THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP-DISCUSSION USING WORD WALL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTEREST (An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar in the 20082009 Academic Year)
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP-DISCUSSION USING WORD WALL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTEREST
(An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan
Colomadu Karanganyar in the 2008/2009 Academic Year)
THESIS By: SULISTIYANI DYAH PURWANINGSIH S 890907028
Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Graduate Degree in the Graduate Program of the English Department ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT GRADUATE PROGRAM SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2010
THE APPROVAL OF CONSULTANTS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP-DISCUSSION USING WORD WALL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTEREST
(An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar in the 2008/2009 Academic Year)
By SULISTIYANI DYAH PURWANINGSIH S 890907028
Approved to be examined before the Board of Examiners of the English Department Graduate Program, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta
Thesis Consultants :
First Consultant Second Consultant
Dr. Sujoko, MA Drs. Heribertus Tarjana, MA NIP. 19510912 198003 1 002
NIP. 130 516 332
Head of the Graduate Program of the English Department
Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd NIP. 19621231 198803 1 009
THE APPROVAL OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP-DISCUSSION USING WORD WALL
TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTEREST (An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar in the 2008/2009 Academic Year)
By SULISTIYANI DYAH PURWANINGSIH S 890907028
Approved to be examined before the Board of Examiners of the English Department Graduate Program, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta On the twelfth of January 2010
Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd
.................. NIP. 19621231 198803 1 009
Secretary Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd .................. NIP. 19520307 198003 1 005
First Examiner
Dr. Sujoko, MA
.................. NIP. 19510912 198003 1 002
Second Examiner Drs. Heribertus Tarjana, MA .................. NIP. 130 516 332
Director of the Graduate Program Head of the GraduateProgram of Sebelas Maret University
the English Department
Prof. Drs. Suranto, M.Sc, Ph.D Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd NIP. 19570820 198503 1 004 NIP. 19621231 198803 1 009
PRONOUNCEMENT
Name : Sulistiyani Dyah Purwaningsih NIM
: S890907028
Stated wholehearttedly that this thesis entitled “The Effectiveness of Group- Discussion Using Word Wall to Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Interest” (An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar in 2008/2009 Academic Year) is originally written by the researcher. It is not plagiarism or other’s piece of work. The things related to others’ works are written in quotation and included within the bibliography.
If it is then in the future proven that this pronouncement is incorrect, the researcher is ready to take the responsibility including the withdrawal of the academic title.
Surakarta, January 2010 The researcher,
Sulistiyani Dyah P
ABSTRACT
SULISTIYANI DYAH PURWANINGSIH. The Effectiveness of Group- Discussion Using Word Wall to Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Interest (An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar in the 2008/2009 Academic Year. Thesis. Surakarta: the English Education Department Graduate Program, Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta. 2010.
This research is aimed at finding whether (1) group-discussion using word wall is more effective than expository teaching model to teach reading or not, (2) students’ reading competence of the students having high interest are better than those having low interest or not, (3) there is an interaction between the teaching methods and students’ interest or not.
The research was carried out at SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar, from November 2008 to January 2010. The research method used was an experimental study. The population was the fifth graders of elementary schools in Colomadu Karanganyar in the 2008-2009 academic year. The samples were the fifth graders of SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan. The sample was taken by using the purposive cluster random sampling technique. The techniques of collecting data are a non-test (a questionnaire) and a test technique (a reading test). The questionnaire consisted of 46 items with five options, while the reading test consisted of 40 items with four options. These instruments were valid and reliable after both were tried-out in another school in Colomadu. The data were the results of the reading test, which were analyzed by multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2. After that, the data are analyzed by using Tukey test. The Tukey test functions to determine which method is better or more effective.
Based on the result of inferential analysis of the data, there are some findings that can be drawn. First, group-discussion using word wall is more effective than expository teaching model for teaching foreign reading. Second, reading competence of students with high interest is higher than students with low interest. Third, there is an interaction between the teaching methods and interest.
The conclusion of the research is that group-discussion using word wall is an effective method to increase students’ reading competence in SDN 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar.
The implication of the research is that group-discussion using word wall is an effective method to be implemented in teaching reading so that the students’ reading competence improved.
Dedication
To my family and parents whose sacrifices have made this ‘ Graduate School Thesis ’ possible.
To my husband, Choy who has taught me to think scientifically, and my children for being my inspiration.
MOTTO
“..........W ords are things, and a small drop of ink Falling, like dew upon a thought, produces That which makes thousands, perhaps millions think”.
Lord Byron
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Bismillahirrahmanirrahiim.
All praise and thanks just for Allah, S.W.T. the Almighty God and The Lord of The Universe. With the deepest hearth and soul, thank you Allah for Your Blessing that finally the writer is able to complete this thesis.
The writer is fully aware that the thesis would not be finished without any permission and helps from others. That is why, the writer would like to express her gratitude to the Director of the Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University for giving permission to write this thesis; the Head of English Education Department Graduate School, Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd who has given his support and guidance to the writer in writing this thesis; Dr. Sujoko, MA, her first consultant for giving support and useful advice during his busy time; Drs. Heribertus Tarjana, M.A, her second consultant for the critical advice and input that make her think deeper and broader. Thank you.
The writer would also like to express her deepest love to her beloved husband who becomes her best friend, hero, and love in her life. Thank for his patience and support, for all his sacrifices, and for his constructive idea to teach her how to appreciate this life. The writer would like to express her unlimited love to both her children (Zaffire Elhazza and Raihan Elhazza) for being her inspiration to teach The writer would also like to express her deepest love to her beloved husband who becomes her best friend, hero, and love in her life. Thank for his patience and support, for all his sacrifices, and for his constructive idea to teach her how to appreciate this life. The writer would like to express her unlimited love to both her children (Zaffire Elhazza and Raihan Elhazza) for being her inspiration to teach
Last but not least, the writer would like to thank all her friends of the English Department Graduate Program: Bu Enny (for her attention), Bu Vera D.M, Bu Vera A (Thanks for your support and inputs), Bu Lies, Bu Anis, Bu Tien, Mbak Nopi (for your jokes), Mbak Lilik, Mbak Yalik, De’ Ika,, Pak Hidayat, Pak Hardi, Pak Hartanto, Pak Samto, Pak Zein, Pak Kris, Pak Probo, and friends.
Finally, the writer realizes that this thesis is far from being perfect. Therefore, useful critical inputs and advice are happily accepted.
Surakarta, January 2010
Anny
(4) The data of the reading test of the students or
the group having low interest (B 2 ) ...................................303
(5) The data of the reading test of the students or
the group having high interest who were taught through group-discussion (A 1 B 1 ). .....................................304
(6) The data of the reading test of the students or
the group having low interest who were taught through group-discussion (A 1 B 2 ). .....................................305
(7) The data of the reading test of the students or
the group having high interest who were taught through expository (A 2 B 1 ). ................................................306
(8) The data of the reading test of the students or
the group having low interest who were taught through expository (A 2 B 2 ). ................................................307
5b. The Homogeneity Test........................................................308
Appendix 6. Hypothesis Testing.......................................................................311
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Globalization era demands many changes in human being’s life, in every life’s aspect: economy, politics, social, culture, and education. The existence of a country can not be separated from the existence of other countries in this globalization era. Cooperation is a form of dependency of those countries since they can not live alone. In performing the cooperation, a communication tool is essentially needed. English as one of international languages is used for communication both orally and in written forms. Thus,
English should be mastered by people in a country so that they are able to communicate with people from other countries. For a long time, English as the international language seems getting more attention from educators, practitioners, scientists, researchers etc. Thus, to master the language, many researches, particularly in the countries where English is a foreign or second language, were done to get detail information about teaching a foreign language. As the result, the studies find that teaching
a foreign language is better when it is started as early as possible. These findings challenge most of people including Indonesian educators, educational researchers, practitioners and psychologists to apply these research findings in Indonesia to improve the Indonesian human resources’ ability, particularly in mastering English as one of international languages. Formerly, English as one a foreign language is better when it is started as early as possible. These findings challenge most of people including Indonesian educators, educational researchers, practitioners and psychologists to apply these research findings in Indonesia to improve the Indonesian human resources’ ability, particularly in mastering English as one of international languages. Formerly, English as one
Curriculum is a set of plans and a regulation of objectives, contents, teaching material and the ways to conduct learning activities to reach oriented educational objectives (Jumali, 2004: 86). There are two kinds of curriculum applied in Indonesia, namely national curriculum and curriculum of local content. National Curriculum is a curriculum which covers education nationally. Meanwhile, a curriculum of local content is an educational program which is adjusted to natural, social and cultural environment of the school.
So far, the local content is divided into two kinds, namely an obligatory local content and an optional local content. The obligatory local content is obligatory lesson that is taken in a certain area. Different area may have different obligatory lesson. For example, in West Java, the obligatory lesson is Sundanese. Meanwhile, the obligatory local content in Central Java is Javanese. Javanese is a local or regional language in Central Java and East Java. The local languages are important parts of the national culture. Those So far, the local content is divided into two kinds, namely an obligatory local content and an optional local content. The obligatory local content is obligatory lesson that is taken in a certain area. Different area may have different obligatory lesson. For example, in West Java, the obligatory lesson is Sundanese. Meanwhile, the obligatory local content in Central Java is Javanese. Javanese is a local or regional language in Central Java and East Java. The local languages are important parts of the national culture. Those
The optional local content is an optional lesson that can be chosen and adjusted to the school need. The optional local content may be various, such as English, farming etc. Most of schools choose English as the optional local content since English will be needed for students’ future. They should master English as one of International languages. Besides, English given in elementary school will become a basic knowledge to acquire English at the secondary school.
Cameron (2005: 16) states that starting a foreign language will be mastered more effectively if it is taught to the students as early as possible. There are at least five reasons why a foreign language is better taught as early as possible. Firstly, children (young learners) are active learners and thinkers (Cameron, 2005: 4). It means that children actively try to make sense of the world, ask questions, and want to know. They have purposes and intentions (Piagetian theory). Because of these reasons, a foreign language is better given at kindergarten or elementary school when children are active learners. A foreign language as something new for children will create a big curiosity.
With their purposes and intentions, the children will be motivated to get answers of their curiosities. Hence, Indonesian educators decide to include English as a foreign language in the early formal education as an optional local content.
Secondly, children are social human being. Vygotskyan theory sees that children are active learners in a world full of other people. Those people bring important roles in helping children to learn, bringing objects and ideas to their attention, talking while playing, reading stories, and asking questions. To master the language better, children need stimulus from their surroundings, including teachers, parents and others as social human being (Cameron, 2005: 5-7).
Thirdly, in both language and cognitive development, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is a central for effective learning. For Bruner, language is the most important tool for cognitive growth. Scaffolding and routines are necessary in language teaching because those activities provide opportunities for meaningful language development. They allow the children to actively make sense of new language.
The last reason, based on many previous researches, children who have an early start of a learning a foreign language will develop and maintain advantages in some, but not all, areas of language skills.
English teaching and learning is aimed at mastering the four language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. The basic skills taught at the Elementary School, hopefully, will become a basic knowledge to English teaching and learning is aimed at mastering the four language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. The basic skills taught at the Elementary School, hopefully, will become a basic knowledge to
Reading is one of essential skills in learning a language including foreign languages. Through reading, one can open his mind and broaden his knowledge. Besides, having ability to read in a foreign language can give better opportunities to get better jobs, access to literature or whatever (Nuttal, 1989: 3). Hence, the basic reading skill should be taught to the beginners up to advanced students. The basic reading skills are needed to understand the reading material since reading is not only uttering words, phrases or sentences, but also catching the writers’ message. In such understanding, reading will be
a meaningful activity for the readers since the readers understand the meaning and catch the content. For elementary school, reading is started from the second grade. Reading for the second and third grades are focused on reading aloud for vocabularies and simple sentences. Meanwhile, for the fourth grade up to sixth grade are started for simple texts. Reading aloud is useful in the early stages (Nuttall, 1989: 32). The aim of reading simple text is to introduce the students to messages in the form of simple descriptions. By introducing the basic a meaningful activity for the readers since the readers understand the meaning and catch the content. For elementary school, reading is started from the second grade. Reading for the second and third grades are focused on reading aloud for vocabularies and simple sentences. Meanwhile, for the fourth grade up to sixth grade are started for simple texts. Reading aloud is useful in the early stages (Nuttall, 1989: 32). The aim of reading simple text is to introduce the students to messages in the form of simple descriptions. By introducing the basic
Dealing with elementary-students’ characteristics that are different from adults, the teaching English is surely different from the teaching to adult learners. Consequently, the teaching method used by the teacher should be carefully considered. The teacher must also consider the aims of teaching, the students’ characteristics and the teaching material to get a maximum result in learning a foreign language.
The reading habit of the people in this country is low, even for reading Indonesian texts. That is why, the teacher’s method to teach reading skill is one of crucial aspects that must be considered. Many teachers still use expository teaching model in teaching reading. This method puts the teacher at the center of the teaching and learning process. Meanwhile, the students tend to be passive because the teachers limit the students’ activities in teaching and learning. These conditions make the English class boring and unattractive.
The students of SD Negeri 01 Tohudan and SD Negeri 01 Gawanan have problems related to their reading competence. Many students do not like to read English books. They still find difficulties to catch the authors’ message when the teachers try to give them English simple texts.
To respond to this condition, the researcher tries to use discussion using word wall to teach reading. Discussion is a teamwork in doing something. Discussion methods are among the most valuable tools in the teachers’ repertoire. Teachers in large classes can use this method to make the teaching-learning process more effective and meaningful. The discussion implies active participation of group members, and the participation is directed to a definite goal. The idea of discussion and grouping may change the interaction style from teacher-centered approach to learner-centered one.
A classroom display is useful to encourage students in language learning (Argondizzo, 1992: 10). A Word Wall is a kind of classroom display. It is a large display on the classroom wall or bulletin board and may become a teaching tool that elementary teachers use to aid students during reading and writing lessons. The Word Wall is aimed at attracting students’ attention in learning reading. Teachers use various activities to help students interact with the Word Wall and increase students’ ability to read and to write. The variety of the written texts on the Word Wall will also keep students’ interest.
Word Wall is originally designed to challenge and motivate language learning in elementary or secondary classroom to develop vocabulary, and to internalize new vocabulary. These vocabularies can help the students in catching the meaning of the reading material. The word wall can also be used for various classroom lessons, accommodating individual, pair, small group, and whole class instruction. Such activities can promote vocabulary learning and support language skills. Through Word Wall, students are predicted to be Word Wall is originally designed to challenge and motivate language learning in elementary or secondary classroom to develop vocabulary, and to internalize new vocabulary. These vocabularies can help the students in catching the meaning of the reading material. The word wall can also be used for various classroom lessons, accommodating individual, pair, small group, and whole class instruction. Such activities can promote vocabulary learning and support language skills. Through Word Wall, students are predicted to be
Interest is needed in learning a foreign language because interest can lead the students to learn more. Interest makes the students pay more attention to the class during the language learning. In addition, the teacher should choose a teaching technique that is suitable to his students’ characteristics. The teaching technique functions to attract, to create and to keep students’ interest. In essence, interest must be kept during and after the learning process to further learning activities.
Therefore, upon thinking about the effectiveness of the discussion using word wall to teach reading at elementary school students, the researcher was motivated to analyze the effectiveness of this teaching technique, in connection with students’ interest, through a research entitled: The
Effectiveness of Group-Discussion Using Word Wall to Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Interest (An Experimental Study in SD N 01 Gawanan and SD N 01 Tohudan Colomadu Karanganyar in 2008/2009
Academic Year)
B. Problem Identification
Connected with the previous background of the study, there were several problems that could be identified as follows:
1. Why do students tend to have low reading competence?
2. What factors affect the low reading competence?
3. Can the teacher help students to improve their reading competence?
4. How does the teacher improve it?
5. Does the teacher’s teaching approach or method influence the students’ reading competence?
6. Do the teacher’s characteristics and professionalism influence students’ reading competence?
7. Does the students’ interest give influences to reading competence?
8. Does the students’ interest also influence the students’ reading competence?
9. Does discussion help students to increase their interest in a reading class?
10. Does the teacher need to consider the method of teaching related to the students’ characteristics?
C. Problem Limitation
There are many problem identifications found in the above explanations. All of them are impossible to be analyzed in this research. Thus, the writer limited the problems to those which are predicted to influence students’ reading competence . Those are methods of teaching (group- discussion and expository teaching model) and students’ interest.
D. Problem Statements
Dealing with the background of the study, problem identifications, and problem limitation, the writer proposes three problems statements as follows:
1. Is group-discussion using word wall is more effective than expository teaching model for teaching reading?
2. Do students having high interest have better reading competence than those having low interest?
3. Is there any interaction between the teaching method and students’ interest?
E. The Objectives of the Study
In a wide scope, this research is aimed at knowing the effect of the teaching methods and students’ interest on students’ reading competence. In a specific scope, this research is proposed to know whether (1) group-discussion is more effective than expository teaching model for teaching reading or not; (2) students having high interest have better reading competence than those having low interest or not; and (3) there is an interaction between the teaching method and students’ interest or not.
F. The Benefits of the Study
The research is expected to be very useful either theoretically or practically. The benefits are elaborated as follows:
1. Theoretical Benefit
Theoretically, the research can be used to develop a teaching method or technique particularly for teaching reading to young learners. Besides, the result of the research can be used for reference to conduct further researches.
2. Practical Benefits
The result of the research may practically be useful for:
a. Students of Education Department. This research may be helpful for students in giving information about the teaching reading through discussion which is supported by word wall . It may also give them inputs of interactive-teaching reading methods.
b. English Teachers Teaching Reading. Specifically, this research will be useful for preparing teaching reading through discussion and word wall. This research also gives inputs to English teachers teaching reading, especially about how discussions and word wall can be used to stimulate students in a reading class. Generally, this research is also used to stimulate English teachers to b. English Teachers Teaching Reading. Specifically, this research will be useful for preparing teaching reading through discussion and word wall. This research also gives inputs to English teachers teaching reading, especially about how discussions and word wall can be used to stimulate students in a reading class. Generally, this research is also used to stimulate English teachers to
c. Other Researchers. The research can be used to stimulate them to conduct a further research of teaching reading, particularly teaching reading at elementary school.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, RATIONALE AND HYPOTHESIS
A. Review of Related Literature
1. Reading
a. Definition of Reading
Being able to read, not only in the first language but also in foreign languages, is an important foundation to achieve further knowledge. The following explanations describe reading definitions. According to Nuttal (1989: 2) the word reading has many meanings, several of which are involved when people speak of reading instruction. The word means (1) decode, decipher, identify; (2) articulate, speak, pronounce; and (3) understand, respond, meaning.
William (1996: 3) defines reading as : “a process whereby one looks at and understands what has been
written, the reader does not necessarily need to look at written, the reader does not necessarily need to look at
a passive object, fed with letters, words and sentences, but is actively working on the text, and is able to arrive at understanding without looking at every letter and word”.
Rayner (1989: 23) argues that “Reading is the ability to extract visual information from the page and comprehend the meaning of the text”. Meanwhile, Goodman (in Rayner, 1989: 351) views the reading process as a ‘psycholinguistics guessing game’ in which reader tries to figure out the meaning”.
From the previous explanations, it can be concluded that reading is the ability to gain information by understanding the meaning 13 of the text. At the elementary school, reading aloud is important because through this activity, students can practice how to say the words. In addition, the understanding of the texts is the main goal of teaching reading at elementary school.
b. Aims of Reading
Reading has three aims as follows:
1. Reading for information Reading for information helps the readers recognize factual information in various forms, such as maps, charts, plans and notice. The readers also can use reading selection to get the information.
2. Reading for meaning
Reading for meaning helps the readers recognize and understand the purpose of reading selections. It also helps the readers to recognize how these purposes are reflected in the kind of language that writer uses.
3. Reading for pleasure Reading for pleasure offers a variety of short text, fiction and non fiction from printed media as books, magazines, comics, brochures etc (Smith, 1971: 4).
Meanwhile, Rivers (1978: 189) says that there are five possible objectives for a reading class, namely reading for information; reading of informal material; fluent, direct reading of all kinds of material; literary analysis; and translation of texts. These objectives are explained in the following explanations:
1. Reading for Information. To extract certain kinds of information from English texts (scientific, historical, political, philosophic, economic and sociological), students need to recognize grammar which impede comprehension of the written language. Furthermore, students also need knowledge of word formation. It will help them to recognize the functions and nuances of meaning of words. Next, students need to recognize knowledge of the most frequent “false friend’. Two languages may share cognate which are easily recognizable but the meanings are different. For example :
English become ---German bekommen. Although these two words look alike, they have diverged in meaning. German bekommen means receive. Another example, English advertisement --- French avertissement. The French avertissement means a warning.
2. Reading of Informal Material. Some students more interested in English for interpersonal communication may want to read correspondence, notices, newspapers, headings and advertisements. These informal styles will reinforce students’ speech pattern.
3. Fluent, Direct Reading of All Kinds of Material. Being a fluent and direct reader is a hope of most of students in learning foreign language. The students will be easy to catch the meaning of written forms. They read the contents fluently for pleasure. A novel, a biography, or a magazine either light or serious will be interesting written materials for the fluent readers.
4. Literary Analysis Literary Analysis is needed when one wants to develop deep analysis of literary material. In this case, one requires reading skills for literary analysis. Teachers may interest particularly in a teaching material. They will need for instance, “Literature in TESOL Programs: The Language and the Culture,” John F. Povey, TQ 1(1967),p 40-46.
5. Translation of Texts.
Rivers says (1978: 201) “Translation is an art which requires a sophisticated knowledge of the native language as well as of English.” Students who focus on translation need specific skill for their reading. Translation of certain texts must refer to dictionaries available for the specialized vocabularies of medicines, physics, engineering, chemistry, electronics, business, and so on. To translate English texts, one also needs experience and broad knowledge about cultures. Reading much about the related material of the text will be very useful and helpful the translators.
Based on the above aims of reading, teaching reading at elementary school is focused on reading for information and reading for pleasure. In the reading class, students are motivated to get information in a simple form, and are encouraged to have fun with the reading material. Through visual and attractive information, such as comics, brochure, story etc, students will be interested in learning more. To reach those aims, an English teacher of elementary school must be aware of children opportunities to succeed in learning to read.
Related to the above aims, children are provided with the best opportunities for success in learning to read when teachers integrate the following skills:
1. phonemic awareness: the ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in oral language;
2. phonics: the relationships between letters and sounds;
3. fluency: the ability to read quickly and naturally, recognize words automatically, and group words quickly;
4. vocabulary knowledge: new words and what they mean; and
5. text comprehension: understanding what is being read and developing
thinking skills ( http://www.acer.edu.au/resdev/15_Teaching Reading.html ) In connection with the above skills, the research focused on the vocabulary knowledge (number four) and text comprehension (number five). Rivers (1978: 187-188) states that reading activities have some purposes as follows:
higher-order
1. Readers want information for some purpose or readers are curious about some topics.
2. Readers need instruction in order to perform some tasks for works or daily life (recipe).
3. Readers want to act in a play, play a new game, do a puzzle, or carry out other activity which is pleasant and amusing.
4. Readers want to keep in touch with friends by correspondence or understand business letters.
5. Readers want to know where and when something will take place or what is available. For instance: announcements, timetables, programs, menus and advertisements.
6. Readers want to know what is happening or has happened through newspapers, magazines, reports and so on.
7. Readers want to seek enjoyment or excitement from novels, short stories, poems and words of songs.
c. Reading Skill for Children
According to Cameron (2005: 123), literacy learning in the first, second or foreign language needs informed and skilled teaching. Second language literacy is a complicated area. Literacy, in this sense is both social and cognitive. Socially, literacy provides people with opportunities to share meanings across space and time. Cognitively, literacy requires that individuals use specific skills and knowledge about how the written language operates in processing text.
Young learners learning to read English, surely, need to develop knowledge and skills at different scales. Children need to progress within each scale or level. They also need to practice integrating across the levels or scales. The following figure is the analogy of reading a text as seeing the earth by satellite at different scales (Cameron, 2005: 128).
Context.......................space Discourse....................continents and oceans a text read by a Paragraph....................mountains
the earth seen
by satellite Words.........................house, trees, fields
skilled reader Sentence/clause..........motorways and cities
Letters/sounds.............people, leaves
Figure 1. The analogy of reading a text as seeing the earth by satellite at different scales.
A skilled reader can access information together with his relevant previous knowledge. The skilled reader not only read given texts, but he also will understand the texts. Furthermore, the skills and knowledge involved in constructing meaning from reading a text are summarized in Figure 3. To reach an understanding of the text, all different information are integrated with previous knowledge to construct a coherent meaning.
d. Micro –skills of Reading Comprehension
There are fourteen micro-skills of reading comprehension. They are :
a. Discriminate among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
b. Retain chunks of language of different length in short-term memory.
c. Process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
d. Recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
e. Recognize grammatical word classes (noun, verb, etc) , system (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
f. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms.
g. Recognize cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the relationship between and among clauses.
h. Recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for interpretation.
i. Recognize the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose.
j. Infer context that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
k. Infer links and connections between events, ideas, etc., deduce causes and effect, and detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea,
new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification. l. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings. m. Detect culturally specific references and interpret them in a context
of the appropriate cultural schemata. n. Develop and use a battery of reading strategies such as scanning and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words from context, and activating schemata for the interpretation of texts (Brown, 2001: 307).
e. Skilled Reading in English for Young Learners
Skilled reading is a process of constructing meaning from written language. Knowledge
Skills
background knowledge of
activate relevant knowledge topic
THE WORLD
of topic function of literacy in uses of
activate vocabulary different genres/text types
organization and structure of
recognize text type texts
TEXT
locate key information paragraphing
identify main points / detail use and meaning of discourse
follow the line of argument markers
work out explicit / implicit meaning
co-ordination and work out how clauses relate subordination
to each other word order
identify verb and relation of meaning of punctuation
SENTENCES
other words to the verb clause grammar
recognize formulaic chunks
sight vocabulary
recognize by sight affixes
WORDS
guess meaning of new words spelling
from context morphemes
break words into morphemes
spelling patterns
break words into syllables meaning of common morphemes
SYLLABLES
(spoken)
break syllables into onset and
MORPHEME
rime spot same rime / morpheme in
(written)
different words use analogy to work out word
SOUNDS-LETTERS
grapheme-phoneme relate letter shape to sound correspondences
notice initial and final the alphabetic principle
consonants in words script
blend sounds to syllables names/shapes of letters of the alphabet letter clusters/diagraphs
Figure 2. Skilled reading in English (Cameron, 2005: 135)
Based on the above Brown’s micro-skills of reading, teaching reading for young learners related to this research is limited to skills of recognizing words, interpreting words, recognizing word classes (noun, verb and adjective), recognizing system (simple present, simple past tense, pluralization) and knowing the functions of conjunction ‘and’.
In accordance with the above reading skills for young learners in Figure 2, the researcher limited the skills on understanding words, sentences and texts that are appropriate with the English local content In accordance with the above reading skills for young learners in Figure 2, the researcher limited the skills on understanding words, sentences and texts that are appropriate with the English local content
f. Factors Affecting Learning to Read in English as a Foreign Language
Factors influencing learning to read English as a foreign language (L1) are first, the nature of the written forms of the first language; second, the learner’s previous experience in L1 Literacy; third, the learner’s knowledge of the FL; and fourth, the learner’s age (Cameron, 2005:134). Those factors are elaborated as follows:
1. First Language Cameron (2005: 134) states that each language is structured differently and those different structures offer learners different cues to meaning. That is why, when learners learn their first language, their brain or mind concentrates on the way the particular L1 works, and they learn to attend to the particular cues to meaning that are most helpful. When the learners meet a new language, their brain or mind automatically tries to apply the first 1. First Language Cameron (2005: 134) states that each language is structured differently and those different structures offer learners different cues to meaning. That is why, when learners learn their first language, their brain or mind concentrates on the way the particular L1 works, and they learn to attend to the particular cues to meaning that are most helpful. When the learners meet a new language, their brain or mind automatically tries to apply the first
2. The learner’s first language literacy experience Cameron (2001:137) says that the methodology of teaching literacy skills in the first language must also be considered. The way the child is being, or has been, taught to read the first language will create expectation about how foreign language reading will be taught. He also adds that a quite different approach in the foreign language classroom may be a good idea, since it helps young learners to differentiate the languages and the literacy skills required in each language. Some literacy knowledge and skill may
be available for transfer.
3. The learner’s knowledge of the foreign language Verhoeven (in Cameron, 2005 : 137) states that oral skills in the new language area are important factors in learning to be literate since phonological awareness in the foreign language and the ability to hear the individual sounds and syllables that make up 3. The learner’s knowledge of the foreign language Verhoeven (in Cameron, 2005 : 137) states that oral skills in the new language area are important factors in learning to be literate since phonological awareness in the foreign language and the ability to hear the individual sounds and syllables that make up
Cameron (2005: 137) says that vocabulary knowledge is extremely important : (a) when a written word is being ‘sounded out’ or built up from its component letter or morpheme sounds. The known words will speed up recognition, and (b) when a sentence is being read, known words will be easier to hold in short- term memory as meaning is built up
In addition, Cameron (2005: 138) argues that in the early stages, children should only encounter written words that they already know orally. If a text contains unknown words, the meanings must be completely obvious from the rest of the text. In the broader understanding of literacy, children gain much literacy experience before they come to school. In the foreign language, this is less likely to happen. The teacher can expand children’s experience of literacy in the new language by creating the environmental print for the classroom.
4. The learner’s age Age of starting to learn to read in the first language is still controversial. Teaching reading to children in a foreign language will be varied in different ages. Young learners, under six years must be given a very simple level. For instance, tracing their 4. The learner’s age Age of starting to learn to read in the first language is still controversial. Teaching reading to children in a foreign language will be varied in different ages. Young learners, under six years must be given a very simple level. For instance, tracing their
By the time children reach ten years, their first oral language and literacy are probably quite firmly established. They understand about how written text works. They are able to talk and think about the differences of languages. So, reading and writing can be parts for the foreign language learning at this age because reading and writing will be a foundation to get better knowledge. Furthermore, in teaching reading, one can utilize any transferable knowledge and skills from the first language literacy, such as sounding out words, breaking words into syllables or morphemes.
2. Teaching Foreign Language to Young Learners
It has long been hypothesized that children learn a second and foreign language better than adults. The hypothesis is often used to support the early introduction of foreign language teaching. According to Cameron (2000: 13) children are in the period of Critical Period Hypothesis, in which, in the period, the children’s brains are still able to use mechanisms It has long been hypothesized that children learn a second and foreign language better than adults. The hypothesis is often used to support the early introduction of foreign language teaching. According to Cameron (2000: 13) children are in the period of Critical Period Hypothesis, in which, in the period, the children’s brains are still able to use mechanisms
The above hypothesis support educators to add English as one of lessons at their schools. As a result, the field of teaching foreign languages to young learners, particularly English has expanded enormously. There are several theoretical frameworks for teaching foreign language for young learners. They are Piaget’s, Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s ideas. Those ideas are elaborated in the following explanations:
a. Jean Piaget Theory
Jean Piaget, a Switzerland psychologist, has become known as
a famous psychologist on cognitive growth. He divides the stages of cognitive growth into five stages as follows:
STAGES OF COGNITIVE GROWTH AGE
STAGE
0-2 Sensorimotor 2-7
Intuitive or preoperational 7-11
Concrete operations 11-16
Formal Operations 16-Adulthood
Late formal operations Table 1
Sprinthall et all (1994: 113)
The fifth grade students belong to the concrete operation stage. According to Piaget (in Sprinthall, 1994: 119), in the concrete operational stage, “they are young logical positivists who understand functional relationship because they are specific, because they can test the problem out “. For example, if we show children at this age two The fifth grade students belong to the concrete operation stage. According to Piaget (in Sprinthall, 1994: 119), in the concrete operational stage, “they are young logical positivists who understand functional relationship because they are specific, because they can test the problem out “. For example, if we show children at this age two
Implications of Piagetian Theory for Language Learning Piaget says that children are active learners and sense-makers.
According to Donaldson in Cameron (2005: 4), He emphasizes that “(the child) actively tries to make sense of the world . . . asks questions, . . . wants to know . . . Also from very early stage, the child has purposes and intensions: he wants to do”.
As active learners and thinkers, children seek out intention and purposes from other people doing. They will bring their knowledge and experience to make sense of other people’s actions and language. The important thing to note is that children’s experiences are still limited. Thus, environment must provide the setting for development through the opportunities that offer children for action.