Manajemen | Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji joeb.83.2.87-94
Journal of Education for Business
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Cross-National Attitudes and Perceptions
Concerning Software Piracy: A Comparative Study
of Students From the United States and China
David R. Rawlinson & Robert A. Lupton
To cite this article: David R. Rawlinson & Robert A. Lupton (2007) Cross-National Attitudes and
Perceptions Concerning Software Piracy: A Comparative Study of Students From the United
States and China, Journal of Education for Business, 83:2, 87-94, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.83.2.87-94
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.83.2.87-94
Published online: 07 Aug 2010.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 69
View related articles
Citing articles: 6 View citing articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjeb20
Download by: [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji]
Date: 11 January 2016, At: 23:03
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:03 11 January 2016
Cross-NationalAttitudesandPerceptions
ConcerningSoftwarePiracy:
AComparativeStudyofStudentsFrom
theUnitedStatesandChina
DAVIDR.RAWLINSON
ROBERTA.LUPTON
CENTRALWASHINGTONUNIVERSITY
ELLENSBURG,WASHINGTON
ABSTRACT. Students’attitudesand
perceptionsregardingtheuseofunlicensed
softwareareimportanttoeducatorsand
businesses.Studentshaveaprovenpropensitytopiratesoftwareandotherintellectual
property.Byunderstandinghowattitudes
andperceptionstowardsoftwarepiracy
differamonguniversitystudentsinacrossnationalcontext,educatorsandbusiness
leaderswillbebetteratcommunicating
acceptableusagepolicestoprotectvaluable
intellectualpropertyinaglobalinformation
technologyenvironment.
Keywords:China,cross-national,unlicensed
softwarepiracy
Copyright©2007HeldrefPublications
S
tudents’attitudesandperceptions
regarding the use of unlicensed
softwareareimportanttoeducatorsand
businesses.Theglobalmediaisreplete
withstatisticsontheamountofmoney
thatislostduetosoftwarepiracy,especiallyinthePeople’sRepublicofChina.
Information technology (IT) and software development firms are reticent to
investincountrieswherethereisalarge
amount of software piracy. Software
vendorsareusingdigitalrightsmanagementmechanismstocontrolintellectual
property theft at the expense of consumer privacy. In response to the ease
with which digitized data are stolen,
legislatorsaremodifyingthelawsunder
which intellectual property is licensed.
Students have a proven propensity
to pirate software and other intellectual property (Kini, Ramakhrishna, &
Vijayaraman, 2004; Kruger, 2003). Do
American students hold different attitudes and perceptions toward software
piracyincomparisonwithstudentsfrom
other nations? What do students construe as software piracy, and are there
significantdifferencescross-nationally?
HowoftendoChinesestudentsengage
in software piracy in comparison with
American students? Who do students
hold responsible for controlling softwarepiracy,anddothesebeliefsdiffer
amongAmericanandChinesestudents?
Are licensing models for intellectual
property protection, which Western
democracies primarily have designed,
still appropriate in the digital age, and
do they have equivalent application in
across-nationalcontext?Istherearelationshipbetweenattitudestowardcheating on exams and software piracy, and
are there significant differences crossnationallyamongstudents?Inmorethan
200studies,researchershaveaddressed
ethicsandacademicdishonestyineducation. Our past research focused on
comparing attitudes and perceptions of
AmericanandSlovakstudentsconcerningsoftwarepiracyandcheating.Inthis
study, we examined and compared the
attitudes and perceptions toward software piracy of American and Chinese
university students. In this article, we
review the limited research on IT and
ethics;presentthemethodology;report
the findings based on empirical data
frommorethan500surveyrespondents;
andconcludewithadditionalquestions
forfuturestudy.
ReviewofLiteratureonSoftware
Piracy
The Business Software Alliance’s
(BSA’s; 2006) Global Software Piracy
Study Report found that 35% of software installed on personal computers
worldwide was pirated in 2005, with
estimated losses at $34 billion. The
British Broadcasting Company (BBC)
reported that 23% of the software that
November/December2007
87
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:03 11 January 2016
peoplehaveusedinNorthAmericawas
pirated (“Software Piracy,” 2004). In
contrast, the International Intellectual
Property Alliance (2003) reported that
China’spiracyratesacrossallcopyright
industriesarehigherthan90%.
Chinais1of12U.S.tradingpartners
onthe2007prioritywatchlist,alistof
countriespublishedbytheU.S.Department of State with unacceptably high
infringementlevels(U.S.Departmentof
State,BureauofInternationalInformation Programs, 2007). Of the countries
on the priority list, the United States
TradeRepresentative(USTR)gavesignificantattentiontoChina(U.S.Department of State, Bureau of International
InformationPrograms).
The result was the release of the
conclusions of the USTR’s 2005 outof-cycle review of China’s Intellectual
Property Regulatory (IPR) practices
(U.S. Department of State, Bureau of
International Information Programs,
2007).EventhoughChinawasremoved
from the watch list entirely in 2006,
Chinamaintainsimmenselyhighpiracy
rates (International Intellectual Property Alliance, 2006). The International
Intellectual Property Alliance (2003)
estimated the piracy losses in China at
$1.85 billion in 2002. BSA estimated
that92%ofsoftwarethatpeopleusedin
Chinaduring2003wasunlicensedand
therefore illegal (Rohde, 2004). Current losses of all forms of intellectual
property are estimated at $2.3 billion
(InternationalIntellectualPropertyAlliance, 2006). When countries have no
incentivetocontroltheftofintellectual
property,softwarepiracyonthelevelof
China’sistheresult(Sills,2005).
Without appropriate internal controls, companies are reticent to invest
research and development dollars in
countries with weak intellectual propertyprotection(EconomistsIntelligence
Unit,2004,ascitedinZhao,2006).This
perceptionofweakintellectualproperty
protections may harm a country’s economic development. Researchers have
foundthatsoftwarepiracyassistsinthe
rapid diffusion of information technology and therefore levels the playing
fieldinfavorofdevelopingeconomies.
Researchers have also found that software piracy inhibits the diffusion of
informationtechnologyinthelongterm
88
JournalofEducationforBusiness
andthereforeisnothealthyforemergingeconomies(Piatkowski,2002).Softwarepiracycanhaveanimmediateand
harmfuleffectonanindividualsoftware
developer’sincomeaswell.
Researchers have shown that softwarepiracyinhibitsorcompletelyprevents local software developers from
beingcreditedandpaidforthedevelopment of their product.A report by the
Software&InformationIndustryAssociation(2000)foundthat“whenforeign
nationalsdevelopabreakthroughproduct, counterfeiters attack them just as
swiftly and severely as they doAmericanproducts”(p.15).
UniversityStudents:TheVehicles
forSoftwarePiracy
Theuseofpiratedsoftwareispervasiveatuniversitiesandmaybehappening in classrooms (Kruger, 2003). Kini
et al. (2004) considered softlifting, illegalcopyingofsoftwareforpersonaluse,
even more prevalent in university environments than the general population.
A BSA (2006) report stated that more
than half of college and university studentsintheUnitedStatesthoughtitwas
acceptable behavior in the workplace
to swap or download digital copyrighted files (software, music, and movies)
without paying for them. However, our
review of the literature failed to reveal
thistypeofstudyregardingtheattitudes
and perceptions of Chinese university
students.Researchershavetalkedabout
how academics’ attitudes about the use
ofunlicensedsoftwareappeartojustify
violatingintellectualpropertyrights.
AsurveythattheBSA(2006)sponsored indicated that 52% of student
respondents and 25% of academics
believed that the use of pirated softwarewasacceptable,evenintheworkplace. It has been difficult to determine why there is so much software
piracy.Numeroustheoreticalconstructs
concern motivation for stealing software,includingsocialfactors,perceived
consequences or beliefs, habits, affect,
facilitating conditions, and individual
intention (Limayem, Khalifa, & Chin,
2004). Even the argument that gross
domestic product is inversely related
tolevelsofsoftwarepiracy(thosewho
cannot pay for software steal it) seems
tobelesssignificantthanitwasinthe
past(Gopal&Sanders,1997,andShin,
Gopal, & Sanders, 2004, as cited in
Bagchi,Kirs,&Cerveny,2006).
Lackofastrongmoralintensitymay
betheculprit.Kinietal.(2004)asserted
that moral intensity regarding software
piracyisrelatedtotheextentofsoftware
piracy. Therefore, an understanding
of the development of moral intensity
regardingsoftwarepiracyinindividuals
wouldaidbusinessesindevelopingand
implementing policies that may help
themtoreducesoftwarepiracy(Kiniet
al.),possiblyproducinguniversitygraduateswhoarelessinclinedtouseunlicensedsoftware.Limayemetal.(2004)
suggestedthattheindividual’sintention
to use pirated software is not a causal
linktotheactualactofpiratingsoftware
andthatresearchersshouldrefrainfrom
generalizingthatthepiratingstudentof
todayisthepiratingbusinessworkerof
tomorrow.However,theBSAappearsto
believe this generalization on the basis
ofitsactivitiesdealingwithstudentsat
thecollegelevel.
TheBSA(2006)isactiveindiscussing the issue of unlicensed software in
schools to educate students while they
are forming their opinions and behaviors. Ethics regarding software ownershipisanissueforbusinesses,especiallyregardingnewhireswhohavecome
straight from college. “An employer
whohiresanemployeewhohasrecently been on campus and downloading
software, music, or movies with impunity needs to be aware of the climate
that new hire is coming from,” states
Jenny Blank, director of enforcement
fortheBSA(2006).Studentsappearto
sustain the climate of software piracy
afterleavingcampus.
Even more distressing is the role of
university students as they graduate and
work in industry. The costs associated
withunethicaluseofsoftwarealone(fines
andthereputationoffirmandemployee)
can be high. “Engineering firms are the
thirdmostfrequentlyfinedbusinessesfor
softwarelicenseviolations—rightbehind
manufacturingandhealthcare”(Mealey,
1999, p. 42). Most university students
probablydonothavemuchdiscretionary
incomewithwhichtopurchasesoftware,
and Kirkman, Osorio, and Sachs (2002)
showed software piracy to be related to
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:03 11 January 2016
lowincome(i.e.,thecostofbuyingsoftware vs. that of copying it in a limited
financial environment). Software users
haveusedthisargumentasajustification
for breaking intellectual property laws
(Prochorenko, 2006). However, governmentsandindustryareimplementingnew
legal and technology-based controls on
intellectualpropertypiracy.
ManycompaniesintheUnitedStates
are implementing solutions under the
umbrella of the Digital Rights ManagementAct of 2003, including the installation of a root kit, software installed
without the user’s consent that controls
copying behavior, but also reports to a
third party information about the user’s
activities (Electronic Frontier Foundation,2006).LawsuitsbypublicandprivateorganizationsforcedSonyBMG,the
organizationresponsibleforthisactivity,
to agree to completely remove the software, to not include it on future music
CDs, and to provide a cash or replacementCDcredittoconsumers(Electronic
Frontier Foundation). Microsoft Corporation and other entities, including the
Electronic Frontier Foundation, have
labeledthistypeofsoftwareasspyware,
meaningthatitviolatesauser’sreasonable expectation of privacy and thus is
an undesirable resident of a personal
computer’sharddrive.Spywarewasone
company’swayofcontrollinghowintellectualpropertywasused.However,the
model for intellectual property protectionismorphingdaily.
Thebasisforlawsunderwhichintellectual property is licensed is being
manipulatedaswell.TheCreativeCommons(2007)isanonprofitorganization
that offers flexible copyright licensing
for creative works such as music. The
termflexiblecopyrightlicensingmeans
modifying the concept of “all rights
reserved” (Creative Commons, para.
2) from traditional copyright laws to
offer a voluntary, some-rights-reserved
approach. This approach makes it easier for individuals to share intellectual
property, such as music and other creative works, without paying a royalty
fee (Creative Commons). In addition,
software developers disseminate software that is freely sharable through
the Open Source Initiative, a nonprofit
organization whose aim is to manage
andpromotethegoaloftheopensource
“for the good of the community” by
using a certification process for software (Open Source Initiative, 2006).
The Free Software Foundation (2007)
is another organization that promotes
user’s rights to use, study, copy, modify, and redistribute computer programs
undertheGNUGeneralPublicLicense.
Software developers use these mechanismstoadaptintellectualpropertyprotectionmechanismstothedigitalage.
We aimed this research at determining university students’ perceptions of
and attitudes on the use of unlicensed
softwareinacross-nationalcontext.The
review of the existing literature makes
itclearthatbillionsofdollarsarebeing
lostbecauseofsoftwarepiracyandthat
companies and governments are trying
to control the use of intellectual property by using new legal and technical
methods, including modifying the traditional model of intellectual property
protections. Researchers have indicated
thatstudentshaveapropensityforusing
software and other intellectual property
withoutpayingforit.However,researchershaveconductedlittleresearchonhow
attitudesandperceptionstowardsoftware
piracydifferamongstudentpopulations
cross-nationally. To our knowledge, the
present research is the first to compare
statisticallysignificantdifferencesinattitudes and perceptions toward software
piracy among American and Chinese
university students. The answers may
aidunderstandingofhowtodecreasethe
levelofsoftwarepiracyintheworkplace
andthroughouttheworld.
METHOD
Sample
Wecollectedthestudentsamplefrom
the campus of an agricultural universityinChinaandamedium-sizedstate
universityintheWesternUnitedStates
by administering questionnaires. Given
thesensitivenatureofthequestions,we
repeatedly told respondents, orally and
inwriting,thattheirresponseswouldbe
anonymous and confidential.We asked
them to answer as many questions as
possible, as long as they felt comfortable with the particular question. The
usablesurveysthatwecollectedtotaled
569, with 60.3% of the surveys being
fromstudentsinChina.Thepercentage
ofmalestudentswas45.2%,and93.9%
oftherespondentswerebetween18and
25yearsofage.Wederivedthesurvey
questions from a previous model dealing with academic cheating that ChapmanandLupton(2002)developed.
SurveyInstrument
To evaluate the attitudes, perceptions,andtendenciestowardethicaland
unethicalusageofIT-relatedissues(i.e.,
software, music, and video piracy), we
developeda33-questionsurveyinstrument consisting of a series of dichotomous(yes–no)questionsorscalarquestions,andaquestionthataskedstudents
toassesswhatpercentageoftheirpeers
theybelieveengagedinsoftwarepiracy.
Before administering the survey to the
Chinesestudents,wetranslateditfrom
English and then back-translated it to
checkforaccuracy.
Mostoftheyes–noquestionsspecificallyaskedthestudentsaboutunethical
ITbehaviors(e.g.,“Haveyoueverseen
someoneuseunlicensedsoftwareatthis
university?”). We also asked students
to respond to a series of statements
by using a 7-point Likert-type scale
rangingfrom1(stronglydisagree)to7
(stronglyagree).Thesescalarquestions
measured attitudes and beliefs about
IT ethics (e.g., “Using unlicensed software in a school course is not really
that bad”; “Using unlicensed software
athomeisnotreallythatbad”).Wealso
gave students two scenarios to determinewhetheranunethicalsituationhad
occurred. Each scenario was deliberatelyvaguesothatthestudentcouldnot
easilyconcludewhetheraviolationhad
occurred. Students used their personal
interpretationstodecidewhetheraviolation had occurred. Last, we collected
demographicdata.
RESULTS
Students’BeliefsAboutSoftware
Piracy
Universitystudentshadstrongbeliefs
regarding their self-reported estimate
onthepercentageofstudentsthatused
pirated (unlicensed) software, on their
knowledgeofseeingorknowingsomeone who has used unlicensed software
inclassorattheuniversity,andontheir
November/December2007
89
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beliefs about what constitutes illegal
use of software.The use of unlicensed
softwaremaybepervasiveatAmerican
and Chinese universities in that most
students indicated personal knowledge
regardingtheuseofpiratedsoftware.
AsTable1shows,10questionsresulted in statistically significant values.
Thisissignificantinlightoftheefforts
by government and industry to control
the use of unlicensed software. From a
research perspective, it is interesting to
discover students’ perceptions of what
constitutesillegalusageofsoftwareand
who is responsible for controlling the
unlicensed use of software by students.
Toaddressthesequestions,weaskedstudentstorespondtosurveyitemsregarding their perception of the percentage
ofstudentuseofpiratedsoftware,what
typesofbehaviorconstitutecheating,the
roleplayedbythenetworkadministrator
incontrollingunlicensedsoftwareusage,
andwhatconstitutelegalandillegaluse
ofsoftware.
AsTable2shows,8questionsprompted answers that were statistically significant.Theonequalitativeresultfrom
Table 2 that we will discuss was the
percentage that students reported when
we asked them to “Please estimate the
percentage of students you believe use
pirated(unlicensed)software.”Themean
valueforChinesestudentswas70.90%.
The mean value for American students
was12.97%.
The data seemed to indicate that a
permissive use of unlicensed software
affects a student’s moral and ethical
positionregardingsuchunlicenseduse.
Even students who are capable of the
most principled moral reasoning may
engage in software-copying behavior
(Kinietal.,2004).Ourresearchseemed
to confirm that finding in the crossnationalcontext.
Findings
Itseemsevidentthattheuseofunlicensedsoftwareinauniversityiscommonplaceandthatstudentsperceivethe
useofunlicensedsoftwareasacontinuallyrecurringevent.Whenweaskedthe
question, “Have you known someone
thathasusedunlicensedsoftwareatthis
university?” the contrast between Chinese and U.S. students who answered
in the affirmative was significant (U.S.
participants, 35.7%; Chinese participants,64.3%;p
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Cross-National Attitudes and Perceptions
Concerning Software Piracy: A Comparative Study
of Students From the United States and China
David R. Rawlinson & Robert A. Lupton
To cite this article: David R. Rawlinson & Robert A. Lupton (2007) Cross-National Attitudes and
Perceptions Concerning Software Piracy: A Comparative Study of Students From the United
States and China, Journal of Education for Business, 83:2, 87-94, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.83.2.87-94
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.83.2.87-94
Published online: 07 Aug 2010.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 69
View related articles
Citing articles: 6 View citing articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjeb20
Download by: [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji]
Date: 11 January 2016, At: 23:03
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:03 11 January 2016
Cross-NationalAttitudesandPerceptions
ConcerningSoftwarePiracy:
AComparativeStudyofStudentsFrom
theUnitedStatesandChina
DAVIDR.RAWLINSON
ROBERTA.LUPTON
CENTRALWASHINGTONUNIVERSITY
ELLENSBURG,WASHINGTON
ABSTRACT. Students’attitudesand
perceptionsregardingtheuseofunlicensed
softwareareimportanttoeducatorsand
businesses.Studentshaveaprovenpropensitytopiratesoftwareandotherintellectual
property.Byunderstandinghowattitudes
andperceptionstowardsoftwarepiracy
differamonguniversitystudentsinacrossnationalcontext,educatorsandbusiness
leaderswillbebetteratcommunicating
acceptableusagepolicestoprotectvaluable
intellectualpropertyinaglobalinformation
technologyenvironment.
Keywords:China,cross-national,unlicensed
softwarepiracy
Copyright©2007HeldrefPublications
S
tudents’attitudesandperceptions
regarding the use of unlicensed
softwareareimportanttoeducatorsand
businesses.Theglobalmediaisreplete
withstatisticsontheamountofmoney
thatislostduetosoftwarepiracy,especiallyinthePeople’sRepublicofChina.
Information technology (IT) and software development firms are reticent to
investincountrieswherethereisalarge
amount of software piracy. Software
vendorsareusingdigitalrightsmanagementmechanismstocontrolintellectual
property theft at the expense of consumer privacy. In response to the ease
with which digitized data are stolen,
legislatorsaremodifyingthelawsunder
which intellectual property is licensed.
Students have a proven propensity
to pirate software and other intellectual property (Kini, Ramakhrishna, &
Vijayaraman, 2004; Kruger, 2003). Do
American students hold different attitudes and perceptions toward software
piracyincomparisonwithstudentsfrom
other nations? What do students construe as software piracy, and are there
significantdifferencescross-nationally?
HowoftendoChinesestudentsengage
in software piracy in comparison with
American students? Who do students
hold responsible for controlling softwarepiracy,anddothesebeliefsdiffer
amongAmericanandChinesestudents?
Are licensing models for intellectual
property protection, which Western
democracies primarily have designed,
still appropriate in the digital age, and
do they have equivalent application in
across-nationalcontext?Istherearelationshipbetweenattitudestowardcheating on exams and software piracy, and
are there significant differences crossnationallyamongstudents?Inmorethan
200studies,researchershaveaddressed
ethicsandacademicdishonestyineducation. Our past research focused on
comparing attitudes and perceptions of
AmericanandSlovakstudentsconcerningsoftwarepiracyandcheating.Inthis
study, we examined and compared the
attitudes and perceptions toward software piracy of American and Chinese
university students. In this article, we
review the limited research on IT and
ethics;presentthemethodology;report
the findings based on empirical data
frommorethan500surveyrespondents;
andconcludewithadditionalquestions
forfuturestudy.
ReviewofLiteratureonSoftware
Piracy
The Business Software Alliance’s
(BSA’s; 2006) Global Software Piracy
Study Report found that 35% of software installed on personal computers
worldwide was pirated in 2005, with
estimated losses at $34 billion. The
British Broadcasting Company (BBC)
reported that 23% of the software that
November/December2007
87
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:03 11 January 2016
peoplehaveusedinNorthAmericawas
pirated (“Software Piracy,” 2004). In
contrast, the International Intellectual
Property Alliance (2003) reported that
China’spiracyratesacrossallcopyright
industriesarehigherthan90%.
Chinais1of12U.S.tradingpartners
onthe2007prioritywatchlist,alistof
countriespublishedbytheU.S.Department of State with unacceptably high
infringementlevels(U.S.Departmentof
State,BureauofInternationalInformation Programs, 2007). Of the countries
on the priority list, the United States
TradeRepresentative(USTR)gavesignificantattentiontoChina(U.S.Department of State, Bureau of International
InformationPrograms).
The result was the release of the
conclusions of the USTR’s 2005 outof-cycle review of China’s Intellectual
Property Regulatory (IPR) practices
(U.S. Department of State, Bureau of
International Information Programs,
2007).EventhoughChinawasremoved
from the watch list entirely in 2006,
Chinamaintainsimmenselyhighpiracy
rates (International Intellectual Property Alliance, 2006). The International
Intellectual Property Alliance (2003)
estimated the piracy losses in China at
$1.85 billion in 2002. BSA estimated
that92%ofsoftwarethatpeopleusedin
Chinaduring2003wasunlicensedand
therefore illegal (Rohde, 2004). Current losses of all forms of intellectual
property are estimated at $2.3 billion
(InternationalIntellectualPropertyAlliance, 2006). When countries have no
incentivetocontroltheftofintellectual
property,softwarepiracyonthelevelof
China’sistheresult(Sills,2005).
Without appropriate internal controls, companies are reticent to invest
research and development dollars in
countries with weak intellectual propertyprotection(EconomistsIntelligence
Unit,2004,ascitedinZhao,2006).This
perceptionofweakintellectualproperty
protections may harm a country’s economic development. Researchers have
foundthatsoftwarepiracyassistsinthe
rapid diffusion of information technology and therefore levels the playing
fieldinfavorofdevelopingeconomies.
Researchers have also found that software piracy inhibits the diffusion of
informationtechnologyinthelongterm
88
JournalofEducationforBusiness
andthereforeisnothealthyforemergingeconomies(Piatkowski,2002).Softwarepiracycanhaveanimmediateand
harmfuleffectonanindividualsoftware
developer’sincomeaswell.
Researchers have shown that softwarepiracyinhibitsorcompletelyprevents local software developers from
beingcreditedandpaidforthedevelopment of their product.A report by the
Software&InformationIndustryAssociation(2000)foundthat“whenforeign
nationalsdevelopabreakthroughproduct, counterfeiters attack them just as
swiftly and severely as they doAmericanproducts”(p.15).
UniversityStudents:TheVehicles
forSoftwarePiracy
Theuseofpiratedsoftwareispervasiveatuniversitiesandmaybehappening in classrooms (Kruger, 2003). Kini
et al. (2004) considered softlifting, illegalcopyingofsoftwareforpersonaluse,
even more prevalent in university environments than the general population.
A BSA (2006) report stated that more
than half of college and university studentsintheUnitedStatesthoughtitwas
acceptable behavior in the workplace
to swap or download digital copyrighted files (software, music, and movies)
without paying for them. However, our
review of the literature failed to reveal
thistypeofstudyregardingtheattitudes
and perceptions of Chinese university
students.Researchershavetalkedabout
how academics’ attitudes about the use
ofunlicensedsoftwareappeartojustify
violatingintellectualpropertyrights.
AsurveythattheBSA(2006)sponsored indicated that 52% of student
respondents and 25% of academics
believed that the use of pirated softwarewasacceptable,evenintheworkplace. It has been difficult to determine why there is so much software
piracy.Numeroustheoreticalconstructs
concern motivation for stealing software,includingsocialfactors,perceived
consequences or beliefs, habits, affect,
facilitating conditions, and individual
intention (Limayem, Khalifa, & Chin,
2004). Even the argument that gross
domestic product is inversely related
tolevelsofsoftwarepiracy(thosewho
cannot pay for software steal it) seems
tobelesssignificantthanitwasinthe
past(Gopal&Sanders,1997,andShin,
Gopal, & Sanders, 2004, as cited in
Bagchi,Kirs,&Cerveny,2006).
Lackofastrongmoralintensitymay
betheculprit.Kinietal.(2004)asserted
that moral intensity regarding software
piracyisrelatedtotheextentofsoftware
piracy. Therefore, an understanding
of the development of moral intensity
regardingsoftwarepiracyinindividuals
wouldaidbusinessesindevelopingand
implementing policies that may help
themtoreducesoftwarepiracy(Kiniet
al.),possiblyproducinguniversitygraduateswhoarelessinclinedtouseunlicensedsoftware.Limayemetal.(2004)
suggestedthattheindividual’sintention
to use pirated software is not a causal
linktotheactualactofpiratingsoftware
andthatresearchersshouldrefrainfrom
generalizingthatthepiratingstudentof
todayisthepiratingbusinessworkerof
tomorrow.However,theBSAappearsto
believe this generalization on the basis
ofitsactivitiesdealingwithstudentsat
thecollegelevel.
TheBSA(2006)isactiveindiscussing the issue of unlicensed software in
schools to educate students while they
are forming their opinions and behaviors. Ethics regarding software ownershipisanissueforbusinesses,especiallyregardingnewhireswhohavecome
straight from college. “An employer
whohiresanemployeewhohasrecently been on campus and downloading
software, music, or movies with impunity needs to be aware of the climate
that new hire is coming from,” states
Jenny Blank, director of enforcement
fortheBSA(2006).Studentsappearto
sustain the climate of software piracy
afterleavingcampus.
Even more distressing is the role of
university students as they graduate and
work in industry. The costs associated
withunethicaluseofsoftwarealone(fines
andthereputationoffirmandemployee)
can be high. “Engineering firms are the
thirdmostfrequentlyfinedbusinessesfor
softwarelicenseviolations—rightbehind
manufacturingandhealthcare”(Mealey,
1999, p. 42). Most university students
probablydonothavemuchdiscretionary
incomewithwhichtopurchasesoftware,
and Kirkman, Osorio, and Sachs (2002)
showed software piracy to be related to
Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:03 11 January 2016
lowincome(i.e.,thecostofbuyingsoftware vs. that of copying it in a limited
financial environment). Software users
haveusedthisargumentasajustification
for breaking intellectual property laws
(Prochorenko, 2006). However, governmentsandindustryareimplementingnew
legal and technology-based controls on
intellectualpropertypiracy.
ManycompaniesintheUnitedStates
are implementing solutions under the
umbrella of the Digital Rights ManagementAct of 2003, including the installation of a root kit, software installed
without the user’s consent that controls
copying behavior, but also reports to a
third party information about the user’s
activities (Electronic Frontier Foundation,2006).LawsuitsbypublicandprivateorganizationsforcedSonyBMG,the
organizationresponsibleforthisactivity,
to agree to completely remove the software, to not include it on future music
CDs, and to provide a cash or replacementCDcredittoconsumers(Electronic
Frontier Foundation). Microsoft Corporation and other entities, including the
Electronic Frontier Foundation, have
labeledthistypeofsoftwareasspyware,
meaningthatitviolatesauser’sreasonable expectation of privacy and thus is
an undesirable resident of a personal
computer’sharddrive.Spywarewasone
company’swayofcontrollinghowintellectualpropertywasused.However,the
model for intellectual property protectionismorphingdaily.
Thebasisforlawsunderwhichintellectual property is licensed is being
manipulatedaswell.TheCreativeCommons(2007)isanonprofitorganization
that offers flexible copyright licensing
for creative works such as music. The
termflexiblecopyrightlicensingmeans
modifying the concept of “all rights
reserved” (Creative Commons, para.
2) from traditional copyright laws to
offer a voluntary, some-rights-reserved
approach. This approach makes it easier for individuals to share intellectual
property, such as music and other creative works, without paying a royalty
fee (Creative Commons). In addition,
software developers disseminate software that is freely sharable through
the Open Source Initiative, a nonprofit
organization whose aim is to manage
andpromotethegoaloftheopensource
“for the good of the community” by
using a certification process for software (Open Source Initiative, 2006).
The Free Software Foundation (2007)
is another organization that promotes
user’s rights to use, study, copy, modify, and redistribute computer programs
undertheGNUGeneralPublicLicense.
Software developers use these mechanismstoadaptintellectualpropertyprotectionmechanismstothedigitalage.
We aimed this research at determining university students’ perceptions of
and attitudes on the use of unlicensed
softwareinacross-nationalcontext.The
review of the existing literature makes
itclearthatbillionsofdollarsarebeing
lostbecauseofsoftwarepiracyandthat
companies and governments are trying
to control the use of intellectual property by using new legal and technical
methods, including modifying the traditional model of intellectual property
protections. Researchers have indicated
thatstudentshaveapropensityforusing
software and other intellectual property
withoutpayingforit.However,researchershaveconductedlittleresearchonhow
attitudesandperceptionstowardsoftware
piracydifferamongstudentpopulations
cross-nationally. To our knowledge, the
present research is the first to compare
statisticallysignificantdifferencesinattitudes and perceptions toward software
piracy among American and Chinese
university students. The answers may
aidunderstandingofhowtodecreasethe
levelofsoftwarepiracyintheworkplace
andthroughouttheworld.
METHOD
Sample
Wecollectedthestudentsamplefrom
the campus of an agricultural universityinChinaandamedium-sizedstate
universityintheWesternUnitedStates
by administering questionnaires. Given
thesensitivenatureofthequestions,we
repeatedly told respondents, orally and
inwriting,thattheirresponseswouldbe
anonymous and confidential.We asked
them to answer as many questions as
possible, as long as they felt comfortable with the particular question. The
usablesurveysthatwecollectedtotaled
569, with 60.3% of the surveys being
fromstudentsinChina.Thepercentage
ofmalestudentswas45.2%,and93.9%
oftherespondentswerebetween18and
25yearsofage.Wederivedthesurvey
questions from a previous model dealing with academic cheating that ChapmanandLupton(2002)developed.
SurveyInstrument
To evaluate the attitudes, perceptions,andtendenciestowardethicaland
unethicalusageofIT-relatedissues(i.e.,
software, music, and video piracy), we
developeda33-questionsurveyinstrument consisting of a series of dichotomous(yes–no)questionsorscalarquestions,andaquestionthataskedstudents
toassesswhatpercentageoftheirpeers
theybelieveengagedinsoftwarepiracy.
Before administering the survey to the
Chinesestudents,wetranslateditfrom
English and then back-translated it to
checkforaccuracy.
Mostoftheyes–noquestionsspecificallyaskedthestudentsaboutunethical
ITbehaviors(e.g.,“Haveyoueverseen
someoneuseunlicensedsoftwareatthis
university?”). We also asked students
to respond to a series of statements
by using a 7-point Likert-type scale
rangingfrom1(stronglydisagree)to7
(stronglyagree).Thesescalarquestions
measured attitudes and beliefs about
IT ethics (e.g., “Using unlicensed software in a school course is not really
that bad”; “Using unlicensed software
athomeisnotreallythatbad”).Wealso
gave students two scenarios to determinewhetheranunethicalsituationhad
occurred. Each scenario was deliberatelyvaguesothatthestudentcouldnot
easilyconcludewhetheraviolationhad
occurred. Students used their personal
interpretationstodecidewhetheraviolation had occurred. Last, we collected
demographicdata.
RESULTS
Students’BeliefsAboutSoftware
Piracy
Universitystudentshadstrongbeliefs
regarding their self-reported estimate
onthepercentageofstudentsthatused
pirated (unlicensed) software, on their
knowledgeofseeingorknowingsomeone who has used unlicensed software
inclassorattheuniversity,andontheir
November/December2007
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beliefs about what constitutes illegal
use of software.The use of unlicensed
softwaremaybepervasiveatAmerican
and Chinese universities in that most
students indicated personal knowledge
regardingtheuseofpiratedsoftware.
AsTable1shows,10questionsresulted in statistically significant values.
Thisissignificantinlightoftheefforts
by government and industry to control
the use of unlicensed software. From a
research perspective, it is interesting to
discover students’ perceptions of what
constitutesillegalusageofsoftwareand
who is responsible for controlling the
unlicensed use of software by students.
Toaddressthesequestions,weaskedstudentstorespondtosurveyitemsregarding their perception of the percentage
ofstudentuseofpiratedsoftware,what
typesofbehaviorconstitutecheating,the
roleplayedbythenetworkadministrator
incontrollingunlicensedsoftwareusage,
andwhatconstitutelegalandillegaluse
ofsoftware.
AsTable2shows,8questionsprompted answers that were statistically significant.Theonequalitativeresultfrom
Table 2 that we will discuss was the
percentage that students reported when
we asked them to “Please estimate the
percentage of students you believe use
pirated(unlicensed)software.”Themean
valueforChinesestudentswas70.90%.
The mean value for American students
was12.97%.
The data seemed to indicate that a
permissive use of unlicensed software
affects a student’s moral and ethical
positionregardingsuchunlicenseduse.
Even students who are capable of the
most principled moral reasoning may
engage in software-copying behavior
(Kinietal.,2004).Ourresearchseemed
to confirm that finding in the crossnationalcontext.
Findings
Itseemsevidentthattheuseofunlicensedsoftwareinauniversityiscommonplaceandthatstudentsperceivethe
useofunlicensedsoftwareasacontinuallyrecurringevent.Whenweaskedthe
question, “Have you known someone
thathasusedunlicensedsoftwareatthis
university?” the contrast between Chinese and U.S. students who answered
in the affirmative was significant (U.S.
participants, 35.7%; Chinese participants,64.3%;p