08832323.2012.657262
Journal of Education for Business
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
A Study of Undergraduate Student Intent to
Minor in Business: A Test of the Theory of Planned
Behavior
Datha Damron-Martinez , Adrien Presley & Lin Zhang
To cite this article: Datha Damron-Martinez , Adrien Presley & Lin Zhang (2013) A Study of
Undergraduate Student Intent to Minor in Business: A Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior,
Journal of Education for Business, 88:2, 109-116, DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2012.657262
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2012.657262
Published online: 04 Dec 2012.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 129
View related articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjeb20
Download by: [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji]
Date: 11 January 2016, At: 20:57
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS, 88: 109–116, 2013
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Copyright
ISSN: 0883-2323 print / 1940-3356 online
DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2012.657262
A Study of Undergraduate Student Intent to Minor in
Business: A Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior
Datha Damron-Martinez, Adrien Presley, and Lin Zhang
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
Truman State University, Kirksville, Missouri, USA
Undergraduate students are becoming aware of the edge that a business degree presents in the
job hunt, yet many cannot justify the additional resources spent in obtaining a second major.
A minor in business circumvents this constraint. The authors build on previous research into
the motivations of students to choose a business minor by using Ajzen’s Theory of Planned
Behavior as a theoretical basis for indentifying the factors that might influence their intention
to minor in an area of business. A survey administered to 617 nonbusiness undergraduate
students, and subsequent analysis, supported Ajzen’s theory that attitude, perceived behavioral
control, and subjective norms all were significant predictors of intention.
Keywords: business minor, business student choice, theory of planned behavior
To meet the needs of students in today’s competitive environment, colleges and universities schools are seeking ways
to increase the marketability of undergraduate students. By
increasing exposure to a variety of academic courses and
experiences, students can build a broader resume, enabling
them to obtain positions within and outside of their major
area of study. A common approach to achieve this exposure
is through the completion of a minor program of study (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, 2010;
Gloeckler, 2007); some institutions, recognizing the importance of providing such an opportunity for students, have
recently added minor areas of study (Grau & Akin, 2011;
Pierson & Troppe, 2010). While this opportunity is often encouraged by academic advisors, not all students choose to
participate; academicians search for a better understanding
as to why. Questions exist as to the antecedents of student
choice to choose a minor program of study.
This research was undertaken with a number of outcomes
in mind. First, and primarily, we sought to achieve a better
understanding of the motivations of undergraduate students
in choosing a business minor. Second, it is believed that this
understanding will assist in the recruitment of students by
business programs. Third, students increasingly realize the
need for additional education beyond their primary undergraduate degree preparation for success in today’s market
Correspondence should be addressed to Datha Damron-Martinez, Truman State University, School of Business, Violette Hall 2456, 100 E. Normal
Street, Kirksville, MO 63501-4221, USA. E-mail: martinez@truman.edu
(Gloeckler, 2007); here we explore and contribute to the theory as well as to the veracity of this supposition.
The results of a study performed to analyze the factors
which impact the attitude toward and likelihood of nonbusiness students pursue a business minor program are presented.
While other investigations have looked at undergraduate students and the choice of academic majors, factors related to
the choice of a minor have been largely ignored. The research described uses the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB;
Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), a widely accepted
model from social psychology as its theoretical foundation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Research on Student Choice of Academic Major
or Minor
Several studies have examined factors influencing student
choice of academic majors in general and business disciplines specifically. A review of the literature, however, failed
to identify any previous research looking specifically at the
student decision to minor in business.
Keillor, Bush, and Bush (1995) found that institutions
facing decreased enrollment must consider the components
of attraction to any area of study. Course offerings, professor credibility, practical relevance of the particular courses
and major, and the perceived quality of the institution and
the program were significant factors. Keillor et al. contend
that through the identification of the key criteria in major
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
110
D. DAMRON-MARTINEZ ET AL.
selection, institutions can use this information to communicate information to their target audience. Lowe and Simons
(1996) also considered factors influencing student choice of
business majors. They found that career options are foremost for marketing majors whereas accounting, finance, and
management majors rank future earnings as the most important influence with career options second, supporting previous research (Cebula & Lopes, 1982; Fiorito & Dauffenbach, 1982). Gnoth and Juric (1996) and, later, West, Newell,
and Titus (2001) concurred. Kim, Markham, and Cangelosi’s
(2002) also supported earlier findings; further inquiry in this
study discovered the internal motivation of students to choose
majors in which the type of work was of interest and matched
their abilities. Strasser, Ozgur, and Schroeder (2002) agreed
to some extent in their research but found that management
was the only area where interest was correlated to decision.
Malgwi, Howe, and Burnaby (2005) agreed.
Simons, Lowe, and Stout (2003) performed a comprehensive literature of factors influencing choice of accounting
as a major and found earnings were a lead factor. In their
empirical study, Pritchard, Potter, and Saccucci (2004) established that areas of study in business, such as accounting,
are often perceived as too quantitative for students who then
choose another major. Also, accounting students typically
take their introductory courses sooner than other business
majors and, therefore, may choose a major earlier in their
academic career than other students. This literature suggests
that prospective business students need to be made aware of
expectations and outcomes or opportunities available to them
early in their academic career. Zhang (2007) looked specifically at the choice of information systems (IS) as a major;
the research discovered IS majors cite referent influence in
the form of social pressure as a deciding factor as well, and
families and professors were identified as the salient referent
groups.
Conversely, Leppel, Williams, and Waldauer (2001)
looked exclusively at the impact of parents’ occupation and
socioeconomic status on the students’ major choice and
found that this may be the primary antecedent in a students’
major choice. Female students were more influenced by the
fathers’ occupation and socioeconomic status, yet the opposite was true for male students in choosing a major.
Theory of Planned Behavior
The TPB is a widely studied model from social psychology,
concerned with the determinants of consciously intended behaviors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). According to the TPB (see
Figure 1), a person’s performance of a specified behavior is
determined by that person’s behavioral intention to perform
the behavior. This behavioral intention is, in turn, determined
by three factors concerning the behavior in question: attitude
toward the behavior (A), which refers to the degree to which
the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the
behavior in question; subjective norm (SN), which refers to
the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform
the behavior; and perceived behavioral control (PBC), defined as the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior. As
a general rule, the more favorable the attitude and subjective
norm with respect to a behavior, and the greater the perceived
behavioral control, the stronger an individual’s intention to
perform the behavior under consideration.
Each of these factors is further determined by a pair of
secondary factors. Attitude is a function of products of behavioral beliefs (the likelihood or extent to which an action
will result in a particular outcome) and outcome evaluations
(positive or negative evaluation of the desirability of the outcome). Subjective norms are determined by a person’s perceived expectation of specific referent individuals or groups
multiplied by his or her motivation to comply with these expectations. Perceived behavioral control depends on control
belief (a perception of the availability of skills, resources, and
opportunities) multiplied by perceived facilitation (an assessment of the importance of those resources to the achievement
of outcomes).
The TPB has been used in a wide range of behavioral
science disciplines and empirically in a variety of situations
to predict and understand behavior. In studies related to our
A
Behavioral Beliefs
and
Outcome Evaluations
Attitude
SN
Normative Beliefs
and
Motivation to Comply
I
Subjective
Norms
Intention
Control Beliefs
and
Perceived Facilitation
Perceived
Behavioral
Control
Behavior
PBC
FIGURE 1
The theory of planned behavior.
Influences
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT INTENT TO MINOR IN BUSINESS
research, Cohen and Hanno (1993) utilized the TPB to study
U.S. students’ choice of accounting as an academic major.
All three factors, attitude, subjective norms, and perceived
control, were significant and highly correlated to intention.
Tan and Laswad (2006) extended and updated the Cohen
and Hanno’s research applied to students in New Zealand.
Overall, the results of both research projects reinforced the
need for positive marketing of the accounting major in and
out of the academic setting to dispel possible negative notions
or perceptions about accounting as a major.
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The target population selected was nonbusiness students at
a single Midwest university recruited through an invitation
email sent to 4,379 nonbusiness majors. Two reminder emails
were sent one and two weeks later to increase participation rate; participation was voluntary and anonymous. Students accessed an online survey instrument, activated for two
weeks, through a link provided in the email. After eliminating
unusable questionnaires, 617 usable responses were gathered
for a 14.1% usable response rate. Table 1 presents selected
demographic attributes for the participants.
Instrument
The items for the online survey were developed through a
series of elicitation interviews conducted with a representative sample of the target population. The interviews were
conducted in three upper level courses to determine relevant
(a) student referent groups to measure subjective norms, (b)
relevant outcomes to measure attitude, and (c) relevant resources and opportunities to measure perceived behavioral
control. Open-ended questions, asked to facilitate responses,
were the following: What factors will positively/negatively
influence your decision to obtain a business minor? Who
would approve/disapprove of your decision to obtain a business minor? What factors would prevent you from/assist you
in pursuing a business minor? Is there anything else that
comes to mind when you think of a business minor?
The responses were classified and grouped according to
similarities leading to the identification of the factors deemed
most relevant for each of the elements of the TPB. Those factors mentioned most often were chosen for incorporation into
the full survey instrument. The final list of factors consisted
of six referent groups, eight outcomes, and seven facilitating
factors as shown in Table 2.
The referent groups were used to develop specific questions to evaluate the elements of the TPB. The questions
for the survey were developed using guidelines found in the
literature (Ajzen, 1991; Mathieson, 1991) and a previously
validated survey instrument described by Riemenschneider
and McKinney (2001). The questions were formatted in a
7-point semantic differential scale (endpoints included
111
TABLE 1
Demographics
Gender
Female
Male
Nationality
American citizen
International
Age (years)
18–22
23–27
28–32
> 32
Ethnicity
Caucasian
Asian
African
Hispanic
Multiple ethnicity
Others
Classification
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Annual household income
≤ $25,000
S25,001—$50,000
$50,001—$100,000
$100,001—$150,000
≥ $150,000
Major
Health science and education
Social science
Language and literature
Life science
Fine arts
Math and computer science
Physical science
Health
Nursing
Others
n
%
414
202
67.2
32.8
595
17
96.5
2.8
590
20
3
3
95.8
3.2
.5
.5
534
32
11
14
12
10
86.7
5.2
1.8
2.3
2.0
1.6
127
142
177
168
20.6
23.1
28.7
27.3
114
113
243
95
39
18.5
18.3
39.4
15.4
6.3
158
141
63
62
55
48
48
27
6
3
25.9
23.1
10.2
10.1
9.0
7.9
7.9
4.4
1.0
0.5
strongly disagree/strongly agree, not at all/very much,
extremely negative/extremely positive, extremely unlikely/
extremely likely, and extremely unimportant/extremely important, depending on the question). In addition, survey items
designed to directly measure subjective norms, attitude, perceived behavioral control, and intention were developed. Example questions are shown in Table 3.
RESULTS
TPB Model
Table 4 shows the correlation coefficients of the three first
level constructs (the independent variables) in the model for
all respondents. All three constructs were significantly correlated with intention to pursue a minor (p ≤ .01).
112
D. DAMRON-MARTINEZ ET AL.
TABLE 2
Factors for Survey
Referent groups
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
Parents
Significant others
Potential business employers
Friends and other peers
People with negative views of business
Potential nonbusiness employers
Outcomes
Facilitating factors
More marketable in the job market
Acquiring knowledge and skills
Gaining a better understanding of the business world
Gaining knowledge useful for starting own business
Extra classes and work
Boring classes
More difficult or different classes than major classes
Acquire a relevant and useful minor
Information about the requirements and benefits
Easy-to-get-in classes
Availability of assistance with course material
Prerequisite math skills and courses
Courses tailored to minor students
Ability and flexibility to fit minor courses to schedule
Interest and motivation to obtain the minor
According to the model of planned behavior, we also have
three models describing the relationships between factors
predicting attitude toward taking business minor, subjective
norm, and perceived behavioral control, respectively:
sion models are significant and consistent with theory
predictions.
Attitude = α a + β a (behavior belief × outcome evaluation)
+ε
Subjective norm = α s + β s (normative belief × motivation
to comply) + ε
Perceived behavioral control = α p + β p (perceived facilitators
× control beliefs) + ε
Relative importance of individual items was also investigated. The likelihood of experiencing positive outcomes were
acknowledged by students: gaining a better understanding
of the business world (M = 5.65 [higher more favorable],
SD = 1.21), gaining knowledge useful for starting own business (M = 5.36, SD = 1.03), acquiring knowledge and skills
that can be used in everyday life (M = 5.00, SD = 1.32),
becoming more marketable in the job market (M = 4.88,
SD = 1.47), and acquire a relevant and useful minor (M =
Tables 5–8 present the regression model results for attitude toward taking business minor. All estimated regres-
Individual Items
TABLE 3
Example Survey Questions
Subjective norms: determined by a person’s normative beliefs (perceived expectation of specific referent individuals or groups) and his or her motivation
to comply with these expectations
• Direct measure (3 items): Most people whose opinions I value would
of my obtaining a business minor.
Strongly disapprove ↔ Strongly approve
• Normative belief (6 items): My parents would look favorably on my obtaining a business minor.
Strongly disagree ↔ Strongly agree
• Motivation to comply (6 items): How much do you care whether your parents approved or disapproved of your choice of pursuing a business minor?
Not at all ↔ Very much
Attitude: a function of outcome evaluations (positive or negative evaluation of the desirability of the outcome) and behavioral beliefs (the likelihood or
extent to which an action will result in a particular outcome).
• Direct measure (5 items): Obtaining a business minor is
Bad ↔ Good
• Outcome evaluation (7 items): Making myself more marketable in the job market is
Extremely negative ↔ Extremely positive
• Behavioral belief (7 items): If I obtain a business minor, it is
that I would make myself more marketable in the job market.
Extremely unlikely ↔ Extremely likely
Perceived behavioral control is a function of control beliefs (a perception of the availability of skills, resources, and opportunities) and perceived
facilitation (an assessment of the importance of those resources to the achievement of outcomes).
• Direct measure (4 items): For me to obtain a business minor would be . . .
Extremely difficult ↔ Extremely easy
• Control belief (9 items): With regards to my decision to obtain a business minor, having information about the requirements and benefits of a
business minor is. . .
Extremely unimportant ↔ Extremely important
• Perceived facilitation (9 items): It
that I would have information about the requirements and benefits of a business minor.
Extremely unlikely ↔ Extremely likely
Intention
• Direct measure (3 items): I plan to obtain a business minor.
Extremely unlikely ↔ Extremely likely
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT INTENT TO MINOR IN BUSINESS
4.66, SD = 1.55). For the likelihood of experiencing negative outcomes, the following results were seen: extra classes
and work (M = 5.36, SD = 1.63), boring classes (M = 4.89,
SD = 1.21), and more difficult or different classes than major
classes (M = 4.29, SD = 1.62).
The survey data also suggest that students consider the
benefits of acquiring knowledge and skills (M = 6.20, SD
= 1.24), becoming more marketable in the job market (M =
6.06, SD = 1.45), acquiring a relevant and useful minor (M =
5.79, SD = 1.63), and gaining knowledge useful for starting
own business (M = 5.21, SD = 1.21), as most the favorable
outcomes of acquiring a business minor. Data also indicated
that taking boring classes was the biggest concern of students
(M = 2.82, SD = 1.06), followed by taking more difficult or
different classes than major classes (M = 3.61, SD = 1.07),
and extra classes and work (M = 3.99, SD = 1.37).
Interest and motivation to obtain the minor, and ability and
flexibility to fit minor course to schedule were considered
as the top factors affecting (either positively or negatively)
students’ choice (Ms = 6.02 [SD = 1.61] and 5.86 [SD =
1.49]) while prerequisite math skills and courses, and courses
tailored to minor students were considered the least likely
to affect their decision (Ms = 4.79 [SD = 1.51] and 5.17
[SD = 1.71], respectively). However, students perceived that
interest and motivation to obtain the minor and the ability
and flexibility to fit minor courses to schedule (Ms = 3.30
[SD = 1.61] and 3.34 [SD = 1.52], respectively) were the
factors that would least likely occur as inhibiting factors.
When taking other’s opinions into consideration, students
tend to most value future business and nonbusiness employer’s view (Ms = 4.63 [SD = 1.65] and 4.03 [SD = 1.39],
respectively) while opinions of people with negative views
of business, and friends and other peers were least important
(Ms = 2.50 [SD = 1.63] and 3.05 [SD = 1.61], respectively).
At the same time, they thought future business employers
and parents were mostly likely to favor their decision (Ms =
5.39 [SD = 1.63] and 4.97 [SD = 1.25], respectively).
Group Differences
Analysis was also conducted to see if there were differences
in opinions among various groups of respondents. With respect to behavioral beliefs, female students were more likely
to believe that they can acquire knowledge and skills, F =
4.927, p = .027; gain a better understanding of the business
world, F = 4.697, p = .031; would experience extra classes
and work, F = 5.672, p = .018; and would have to take more
difficult or different classes than their major classes, F =
4.711, p = .030, than were male students. Female students
were more likely to identify the importance of the outcome
evaluations of being more marketable in the job, F = 10.051,
p = .002; acquiring knowledge and skills, F = 4.113, p =
.043; and acquiring a relevant and useful minor, F = 8.441, p
= .004, than were male students. Female students also were
more likely to comply with the opinions of their parents, F =
113
TABLE 4
Correlations
Attitude
Intention
Attitude
Subjective norm
∗p
Subjective
norm
Perceived behavior
control
.582∗
.594∗
.269∗
.124∗
.121∗
.420∗
< .01.
TABLE 5
Model Construct for Attitude Toward Business Minor
Constant
Behavioral belief ×
Outcome evaluation
Coefficient
SE
t
p
12.839
.064
.519
.002
24.722
25.893
.000
.000
Note. n = 616, R2 = .52.
TABLE 6
Model Construct for Subjective Norms of Business
Minor
Constant
Behavioral belief ×
Outcome evaluation
Coefficient
SE
t
p
7.725
0.039
0.271
0.002
28.553
15.765
.000
.000
Note. n = 616, R2 = .287.
TABLE 7
Model Construct for Perceived Behavior Control of
Business Minor
Constant
Perceived facilitators ×
Control beliefs
Coefficient
SE
t
p
15.742
0.026
0.575
0.003
27.356
7.644
.000
.000
Note. n = 616, R2 = .087.
TABLE 8
Model Construct
Constant
Attitude
Subjective norm
Perceived control
Note. n = 616, R2 = .385.
Coefficient
SE
p
–7.581
0.086
0.734
0.193
0.903
0.034
0.058
0.031
.000
.012
.000
.000
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
114
D. DAMRON-MARTINEZ ET AL.
17.003, p < .000; potential business employers, F = 16.082,
p < .000; and nonbusiness employers, F = 9.129, p = .003.
Female students valued the importance of most facilitators more than male students. Specifically, they stated the
importance of having information about the requirements
and benefits of a business minor, F = 9.098, p = .003; having classes that are easy to get into, F = 8.774, p = .003; the
availability of assistance with course material, F = 14.161,
p < .000; having prerequisite math skills and courses, F =
11.090, p = .001; and the availability of course especially
tailored to minors, F = 7.302, p = .007. Female students
were less likely to perceive that they would have easy-to-getinto classes, F = 4.277, p = .039, and ability and flexibility
to fit minor courses to schedule, F = 5.761, p = .017, than
were male students.
In general, female students were more likely to believe
that taking a business minor would benefit them, and believed
those benefits would be important for them. They were more
likely to be influenced by their parents and potential employers when making decisions about business minor, and were
more concerned about whether facilitating factors would be
available, were less optimistic in the availability of courses
specially tailored to a minor, and ability and flexibility to
work required courses into their schedule.
When looking at class standing, lower level students
(freshmen and sophomores [FS]) were more likely to believe
that a business minor would be a relevant and useful minor
than were upper level juniors and seniors (JS), F = 4.034, p =
.045. Meanwhile, lowerclassmen were more likely to think
that by acquiring a business minor, they would be required
to take classes which were more difficult or different than
courses of their major, F = 4.707, p = .030. FS had more
interests and motivation to gain knowledge useful for starting their own business, F = 9.961, p = .002, and acquiring a
relevant and useful minor, F = –1.151, p = .002, than did JS.
They were also less concerned about taking extra classes and
work, F = 14.405, p
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
A Study of Undergraduate Student Intent to
Minor in Business: A Test of the Theory of Planned
Behavior
Datha Damron-Martinez , Adrien Presley & Lin Zhang
To cite this article: Datha Damron-Martinez , Adrien Presley & Lin Zhang (2013) A Study of
Undergraduate Student Intent to Minor in Business: A Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior,
Journal of Education for Business, 88:2, 109-116, DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2012.657262
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2012.657262
Published online: 04 Dec 2012.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 129
View related articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjeb20
Download by: [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji]
Date: 11 January 2016, At: 20:57
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS, 88: 109–116, 2013
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Copyright
ISSN: 0883-2323 print / 1940-3356 online
DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2012.657262
A Study of Undergraduate Student Intent to Minor in
Business: A Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior
Datha Damron-Martinez, Adrien Presley, and Lin Zhang
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
Truman State University, Kirksville, Missouri, USA
Undergraduate students are becoming aware of the edge that a business degree presents in the
job hunt, yet many cannot justify the additional resources spent in obtaining a second major.
A minor in business circumvents this constraint. The authors build on previous research into
the motivations of students to choose a business minor by using Ajzen’s Theory of Planned
Behavior as a theoretical basis for indentifying the factors that might influence their intention
to minor in an area of business. A survey administered to 617 nonbusiness undergraduate
students, and subsequent analysis, supported Ajzen’s theory that attitude, perceived behavioral
control, and subjective norms all were significant predictors of intention.
Keywords: business minor, business student choice, theory of planned behavior
To meet the needs of students in today’s competitive environment, colleges and universities schools are seeking ways
to increase the marketability of undergraduate students. By
increasing exposure to a variety of academic courses and
experiences, students can build a broader resume, enabling
them to obtain positions within and outside of their major
area of study. A common approach to achieve this exposure
is through the completion of a minor program of study (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, 2010;
Gloeckler, 2007); some institutions, recognizing the importance of providing such an opportunity for students, have
recently added minor areas of study (Grau & Akin, 2011;
Pierson & Troppe, 2010). While this opportunity is often encouraged by academic advisors, not all students choose to
participate; academicians search for a better understanding
as to why. Questions exist as to the antecedents of student
choice to choose a minor program of study.
This research was undertaken with a number of outcomes
in mind. First, and primarily, we sought to achieve a better
understanding of the motivations of undergraduate students
in choosing a business minor. Second, it is believed that this
understanding will assist in the recruitment of students by
business programs. Third, students increasingly realize the
need for additional education beyond their primary undergraduate degree preparation for success in today’s market
Correspondence should be addressed to Datha Damron-Martinez, Truman State University, School of Business, Violette Hall 2456, 100 E. Normal
Street, Kirksville, MO 63501-4221, USA. E-mail: martinez@truman.edu
(Gloeckler, 2007); here we explore and contribute to the theory as well as to the veracity of this supposition.
The results of a study performed to analyze the factors
which impact the attitude toward and likelihood of nonbusiness students pursue a business minor program are presented.
While other investigations have looked at undergraduate students and the choice of academic majors, factors related to
the choice of a minor have been largely ignored. The research described uses the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB;
Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), a widely accepted
model from social psychology as its theoretical foundation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Research on Student Choice of Academic Major
or Minor
Several studies have examined factors influencing student
choice of academic majors in general and business disciplines specifically. A review of the literature, however, failed
to identify any previous research looking specifically at the
student decision to minor in business.
Keillor, Bush, and Bush (1995) found that institutions
facing decreased enrollment must consider the components
of attraction to any area of study. Course offerings, professor credibility, practical relevance of the particular courses
and major, and the perceived quality of the institution and
the program were significant factors. Keillor et al. contend
that through the identification of the key criteria in major
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 20:57 11 January 2016
110
D. DAMRON-MARTINEZ ET AL.
selection, institutions can use this information to communicate information to their target audience. Lowe and Simons
(1996) also considered factors influencing student choice of
business majors. They found that career options are foremost for marketing majors whereas accounting, finance, and
management majors rank future earnings as the most important influence with career options second, supporting previous research (Cebula & Lopes, 1982; Fiorito & Dauffenbach, 1982). Gnoth and Juric (1996) and, later, West, Newell,
and Titus (2001) concurred. Kim, Markham, and Cangelosi’s
(2002) also supported earlier findings; further inquiry in this
study discovered the internal motivation of students to choose
majors in which the type of work was of interest and matched
their abilities. Strasser, Ozgur, and Schroeder (2002) agreed
to some extent in their research but found that management
was the only area where interest was correlated to decision.
Malgwi, Howe, and Burnaby (2005) agreed.
Simons, Lowe, and Stout (2003) performed a comprehensive literature of factors influencing choice of accounting
as a major and found earnings were a lead factor. In their
empirical study, Pritchard, Potter, and Saccucci (2004) established that areas of study in business, such as accounting,
are often perceived as too quantitative for students who then
choose another major. Also, accounting students typically
take their introductory courses sooner than other business
majors and, therefore, may choose a major earlier in their
academic career than other students. This literature suggests
that prospective business students need to be made aware of
expectations and outcomes or opportunities available to them
early in their academic career. Zhang (2007) looked specifically at the choice of information systems (IS) as a major;
the research discovered IS majors cite referent influence in
the form of social pressure as a deciding factor as well, and
families and professors were identified as the salient referent
groups.
Conversely, Leppel, Williams, and Waldauer (2001)
looked exclusively at the impact of parents’ occupation and
socioeconomic status on the students’ major choice and
found that this may be the primary antecedent in a students’
major choice. Female students were more influenced by the
fathers’ occupation and socioeconomic status, yet the opposite was true for male students in choosing a major.
Theory of Planned Behavior
The TPB is a widely studied model from social psychology,
concerned with the determinants of consciously intended behaviors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). According to the TPB (see
Figure 1), a person’s performance of a specified behavior is
determined by that person’s behavioral intention to perform
the behavior. This behavioral intention is, in turn, determined
by three factors concerning the behavior in question: attitude
toward the behavior (A), which refers to the degree to which
the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the
behavior in question; subjective norm (SN), which refers to
the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform
the behavior; and perceived behavioral control (PBC), defined as the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior. As
a general rule, the more favorable the attitude and subjective
norm with respect to a behavior, and the greater the perceived
behavioral control, the stronger an individual’s intention to
perform the behavior under consideration.
Each of these factors is further determined by a pair of
secondary factors. Attitude is a function of products of behavioral beliefs (the likelihood or extent to which an action
will result in a particular outcome) and outcome evaluations
(positive or negative evaluation of the desirability of the outcome). Subjective norms are determined by a person’s perceived expectation of specific referent individuals or groups
multiplied by his or her motivation to comply with these expectations. Perceived behavioral control depends on control
belief (a perception of the availability of skills, resources, and
opportunities) multiplied by perceived facilitation (an assessment of the importance of those resources to the achievement
of outcomes).
The TPB has been used in a wide range of behavioral
science disciplines and empirically in a variety of situations
to predict and understand behavior. In studies related to our
A
Behavioral Beliefs
and
Outcome Evaluations
Attitude
SN
Normative Beliefs
and
Motivation to Comply
I
Subjective
Norms
Intention
Control Beliefs
and
Perceived Facilitation
Perceived
Behavioral
Control
Behavior
PBC
FIGURE 1
The theory of planned behavior.
Influences
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT INTENT TO MINOR IN BUSINESS
research, Cohen and Hanno (1993) utilized the TPB to study
U.S. students’ choice of accounting as an academic major.
All three factors, attitude, subjective norms, and perceived
control, were significant and highly correlated to intention.
Tan and Laswad (2006) extended and updated the Cohen
and Hanno’s research applied to students in New Zealand.
Overall, the results of both research projects reinforced the
need for positive marketing of the accounting major in and
out of the academic setting to dispel possible negative notions
or perceptions about accounting as a major.
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METHODOLOGY
Participants
The target population selected was nonbusiness students at
a single Midwest university recruited through an invitation
email sent to 4,379 nonbusiness majors. Two reminder emails
were sent one and two weeks later to increase participation rate; participation was voluntary and anonymous. Students accessed an online survey instrument, activated for two
weeks, through a link provided in the email. After eliminating
unusable questionnaires, 617 usable responses were gathered
for a 14.1% usable response rate. Table 1 presents selected
demographic attributes for the participants.
Instrument
The items for the online survey were developed through a
series of elicitation interviews conducted with a representative sample of the target population. The interviews were
conducted in three upper level courses to determine relevant
(a) student referent groups to measure subjective norms, (b)
relevant outcomes to measure attitude, and (c) relevant resources and opportunities to measure perceived behavioral
control. Open-ended questions, asked to facilitate responses,
were the following: What factors will positively/negatively
influence your decision to obtain a business minor? Who
would approve/disapprove of your decision to obtain a business minor? What factors would prevent you from/assist you
in pursuing a business minor? Is there anything else that
comes to mind when you think of a business minor?
The responses were classified and grouped according to
similarities leading to the identification of the factors deemed
most relevant for each of the elements of the TPB. Those factors mentioned most often were chosen for incorporation into
the full survey instrument. The final list of factors consisted
of six referent groups, eight outcomes, and seven facilitating
factors as shown in Table 2.
The referent groups were used to develop specific questions to evaluate the elements of the TPB. The questions
for the survey were developed using guidelines found in the
literature (Ajzen, 1991; Mathieson, 1991) and a previously
validated survey instrument described by Riemenschneider
and McKinney (2001). The questions were formatted in a
7-point semantic differential scale (endpoints included
111
TABLE 1
Demographics
Gender
Female
Male
Nationality
American citizen
International
Age (years)
18–22
23–27
28–32
> 32
Ethnicity
Caucasian
Asian
African
Hispanic
Multiple ethnicity
Others
Classification
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Annual household income
≤ $25,000
S25,001—$50,000
$50,001—$100,000
$100,001—$150,000
≥ $150,000
Major
Health science and education
Social science
Language and literature
Life science
Fine arts
Math and computer science
Physical science
Health
Nursing
Others
n
%
414
202
67.2
32.8
595
17
96.5
2.8
590
20
3
3
95.8
3.2
.5
.5
534
32
11
14
12
10
86.7
5.2
1.8
2.3
2.0
1.6
127
142
177
168
20.6
23.1
28.7
27.3
114
113
243
95
39
18.5
18.3
39.4
15.4
6.3
158
141
63
62
55
48
48
27
6
3
25.9
23.1
10.2
10.1
9.0
7.9
7.9
4.4
1.0
0.5
strongly disagree/strongly agree, not at all/very much,
extremely negative/extremely positive, extremely unlikely/
extremely likely, and extremely unimportant/extremely important, depending on the question). In addition, survey items
designed to directly measure subjective norms, attitude, perceived behavioral control, and intention were developed. Example questions are shown in Table 3.
RESULTS
TPB Model
Table 4 shows the correlation coefficients of the three first
level constructs (the independent variables) in the model for
all respondents. All three constructs were significantly correlated with intention to pursue a minor (p ≤ .01).
112
D. DAMRON-MARTINEZ ET AL.
TABLE 2
Factors for Survey
Referent groups
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Parents
Significant others
Potential business employers
Friends and other peers
People with negative views of business
Potential nonbusiness employers
Outcomes
Facilitating factors
More marketable in the job market
Acquiring knowledge and skills
Gaining a better understanding of the business world
Gaining knowledge useful for starting own business
Extra classes and work
Boring classes
More difficult or different classes than major classes
Acquire a relevant and useful minor
Information about the requirements and benefits
Easy-to-get-in classes
Availability of assistance with course material
Prerequisite math skills and courses
Courses tailored to minor students
Ability and flexibility to fit minor courses to schedule
Interest and motivation to obtain the minor
According to the model of planned behavior, we also have
three models describing the relationships between factors
predicting attitude toward taking business minor, subjective
norm, and perceived behavioral control, respectively:
sion models are significant and consistent with theory
predictions.
Attitude = α a + β a (behavior belief × outcome evaluation)
+ε
Subjective norm = α s + β s (normative belief × motivation
to comply) + ε
Perceived behavioral control = α p + β p (perceived facilitators
× control beliefs) + ε
Relative importance of individual items was also investigated. The likelihood of experiencing positive outcomes were
acknowledged by students: gaining a better understanding
of the business world (M = 5.65 [higher more favorable],
SD = 1.21), gaining knowledge useful for starting own business (M = 5.36, SD = 1.03), acquiring knowledge and skills
that can be used in everyday life (M = 5.00, SD = 1.32),
becoming more marketable in the job market (M = 4.88,
SD = 1.47), and acquire a relevant and useful minor (M =
Tables 5–8 present the regression model results for attitude toward taking business minor. All estimated regres-
Individual Items
TABLE 3
Example Survey Questions
Subjective norms: determined by a person’s normative beliefs (perceived expectation of specific referent individuals or groups) and his or her motivation
to comply with these expectations
• Direct measure (3 items): Most people whose opinions I value would
of my obtaining a business minor.
Strongly disapprove ↔ Strongly approve
• Normative belief (6 items): My parents would look favorably on my obtaining a business minor.
Strongly disagree ↔ Strongly agree
• Motivation to comply (6 items): How much do you care whether your parents approved or disapproved of your choice of pursuing a business minor?
Not at all ↔ Very much
Attitude: a function of outcome evaluations (positive or negative evaluation of the desirability of the outcome) and behavioral beliefs (the likelihood or
extent to which an action will result in a particular outcome).
• Direct measure (5 items): Obtaining a business minor is
Bad ↔ Good
• Outcome evaluation (7 items): Making myself more marketable in the job market is
Extremely negative ↔ Extremely positive
• Behavioral belief (7 items): If I obtain a business minor, it is
that I would make myself more marketable in the job market.
Extremely unlikely ↔ Extremely likely
Perceived behavioral control is a function of control beliefs (a perception of the availability of skills, resources, and opportunities) and perceived
facilitation (an assessment of the importance of those resources to the achievement of outcomes).
• Direct measure (4 items): For me to obtain a business minor would be . . .
Extremely difficult ↔ Extremely easy
• Control belief (9 items): With regards to my decision to obtain a business minor, having information about the requirements and benefits of a
business minor is. . .
Extremely unimportant ↔ Extremely important
• Perceived facilitation (9 items): It
that I would have information about the requirements and benefits of a business minor.
Extremely unlikely ↔ Extremely likely
Intention
• Direct measure (3 items): I plan to obtain a business minor.
Extremely unlikely ↔ Extremely likely
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UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT INTENT TO MINOR IN BUSINESS
4.66, SD = 1.55). For the likelihood of experiencing negative outcomes, the following results were seen: extra classes
and work (M = 5.36, SD = 1.63), boring classes (M = 4.89,
SD = 1.21), and more difficult or different classes than major
classes (M = 4.29, SD = 1.62).
The survey data also suggest that students consider the
benefits of acquiring knowledge and skills (M = 6.20, SD
= 1.24), becoming more marketable in the job market (M =
6.06, SD = 1.45), acquiring a relevant and useful minor (M =
5.79, SD = 1.63), and gaining knowledge useful for starting
own business (M = 5.21, SD = 1.21), as most the favorable
outcomes of acquiring a business minor. Data also indicated
that taking boring classes was the biggest concern of students
(M = 2.82, SD = 1.06), followed by taking more difficult or
different classes than major classes (M = 3.61, SD = 1.07),
and extra classes and work (M = 3.99, SD = 1.37).
Interest and motivation to obtain the minor, and ability and
flexibility to fit minor course to schedule were considered
as the top factors affecting (either positively or negatively)
students’ choice (Ms = 6.02 [SD = 1.61] and 5.86 [SD =
1.49]) while prerequisite math skills and courses, and courses
tailored to minor students were considered the least likely
to affect their decision (Ms = 4.79 [SD = 1.51] and 5.17
[SD = 1.71], respectively). However, students perceived that
interest and motivation to obtain the minor and the ability
and flexibility to fit minor courses to schedule (Ms = 3.30
[SD = 1.61] and 3.34 [SD = 1.52], respectively) were the
factors that would least likely occur as inhibiting factors.
When taking other’s opinions into consideration, students
tend to most value future business and nonbusiness employer’s view (Ms = 4.63 [SD = 1.65] and 4.03 [SD = 1.39],
respectively) while opinions of people with negative views
of business, and friends and other peers were least important
(Ms = 2.50 [SD = 1.63] and 3.05 [SD = 1.61], respectively).
At the same time, they thought future business employers
and parents were mostly likely to favor their decision (Ms =
5.39 [SD = 1.63] and 4.97 [SD = 1.25], respectively).
Group Differences
Analysis was also conducted to see if there were differences
in opinions among various groups of respondents. With respect to behavioral beliefs, female students were more likely
to believe that they can acquire knowledge and skills, F =
4.927, p = .027; gain a better understanding of the business
world, F = 4.697, p = .031; would experience extra classes
and work, F = 5.672, p = .018; and would have to take more
difficult or different classes than their major classes, F =
4.711, p = .030, than were male students. Female students
were more likely to identify the importance of the outcome
evaluations of being more marketable in the job, F = 10.051,
p = .002; acquiring knowledge and skills, F = 4.113, p =
.043; and acquiring a relevant and useful minor, F = 8.441, p
= .004, than were male students. Female students also were
more likely to comply with the opinions of their parents, F =
113
TABLE 4
Correlations
Attitude
Intention
Attitude
Subjective norm
∗p
Subjective
norm
Perceived behavior
control
.582∗
.594∗
.269∗
.124∗
.121∗
.420∗
< .01.
TABLE 5
Model Construct for Attitude Toward Business Minor
Constant
Behavioral belief ×
Outcome evaluation
Coefficient
SE
t
p
12.839
.064
.519
.002
24.722
25.893
.000
.000
Note. n = 616, R2 = .52.
TABLE 6
Model Construct for Subjective Norms of Business
Minor
Constant
Behavioral belief ×
Outcome evaluation
Coefficient
SE
t
p
7.725
0.039
0.271
0.002
28.553
15.765
.000
.000
Note. n = 616, R2 = .287.
TABLE 7
Model Construct for Perceived Behavior Control of
Business Minor
Constant
Perceived facilitators ×
Control beliefs
Coefficient
SE
t
p
15.742
0.026
0.575
0.003
27.356
7.644
.000
.000
Note. n = 616, R2 = .087.
TABLE 8
Model Construct
Constant
Attitude
Subjective norm
Perceived control
Note. n = 616, R2 = .385.
Coefficient
SE
p
–7.581
0.086
0.734
0.193
0.903
0.034
0.058
0.031
.000
.012
.000
.000
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114
D. DAMRON-MARTINEZ ET AL.
17.003, p < .000; potential business employers, F = 16.082,
p < .000; and nonbusiness employers, F = 9.129, p = .003.
Female students valued the importance of most facilitators more than male students. Specifically, they stated the
importance of having information about the requirements
and benefits of a business minor, F = 9.098, p = .003; having classes that are easy to get into, F = 8.774, p = .003; the
availability of assistance with course material, F = 14.161,
p < .000; having prerequisite math skills and courses, F =
11.090, p = .001; and the availability of course especially
tailored to minors, F = 7.302, p = .007. Female students
were less likely to perceive that they would have easy-to-getinto classes, F = 4.277, p = .039, and ability and flexibility
to fit minor courses to schedule, F = 5.761, p = .017, than
were male students.
In general, female students were more likely to believe
that taking a business minor would benefit them, and believed
those benefits would be important for them. They were more
likely to be influenced by their parents and potential employers when making decisions about business minor, and were
more concerned about whether facilitating factors would be
available, were less optimistic in the availability of courses
specially tailored to a minor, and ability and flexibility to
work required courses into their schedule.
When looking at class standing, lower level students
(freshmen and sophomores [FS]) were more likely to believe
that a business minor would be a relevant and useful minor
than were upper level juniors and seniors (JS), F = 4.034, p =
.045. Meanwhile, lowerclassmen were more likely to think
that by acquiring a business minor, they would be required
to take classes which were more difficult or different than
courses of their major, F = 4.707, p = .030. FS had more
interests and motivation to gain knowledge useful for starting their own business, F = 9.961, p = .002, and acquiring a
relevant and useful minor, F = –1.151, p = .002, than did JS.
They were also less concerned about taking extra classes and
work, F = 14.405, p