................

  a) –Ing Form ..............................................................

  24

  b)

  25 To-infinitive .......................................................... 3) The Non-Finite Adverbial Clauses ..............................

  27 a) –Ing Participle .......................................................

  27

  b) 29 –Ed Participle ........................................................

  c) To-infinitive ..........................................................

  29 3. Errors ...................................................................................

  30 a. Definition .......................................................................

  30 b. The Importance of Studying Errors ................................

  31 4. The Mastery of a Language .................................................

  31 a. Definition ..........................................................................

  31 b. The Criteria of Mastery.....................................................

  32 B. Theoretical Framework .............................................................

  32 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method.......................................................................

  34 B. Research Participants.................................................................

  35 C. Research Instrument .................................................................

  36 1. Validity.................................................................................

  37 a. Content Validity ................................................................

  37

  2. Reliability.............................................................................

  40 D. Data Gathering Techniques.......................................................

  42 E. Data Analysis Techniques .........................................................

  42 F. Research Procedure....................................................................

  43 CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Data Presentation ....................................................................

  46 1.

  46 The Students’ Achievement in the Test ...............................

  a. The Students’ Achievement in Each Part of the Test ....

  47

  b. The Students’ Achievement in the Whole Part of the Test

  48 c.

  50 The Students’ Achievement in Each Type of Clauses ...

  2. The Presentation of the Descriptive Statistics.......................

  51 B. Discussion ................................................................................

  52 1. The Errors Committed by the Students ................................

  52 a.

  52 The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses.............. 1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses ........

  53 2) Confusion between Defining and Non-defining Adjective Clauses .....................................................

  56 3) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses .......................

  57 4)

  58 The Adjective Clauses Modifying a Wrong Noun.... 5) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate

  7) Retaining the Relative Pronoun ...............................

  71 5) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences ....

  77 c. The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses ............

  77 11) Problems in Perfect Construction ............................

  76 10) Incorrect Use of Comma ..........................................

  75 9) Problems with Clauses Derived from Questions .....

  74 8) Confusion to Choose Either to-infinitive or Gerund

  73 7) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses ........................

  72 6) Lack of Genitive Case of Pronoun ...........................

  70 4) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses .....................................................................

  62 8) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses .....................................................................

  69 3) Problems in Constructing Negative Clauses .............

  68 2) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses .....................................................................

  67 1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses ........

  66 b. The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses ....................

  66 11) Inappropriate Use of –ed Participle ..........................

  65 10) Inappropriate Use of to be + V-ed ...........................

  64 9) Inappropriate Use of being + V-ed .........................

  78

  3) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses .....................................................................

  81 4)

  Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses ......................................................................

  82 5) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences.....

  83 6)

  84 Incorrect Use of Comma .......................................... 7) Problems with Pronoun ............................................

  85 8)

  Problems in Constructing the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses in Perfective Form ......................................

  86 9) Retaining Subordinator because for Clause of Reason

  87 10)

  87 The Occurrence of Coordinate Clauses ....................

  2. The Students’ Mastery on the Non-finite Clauses ................

  88 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A.

  89 Conclusions ................................................................................

  B. Suggestions ................................................................................

  92

  1. Suggestions for the Lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University ......................

  92

  2. Suggestions for the Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University ......................

  93 3. Suggestions for Future Researchers .....................................

  93

  

LIST OF TABLES

  Table Page 2.1 The Use of Relative Pronoun ...........................................................

  12 3.1 The Content of the Test ....................................................................

  38 3.2 The Distribution of Item in the Test..................................................

  39 3.3 The Classification of Reliability Coefficient ...................................

  41 3.4 The Rubric.........................................................................................

  43 4.1 The Students’ Scores in Part A of the Test .......................................

  47 4.2 The Students’ Scores in Part B of the Test .......................................

  47 4.3 The Students’ Final Scores in the Whole Part of the Test ................

  48 4.4 The Students’ Scores in Relation to the Category ............................

  49 4.5 The Descriptive Statistics..................................................................

  51

  LIST OF FIGURES

  Figure Page 4.1 The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses................................

  53 4.2 The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses.......................................

  68 4.3 The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses ...............................

  79

  LIST OF APPENDICES

  Page Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ....................................

  97 Appendix B: The Test of the Non-finite Clauses....................................

  98 Appendix C: Key to the Test .................................................................. 101 Appendix D: The Sample of the Students’ Sheets ................................. 102 Appendix E: The Students’ Test Scores.................................................. 108 Appendix F: The Total of Correct and Incorrect Answers in Each Item 110 Appendix G: The Students’ Erroneous Answers ................................... 111

  

ABSTRACT

  Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite

  

Clauses . Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata

Dharma University.

  One of the things that should be learned by the English Language Education Study Program students is grammar. There are so many topics to be mastered by the students, one of which is the non-finite clauses. The students are expected to be able to express complex ideas using the non-finite clauses in order to convey the ideas more effectively. Moreover, based on some informal interviews conducted with several senior students, half of the respondents stated that the non- finite clauses were difficult. Knowing that the non-finite clauses are essential and should be mastered by the students, it is important to measure their ability in using the non-finite clauses through research.

  The research discussed two problems. They were (1) What are the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses? (2) What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University? In order to answer those questions, a test was used as the instrument to gather the data. The test was administered to two classes of the sixth semester students in the academic year 2007/2008. They were chosen because they had learned the non-finite clauses comprehensively in Structure V.

  In order to answer the first question, the errors committed by the students were classified based on the types of subordinate clauses they belonged to. Overall, the errors committed by the students in producing the non-finite clauses were the occurrence of finite subordinate clauses, confusion between defining and non-defining adjective clauses, the occurrence of verbless clauses, the adjective clauses modifying wrong noun, wrong choice of main clauses and subordinate clauses, problems between active and passive sentences, retaining the relative pronoun, transforming into wrong types of subordinate clauses, inappropriate use of being + V-ed, inappropriate use of to be + V-ed, inappropriate use of –ed participle, problems in constructing negative clauses, lack of genitive case of pronoun, confusion to choose either to-infinitive or gerund, problems with clauses derived from question, incorrect use of comma, problems in perfect construction, problems with pronoun, retaining subordinator because for clause of reason, and the occurrence of coordinate clause. To answer the second question, the mean score of the test was calculated. The results of the research showed that the students’ mean score was 43.59 out of 100. This achievement was far below the minimum standard of mastery, which is 56% of the maximum score as the lower margin to pass with grade C or ‘sufficient’. Based on the scoring category, this score was categorized in the level of poor or grade E. explain each form of the non-finite verb in details. Second, the students should pay attention to the lecturers’ explanation, participate actively in class, and study the non-finite clauses outside the class either in groups or individually. Third, future researchers could improve the study by applying more than one instrument, changing the format of the test, or researching about the use of the non-finite clauses in the students’ writing.

  

ABSTRAK

  Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite

  

Clauses . Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata

Dharma University.

  Salah satu hal yang harus dipelajari oleh mahasiswa Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris adalah kemampuan tata bahasa. Ada banyak topik mengenai kemampuan tata bahasa yang harus dikuasai oleh mahasiswa, salah satunya adalah klausa non-finite. Mahasiswa diharapkan untuk dapat mengutarakan ide yang kompleks dengan menggunakan klausa non-finite agar mereka dapat menyampaikan idenya secara lebih efektif. Terlebih lagi, berdasarkan wawancara informal dengan beberapa mahasiswa senior, setengah dari jumlah responden menyatakan bahwa klausa non-finite sulit dipelajari. Mengetahui bahwa klausa non-finite mempunyai peran penting dan harus dikuasai mahasiswa, maka mengukur kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menggunakan klausa non-finite melalui kegiatan penelitian menjadi sangat diperlukan.

  Penelitian ini membahas dua permasalahan. Permasalahan tersebut adalah (1) Apa saja kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa

  

non-finite ? (2) Bagaimana kemampuan mahasiswa semester enam Program studi

  Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma dalam menggunakan klausa non-finite? Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, sebuah tes digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. Tes tersebut ditujukan kepada dua kelas dari mahasiswa semester enam tahun akademik 2007/2008. Mereka dipilih karena telah mempelajari klausa non-finite secara mendalam melalui mata kuliah Structure V.

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, kesalahan-kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dikelompokkan berdasarkan jenis anak kalimatnya. Secara keseluruhan, kesalahan yang dilakukan mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa non-

  

finite adalah anak kalimatnya masih finite, kebingungan antara klausa ajektif yang

defining dan non-definining, kemunculan klausa yang tidak mempunyai kata

  kerja, klausa ajektif yang memodifikasi kata benda kata benda yang salah, kesalahan dalam menentukan anak kalimat dan induk kalimat, kebingungan antara kalimat aktif dan pasif, pengubahan anak kalimat menjadi ke dalam jenis klausa yang tidak tepat, penggunaan being + V-ed yang tidak tepat, penggunaan to be +

  

V-ed yang tidak tepat, penggunaan –ed participle yang tidak tepat, kesulitan

  dalam membuat klausa dalam bentuk negatif, kekurangan kata ganti kepemilikan, kebingungan dalam memilih to-infinitive atau gerund, kesulitan dalam membuat klausa yang berasal dari kalimat pertanyaan, penggunaan tanda baca koma yang tidak tepat, kesulitan dalam membuat perfect construction, kesulitan dengan kata ganti, dipertahankannya kata penghubung because untuk keterangan sebab, dan maksimum adalah batas bawah untuk lulus dengan nilai C atau cukup. Berdasarkan kategori penilaian, nilai ini termasuk dalam tingkat lemah atau nilai E.

  Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, maka diajukanlah beberapa usulan berikut. Yang pertama, dosen mata kuliah Structure V Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris diharapkan untuk menekankan pada pemahaman mahasiswa terhadap konsep klausa finite dan non-finite, menyediakan contoh-contoh yang memadai, dan menjelaskan bentuk-bentuk kata kerja non-finite. Yang kedua, mahasiswa sebaiknya memperhatikan penjelasan dosen, berpartisipasi secara aktif di dalam kelas, dan mempelajari klausa non-finite di luar kelas baik dalam kelompok maupun secara pribadi. Yang ketiga, para peneliti yang akan datang dapat mengembangkan studi ini dengan menerapkan lebih dari satu bentuk instrumen, mengubah bentuk soal, atau meneliti tentang penggunaan klausa non-finite dalam karya tertulis mahasiswa.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter explains the introduction of the study. It consists of six parts. The first part is background of the study. This part conveys the reasons for

  choosing the non-finite clauses as the subject of the study. The second part is problem formulation. This part reveals the problems that are discussed in the study. The third is problem limitation, whose function is elaborating the boundaries on which the research is conducted. The fourth is objectives of the study. The fifth is benefits of the study, which conveys the advantages of conducting the research. The last part is definition of terms, which describes the terms used in the research.

A. Background of the Study

  As candidates of English teachers, the English Language Education Study Program students are supposed to master all things related to the education system and also English language as the subject matter. English itself consists of the four language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Besides, it also contains the language elements, namely grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary mastery. The teacher candidates should master all of those mentioned above, so that later they are able to become good teachers and to help their students to learn

  One of the problems in language learning is the mastery of grammar. There are so many topics that should be learned by teacher candidates, and one of the topics is the non-finite clauses. The teacher candidates, especially the senior students, are expected to be able to express complex ideas by using either the finite clauses or the non-finite clauses in order to convey the ideas more effectively instead of using simple sentences. Mastering the finite and non-finite clauses is important for them, but the non-finite clauses are considered more difficult than the finite clauses.

  Based on the writer’s experience, the non-finite clauses are difficult because they are complex in relation to their syntactic functions. The non-finite clauses can function as adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, and nominal or noun clauses. Besides, there are rules which are restricted in use, which the students still generalize. Those complexities cause difficulties for the learners. Moreover, tense markers, modal auxiliaries, and sometimes subject are omitted in the non-finite clauses (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 311). Those lacks make the non-finite clauses difficult to be learned and make the students confused in constructing them.

  Furthermore, based on some informal interviews conducted with several senior students of the English Language Education Study Program on July 2007, half of the respondents said that the non-finite clauses were difficult. One of them said that he was confused when to use to-infinitive and when to use gerund. In clauses and of the finite clauses. In addition, the students also had interference with Indonesian.

  Knowing that the non-finite clauses are essential and should be mastered by students of the English Education Study Program, it is important to measure their ability of using the non-finite clauses through research. The research results can show whether the students have the capability to use the non-finite clauses or not.

  The research was conducted to the sixth semester students, with the consideration that they have learned about the non-finite clauses comprehensively in their Structure V course. Therefore, they are supposed to master and be able to use the non-finite clause correctly. The research results were used by the researcher to provide some suggestions especially for the lecturers who teach Structure V, in which the non-finite clauses are taught.

  B. Problem Formulation The problems of the research are formulated as follows.

  1. What are the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses?

  2. What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University?

  C. Problem Limitation

  The research was conducted to the students of semester six of the 2007/2008 clauses comprehensively in Structure V course without considering whether they passed the course or not. The research mainly discusses the errors committed by the students in producing the non-finite clauses. A test was administered as the instrument to gather the data. The results of the test were analyzed further to show the errors in producing the non-finite clauses and to determine their mastery.

  The non-finite clauses consist of non-finite verbs forms only (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik, 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the verbs in the form of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed participle. In the study, the use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite clauses is excluded since it is rarely used in the sentences.

  The study puts the emphasis on the use of the non-finite clauses rather than on the theories of the non-finite clauses. The focus is the ability of the students to produce the non-finite clauses correctly. Thus, the questions in the instrument do not check whether the students know the concepts of the non-finite clauses, but rather on the application or the use.

D. Objectives of the Study

  The objectives of the study are: 1. To observe the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses.

  2. To find out the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma

E. Benefits of the Study

  It is hoped from the study that the readers, especially the English Language Education Study Program students who take Structure V, will have better understanding about the non-finite clauses. It might be useful for them because not all English grammar books provide adequate information about the non-finite clauses. This study may provide the readers with a sufficient explanation about these matters and they can also enrich their knowledge.

  The study discusses the errors the students committed in producing the non- finite clauses. Therefore, it may give beneficial inputs for the Structure V lecturers. The lecturers can see which parts of the non-finite clauses the students consider difficult and in which they often make mistakes so that later on the lecturers can give more attention to the difficult parts.

  The study is also beneficial for the students. The research reveals the errors in constructing complex sentences by using the non-finite clauses. Hence, this can make students more aware not to make such mistakes as described in the study.

  The study may also give opportunity to other researchers to explore the non- finite clauses more. For example, one may seek out how the students’ mastery of the non-finite clauses can help them in writing. The relevance of the mastery of non-finite clauses to the students’ writing product can be conducted through examining the students’ writing. Future researchers can develop this study by changing the sampling or the format of the test. Besides, they can also employ

F. Definition of Terms

  In this part, several terms which are used in the study are explained. It is necessary to define them since they are the key words of the research. The terms are as follows.

  1. The Non-Finite Clauses The non-finite clauses are described as clauses with non-finite verb phrases as the elements of the verbs (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 310). The non-finite verb phrases themselves are verb phrases that consist of non-finite verbs forms only (Quirk et al., 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the verbs in the form of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed participle. In the study, the use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite clauses is excluded since it is rarely used in the sentences.

  According to Quirk et al. (1992: 995), the non-finite verb phrases have no tense or mood, and it is impossible for them to occur with the subject of a main clause. It implies that the non-finite clauses cannot occur as the main clauses. In the study, the non-finite clauses refer to clauses which contain the non-finite verb forms as the verb element, and are always embedded to their main clauses.

2. Subordinate Clauses

  Subordinate clauses are “parts of their superordinate or main clauses” (Quirk et al., 1992: 991). Feigenbaum (1985: 211) states that “subordinate or dependent clause can be a noun-equivalent, an adverb-equivalent, or an adjective-

3. Error

  An error is “a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner” (Brown, 1994: 205). In other words, an error is caused by lack of knowledge. According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982: 138), errors are parts of one’s saying or writing which deviate from the rules of language.

  People sometimes differentiate between errorrs and mistakes. Brown (1994: 205) defines a mistake as “ a performance error which refers to a failure to utilize a known sytem correctly.” Further, Brown (1994: 205) explains that mistakes are the imperfection of speech production such as hesitations and slips of the tongue. Sometimes, it is difficult to judge whether a deviation is a mistake or an error. This study does not differentiate between errors and mistakes. In the study, errors refer to the students’ answers which are inappropriate and deviate from the rule of the non-finite patterns without considering whether they are really errors or mistakes.

  4. Mastery Fries (1948: 3) states that “a person has learned a foreign language when he has thus first, within a limited vocabulary mastered the sound system, that is, when he can understand the stream of speech and achieve an understandable production of it and has, second, made the structural devices or the basic arrangements of the utterances as a matter of automatic habit.” In the study, the study, refers to the understanding and ability to use the non-finite clauses correctly in the sentences.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter consists of two major parts. The first part is theoretical

  description, which elaborates some theories underlying this study. The second part is theoretical framework. In this part, the writer explains the relevance of the theories to the study.

A. Theoretical Description

  In this theoretical description, there are four theories to be elaborated. They are the theories of complex sentences, the finite and non-finite clauses, errors, and the mastery of a language. These theories serve as the bases for the discussion and the construction of the instrument.

1. Complex Sentences

  According to Close (1977: 42), a complex sentence is “a sentence that consists of two or more clauses, in which one of the clauses is subordinate to a main clause.” This means that there are two elements of a complex sentence, namely main or independent clause and subordinate or dependent clause.

  Feigenbaum (1985: 209) states that these two clauses cannot be separated into different sentences since a subordinate clause cannot stand by itself as a sentence and has to be connected to a main clause.

  In example (1), although she was tired is the subordinate clause. Therefore, it cannot stand alone.

  Close (1977: 42) states that a subordinate clause must be able to replace a noun phrase, modify a noun phrase, or replace an adverbial in the main clause.

  Meanwhile, Feigenbaum (1985: 211) says that a subordinate or dependent clause may be an equivalent of a noun, an adverb, or an adjective. In other words, according to their syntactic functions, subordinate clauses can be classified into three types, namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, and the last is nominal or usually known as noun clauses.

a. Adjective Clauses

  Adjective clauses, which are also known as relative clauses, refer to subordinate clauses that explain, specify, or provide more information about a noun (Azar, 1989: 238). It is already clear that adjective clauses are clauses which are used to describe a noun.

  (2) I thanked the woman who helped me (Azar, 1989: 238). (3) The noise that he made woke everybody up (Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 81).

  The clause who helped me is used to specify the noun of the sentence; that is, the woman. In (3), the adjective clause that he made explains the noise.

  In adjective clauses, it is important to put the clauses as close as possible to their antecedent or the noun to which the clauses refer. Close (1977: 51) states that clauses usually separate the antecedent which functions as the subject of the main clause with the verb.

  Adjective clauses themselves are of two types; those are, defining and non- defining clauses. An adjective clause is said to be a defining clause when the clause contains important information and helps to describe the antecedent (Graver, 1981: 121). Therefore, it is unnecessary to put commas between the antecedent and the adjective clause.

  (4) I don’t like people who lose their tempers easily (Swan, 1988: item 525).

  (5) The library didn’t have the book that I wanted (Graver, 1981: 123). Meanwhile, non-defining adjective clause is an adjective clause which is not an essential part of the meaning of the noun. Thus, it is separated from the noun by using commas (Swan, 1988: item 528). The non-defining adjective clause is used when the noun or the antecedent is definite already. The information contained in the non-defining adjective clause is additional. The following are the examples.

  (6) Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry (Azar, 1989: 250). (7) This is Mr. Gallagher, who writes comic poetry (Swan, 1988: item 528). Adjective clauses are often preceded by a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun is a new word or phrase that substitutes a word or phrase in the main clause (Feigenbaum, 1985: 217). In (7), the word who, as the relative pronoun,

  There are three things to be considered in choosing the relative pronoun. The first is whether the clause is defining or non-defining. The second is the antecedent, whether it is person or thing. The last is the function of the relative pronoun. The use of relative pronoun is presented in Table 2.1.

  Table 2.1: The Use of Relative Pronoun (Close, 1977: 51) Position of Defining Clause Non-defining Clause Relative Person Thing Person Thing Pronoun

  Subject who or that which or that who which Object whom , who, or which or that whom which that

  Object of to whom or to which or to whom or to which or preposition that…to that…to whom…to which…to Possessive whose whose or of whose whose or of which which

  From Table 2.1, relative pronoun that can be used in defining clause if it functions as the subject or object of the clause, both for person or thing. On the other hand, relative pronoun that cannot be used in non-defining clause. Who and

  which are the only pronouns that are applicable in non-defining clause where the relative pronoun becomes the subject or object of the clause.

b. Adverbial Clauses

  According to Curme (1966: 176), “adverbial clauses are divided into classes which correspond to the adverbial elements; that is, clauses of place, time, manner, degree, cause, condition, concession, purpose and means.” Those types of

  1) Clause of Place

  The conjunctions used for adverbial clause of place are where or wherever (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 323). Where is used when the place is already specific, and wherever for nonspecific place (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 315).

  (8) You may park your car where there is a parking sign (Close, 1977: 56). (9) They sat down wherever they could find empty seats (Frank, 1972: 240).

  2) Clause of Time

  Adverbial clause of time can be introduced by when, while, since, before,

  

after , until, as soon as, as long as, by the time, now that, and once (Frank, 1972:

  21). Quirk and Greenbaum (1985: 323) state that time clause usually occurs in initial position. The following are the examples.

  (10) When I last saw you, you lived in Washington (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 322).

  (11) Once having made a promise, you should keep it (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 314).

  3) Clause of Manner

  Clause of manner is usually located after the verb (Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 52). The conjunctions for clause of manner are as if and as though (Frank, 1972: 22).

  (12) He looks as if he is going to be ill (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 328).

  4) Clause of Degree more persons or things. The formulas as presented by Frank (1972: 22) are:

  as ⎫ adjective / adverb as

• ⎬ ( not ) so ⎭

  er − ⎫

• adjective / adverb than ⎬

  more ⎭ (13) I am as tall as she is (Curme, 1966: 184).

  (14) George is quicker than I am (Close, 1977: 63).

  5) Clause of Cause

  The aim of clause of cause is to give reason for the thing that happens. The conjunctions that can be used are because, since, as, now that, whereas, inasmuch

  

as, as long as, on account of the fact that, owing to the fact that, in view of the fact

that, because of the fact that, due to the fact that (Frank, 1972: 21). The following

  are the examples.

  (15) Since I was in the same class as George, I know him very well (Close, 1977: 63).

  (16) He stole the money because he was out of work (Graver, 1981: 305).

  6) Clause of Condition The sentence that contains this type of clause is called conditional sentence.

  The basic principle is that one thing will occur or happen when one certain condition is fulfilled. The subordinate conjunctions for this type of clause are if,

  

unless, on condition that, provided that, providing that, in case that, in the event

that (Frank, 1972: 21). The examples are:

  (18) You may leave the apartment at any time, provided that you give a month’s notice or pay an additional month’s rent (Greenbaum and

  Quirk, 1990: 317).

  7) Clause of Concession In some other books, this type of clause is also called by clause of contrast.

  Clause of concession can be introduced by although, though, even if, while, whereas (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 319).

  (19) Although I felt very tired, I tried to finish the work (Frank, 1972: 22). (20) Even if an icy wind blew from the north, we always slept with our windows wide open (Close, 1977: 64).

  8) Clause of Purpose

  Clause of purpose expresses the aim for doing something. The conjunctions for clause of purpose are so that, in order that, so, that, for the purpose that (Frank, 1972: 22).

  (21) He spent most of his time studying so that he might later get a better job (Graver, 1981: 306).

  (22) We issued this instruction in writing, for fear that a spoken message might be misunderstood (Close, 1977: 65).

  9) Clause of Means

  The conjunction for clause of means is by. The example is: (23) By holding on to the rope firmly, I came safe to the shore (Curme,

c. Noun Clauses

  Noun clauses are clauses whose function is the same as a noun. Noun clauses can be the subject, object, complement, appositive, and prepositional complement (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 304). Besides, Frank (1972: 283) classifies noun clauses into four types based on the kinds of sentences they derived from; that is, statements, questions, requests, and exclamation.

  The first type is noun clauses that are derived from statements. The conjunction for this type of clause is that (Frank, 1972: 286). The example is: (24) That the driver could not control his car was obvious (Close, 1977: 43). That complex sentence is derived from two sentences. They are:

  (25) The driver could not control his car. (26) It was obvious. Sentence (25) is a statement. Therefore, it should be preceded by conjunction that to be a noun clause functioning as the subject of the main clause. That can be omitted in clause that functions as the object, especially in informal situation, but it should remain if the clause functions as the subject (Frank, 1972: 291).