41
Station
C1 C2
C3 C4
C5 C6
C-P o
nd E1
E2 E3
E4 E5
E -Beach
Mea n
Bi oma
ss g DM m²
1 2
3 4
5 6
7
Graps. Ad. Ocy. Ad.
Graps. Juv. Ocy. Juv.
Station
C1 C2
C3 C4
C5 C6
C -Pond
E1 E2
E3 E4
E5 E-Beach
Mean D
e ns
ities In
d. m²
20 40
60 80
100 120
140
Figure 2. Average density and biomass of intertidal crabs at the different sampling stations. The bars are divided by families Grapsidae and Ocypodidae and ontogenetic stage adult
and juvenile specimens.
The community composition differs between the eastern and the central part of the SA Figure 3. Although a lot of crab species are not restricted to one of the two regions,
there are clear differences between both regions in the abundances of single species.
2D Stress: 0,12
Area
East Central
Figure 3. MDS – Plot of intertidal crab species abundance based on a Bray – Curtis - Similarity - Matrix. Each dot represents one replicate. Different symbols indicate
replicates from the central and the eastern part.
The partially herbivorous species of the grapsid subfamily Sesarminae reach higher species richness and higher biomass values in the central part of SA, which is related to
dense vegetation in that area caused by the fast growing, undergrowth species Acanthus ilicifolius
. Here the community is dominated by the grapsid and partially herbivorous species Perisesarma darwinensis, which lives above all in the vegetated zones further
inland. In the common mudflats of the central part a small ocypodid species, Ilyoplax strigicarpus,
can reach high densities. A third important species is the fiddler crab Uca coarctata
, which was found both in the mudflats and further inland, indicating non vegetated zones in the latter.
42
Abundance Biomass
In the eastern region detritivorous crabs dominate the community. The grapsid, but detritivorous species Metaplax elegans is the most abundant species. Similar to Uca
bellator , another abundant species in the east it prefers areas with sparser vegetation.
Whereas two other characteristic species of the eastern part, Uca forcipata and Perisesarma semperi longicristatum,
inhabit denser vegetated areas. Because of the coarser sediment texture at station “E1” and “E-Beach” these are different from all other stations
offering a habitat for certain ocypodid species that are adapted to feed on sandy ground. Dominant species and community structure differ in both parts of SA, which is
reflected by the Shannon-Diversities and Pielou’s Evenness Table 1. In the central part a single species, Perisesarma darwinensis, dominates abundance and biomass, and thus
indicates a high frequency of disturbance. In contrast, dominance structure in the eastern part is more equal.
Table 1. Intertidal crab species richness, Shannon Diversity and Pielou’s Evenness in both for the both parts
Species Richness Shannon Diversity H log e
Pielous Evenness J Central Part
33 1.89 0.54
Eastern Part
33 2.69 0.77
In both parts r-selected species seem to prevail the communities, since abundance and biomass curve show a parallel run. This is another hint for the prevalence of natural
disturbances orand anthropogenic impacts which is reflected by the composition of the crab community Figure 4.
Central Part
1 10
100
Species rank
20 40
60 80
100
Cumul. Dominance
W = -0,001
Eastern Part
1 10
100
Species rank
20 40
60 80
100
Cumul . Domi
nanc e
W = 0,01
Figure 4. Abundance – Biomass – Comparison ABC – Curves based on mean species densities and biomass for the Central and Eastern part of the lagoon.
Conclusions
As a conclusion the Mangroves of Segara Anakan give home to a great number of different intertidal crab species, thus showing its great value for conservation as a hot spot
of biodiversity. Species densities and biomass show a high variation within the stations and are mainly in the range reported from other mangrove forests. The two parts of SA show
clear differences in their dominant species and in their community structure. There are indications for a disturbance of the ecosystem in both regions, with a more severe impact
43 on the central part. Besides it reflects the highly dynamic nature of the Segara Anakan
Lagoon Ecosystem caused by natural and anthropogenic influences.
References Hogarth, P.J., 1999. The biology of mangroves, pp. 228. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Koch, V., 1999. Epibenthic production and energy flow in the Caeté mangrove estuary,
North Brazil, pp 97. zmt contributions 6. Dissertation. Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie, Bremen.
Lee, S.Y., 1998. Ecological role of grapsid crabs in mangrove ecosystems: a review. Marine and Freshwater Research 49, 335-343.
Macintosh, D.J., 1988. The ecology and physiology of decapods of mangrove swamps. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 59, 315-341.
Macintosh, D.J., Ashton, E.C., Havanon, S., 2002. Mangrove rehabilitation and intertidal biodiversity: a study in the Ranong mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science 55, 331-345. Smith III, T.J., Boto, K.G., Frusher, S.D., Giddins, R.L., 1991. Keystone species and
mangrove forest dynamics: The influence of burrowing by crabs on soil nutrient status and forest productivity. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 33, 419-432.
44
PARASITES AS BIOINDICATORS FOR A RISK CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM AROUND AND WITHIN INDONESIAN GROUPER MARICULTURE
by
Sonja Rückert, Harry W. Palm
Center for Tropical marine Ecology, Bremen, Germany rückertzmt-bremen.de
Introduction
Bioindicators in general are organisms that react sensible on specific environmental conditions and changes. Therefore they are potentially useful to describe the status of an
environment. Fish parasites have been successfully used as biological indicators to describe the host’s feeding ecology Palm, 1999, migration patterns and recruitment
Williams et al., 1992; Moser, 1991 as well as different parameters of the marine environment water quality, Mac Kenzie et al., 1995; Galli et al., 2001; eutrophication,
Palm and Dobberstein 1999; pollution, Sures and Reimann, 2003; environmental stress, Khan and Thulin 1991; Landsberg et al., 1998. The advantage to use fish parasites is
based on their sensible response to different environmental conditions and changes, and on the huge biodiversity of these organisms, making them readily available in all kind of
environments and conditions.
Different parasite species and developmental stages react differently, according to their site of infestation in the host endo- or ectoparasites and their ecological needs. In
particular, ectocommensals with direct life cycles such as trichodinid ciliates favour polluted waters, and indicate high bacterial load Palm and Dobberstein, 1999; Ogut and
Palm, 2005. Endoparasites with complex life cycles favour stable and non-polluted waters, where the full range of required intermediate and final hosts are present Diamant
et al
., 1999. A combination of selected and easily identifiable parasite species is a useful tool to describe and classify the environmental conditions within any aquatic environment.
Fish mariculture is a steadily growing industry in Indonesia with significant economic potential. However, any intensive cultivation of marine finfish leads to problems
with parasitic infections and disease outbreaks, often associated with severe mortality and loss of the cultivated fish. Water quality monitoring alone is not the answer to prevent
disease outbreaks, as can be seen in mariculture around the world. Fishes belonging to the family Serranidae have been cultivated in Indonesia since 1980’s Harries, 2001. The
cultivation of groupers Epinephelus spp. was intensified in the 1990’s due to a high demand for quality food fish. Several research activities in Indonesia have focused on these
fish species, their ecology, feed and larva production. To date groupers are the main cultivated fish species in Indonesia, there is still an increasing demand on local as well as
on international markets e.g. Hong Kong, and free living groupers are still available in Indonesian waters.
The objectives of this research project are as follows:
1.
to analyse ecto- and endoparasites of commercial fish in Segara Anakan Lagoon for the presence of potential fish pathogens,
2.
to determine the suitability of the lagoon as a future locality for finfish especially grouper mariculture,
3.
to utilize marine fish parasites as biological indicators in Indonesian grouper mariculture,
45
4.
to utilize fish parasites within a parasitedisease risk classification system that can support decision making for the potential use of Indonesian coastal regions for finfish
mariculture.
Material and Methods
The main research area, the Segara Anakan Lagoon red dot in Figure 1, is located at the southern coast of Central Java, west to the city of Cilacap. Additionally, samples
were taken at a mariculture facility in the Thousand Islands Pulau Seribu, Northwest Java, located in the Jakarta Bight green dot in Figure 1.
Samples were taken within the framework of the SPICE-project “Science for the Protection of Indonesian Coastal Ecosystems” from August to November 2004 at two
different localities Motean and Klacesarea 2 and Donanarea 3 in Segara Anakan Lagoon southern coast of Java, both considered as being anthropogenic influenced environments.
A mariculture facility on the Thousand Islands Pulau Seribu, Jakarta Bay, northern coast of Java was studied at a non-polluted site for comparison.
Figure 1. Study Area, Segara Anakan Lagoon white circle and Thousand Islands dotted circle.
Three fish species, Epinephelus coioides Hamilton, 1822 21, Mugil cephalus Linnaeus, 1766 70 and Scatophagus argus Linnaeus, 1766 70 were studied for
parasites from both sampling sites within Segara Anakan Lagoon. Additionally, E. fuscoguttatus
Hamilton, 1822 35 was investigated at the mariculture facility in the Thousand Islands.
Smears were taken from the gills and inner opercula from the living fish. The fishes were examined directly after catch. During examination, the following measurements were
taken: total fish length TL, to the nearest 1.0 cm and weight TW, to the nearest 1.0 g Table 1. The skin, fins, eyes, gills and the mouth- and gill cavity were studied for
ectoparasites. The inner organs such as the digestive tract, liver, gall bladder, spleen, kidneys, gonads, heart and swim bladder were separated and transferred into saline
46 solution. While the internal organs were examined under a stereomicroscope, the gall
bladder was removed and studied by using a phase-contrast microscope. Belly flaps and musculature were examined on a candling table.
Table 1. Ecto-endoparasite ratios for the studied fish species.
Fish species and location Ecto-endoparasite ratio
Mugil cephalus area 2
4.0 Mugil cephalus
area 3 5.0
Scatophagus argus area 2
2.5 Scatophagus argus
area 3 4.5
Epinephelus coioides area 3
1.0 Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
PS 0.4
Results Prevalences of trichodinid ciliates
During the sampling period no trichodinid ciliates could be detected on the grouper specimens Epinephelus fuscoguttatus from the net cages in the Thousand Islands. In
contrast, the infestation with trichodinid ciliates of all studied fish species within the Segara Anakan Lagoon was fairly high. Highest prevalence 75 was found for
Trichodina
spp. on Scatophagus argus caught in area 2. Within the lagoon, lowest infestation rates 8 could be detected for Mugil cephalus in area 3. In general,
prevalence was higher in area 2 than in area 3.
Mugil cephalus Area 2
Scatophagus argus Area 2
Mugil cephalus Area 3
Scatophagus argus Area 3
Epinephelus coioides
Area 3
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
PS 10
20 30
40 50
60 70
80 90
100
P rev
alen c
e s
[ ]
Figure 2. Prevalence of trichodinid ciliates on the sampled fish species in Segara Anakan Lagoon and in the Thousand Islands.
Ratio of ecto-endoparasites
Except for Scatophagus argus in area 2, the total number of parasites inon the dissected fishes was lower within the lagoon 10-14 compared to the Thousand Islands
14. Figure 3 illustrates that the number of ectoparasites was higher within the lagoon 5-
47 10 than the number of endoparasites 2-5. In contrast, the number of endoparasites 10
was higher on the Thousand Islands compared with the number of ectoparasites 4. No significant differences were observed between areas 2 and 3 within the Segara Anakan
Lagoon. The ratios calculated for the numbers of ectoparasitic species vs the numbers of endoparasitic species are given in Table 1.
total no. of parasites no. of ectoparasites
no. of endoparasites
2 4
6 8
10 12
14 16
18 Mugil cephalus Area 2
Scatophagus argus Area 2 Mugil cephalus Area 3
Scatophagus argus Area 3 Epinephelus coioides Area 3
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus PS
Figure 3. Number of endo- ectoparasites and total number of parasites found inon the dissected fish species in the Segara Anakan Lagoon and on the Thousand Islands.
Parasite diversity Shannon Wiener Index
The biodiversity of fish parasites was higher in Epinephelus fuscoguttatus from the Thousand Islands compared to E. coioides and the other sampled fishes from Segara
Anakan Lagoon. The highest diversity of endoparasites 2.10 was calculated for E. fuscoguttatus
from the Thousand Islands. The diversity of endoparasites within the Segara Anakan Lagoon was higher in area 2 than in area 3. The highest diversity 1.17 was
calculated for Scatophagus argus from area 2 and the lowest 0.14 for S. argus and E. coioides
in area 3.
Mugil cephalus Area 2
Scatophagus argus Area 2
Mugil cephalus Area 3
Scatophagus argus Area 3
Epinephelus coioides
Area 3
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
PS 10
20 30
40 50
60 70
80 90
100
P rev
al e
n c
es [ ]
Figure 4. Total diversity Shannon Wiener Index of endoparasites found in the dissected fish species in the Segara Anakan Lagoon and on the Thousand Islands.
48
Conclusions
The present study of 4 different fish species in Indonesian waters revealed significant differences in the number and species compositions of fish parasites in 2
entirely different habitats. The non or less polluted locality in the Thousend Islands had the highest diversity and number of endoparasites, although the fish were cultivated
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
within net cages, compared to the free living fish from Segara Anakan Lagoon. In contrast, trichodinid ciliates that would indicate a more polluted
environment were absent in the fish from the Thousand Islands. All three studied fish species from Segara Anakan demonstrated a high number of ectoparasites compared to
endoparasites, the diversity was relatively low and the prevalence of trichodinid ciliates was high. Both sampling localities largely differed in parasites species number and
composition. However, the signal was not so different within Segara Anakan Lagoon.
We have choosen three different criteria as biological indicators that were described by the fish parasites. The prevalence of trichodinid ciliates was used to indicate
the bacterial load eutrophication at the sampled localities, the ratio of ecto- versus endoparasites to indicate the natural parasite compositions in marine habitats where the
number of endoparasites is higher than the number of ectoparasites, and the parasite diversity was used to indicate the culture conditions that lead to the exclusion of some
parasite species. The results suggest that these criteria can describe the different situation in the studied habitats, and that they can be applied as biological indicators under
Indonesian field conditions. The results suggest the Segara Anakan Lagoon as a biologically distinct habitat, with a high bacterial load and possibly under heavy
anthropogenic influence. The indicator values are in most cases beyond a theoretical threshold e.g. 50 prevalence for trichodinid ciliates, indicating that the Segara Anakan
Lagoon, in contrast to the waters in the central Thousand Islands, is an unfavourable location for grouper finfish mariculture. It can be considered as a high risk habitat for
parasitic infections and other fish diseases outbreaks in grouper mariculture. In contrast, the Thousand Islands at the sampled locality and under culture conditions can still be
considered as a typical marine site with low pollution. In this case, the chosen indicators and their values are not exceeding the threshold. However, these results are preliminary
and further data from inside and outside Segara Anakan Lagoon are needed to confirm these results.
The present study demonstrates that fish parasites can be successfully applied to describe the environmental situation at 2 different Indonesian localities. Our results from
the mariculture site in the Thousand Islands demonstrate that fish parasites are also a common phenomenon within “healthy” fish mariculture, and can indicate “non-suitable”
sites. Parasitic infestations and fish diseases are the major obstacles that are faced by fish farming. Because of the fact that parasite ecology can indicate the “health” status of fish
and their environment, investigating these organisms can be a useful tool during the exploration and development of finfish mariculture in Indonesia. Because Indonesia is in
the centre of marine fish parasite diversity e.g. Palm, 2004, the selection of suitable parasites as indicators can prevent disease and parasite problems in mariculture. It is
intended to run experiments under laboratory and natural conditions in Segara Anakan Lagoon to utilize and improve the methods described above. Based on the achieved results,
a star graph for visual integration is under development. This graph will be used in future to present a parasitedisease risk classification and monitoring system for a sustainable and
environmental friendly grouper mariculture development in Indonesia.
49
References
Diamant, A., Banet, A., Paperna, I., von Westernhagen, H., Broeg, K., Kruener, G., Koerting, W., Zander, S., 1999. The use of fish metabolic, pathological and
parasitological indices in pollution monitoring. II The Red Sea and Mediterranean. Helgoland Mar. Res. 53, 195-208.
Galli, P., Crosa, G., Mariniello, L., Ortis, M. D’Amelio S. 2001. Water quality as a determinant of the composition of fish parasite communities. Hydrobiologia 452,
173–179. Khan, R.A., Thulin, J., 1991. Influence of pollution on parasites of aquatic animals.
Advances in Parasitology 30, 201-238. Landsberg, J.H., Blakesley, B.A., Reese, R.O., McRae, G., Forstchen, P.R., 1998. Parasites
of fish as indicators of environmental stress. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 51, 211-232.
Moser, M., 1991. Parasites as biological tags. Parasitology Today 77, 1-4. Ogut, H., Palm, H.W., 2005. Seasonal dynamics of
Trichodina spp. on whiting
Merlangius merlangus in relation to organic pollution on the eastern Black Sea coast of Turkey. Parasitological Research 963, 149-153.
Palm, H.W., 1999. Ecology of Pseudoterranova decipiens Krabbe, 1878 Nematoda: Anisakidae from Antarctic waters. Parasitology Research 85, 638-646.
__________, 2004. The Trypanorhyncha Diesing, 1863, pp. 710. PKSPL-IPB Press, Bogor.
Palm, H.W., Dobberstein, R.C., 1999. Occurrence of trichodinid ciliates Peritricha: Urceolariidae in the Kiel Fjord, Baltic Sea, and its possible use as a biological
indicator. Parasitology Research 85, 726-732. Sures, B., Reimann, N., 2003. Analysis of trace metals in the Antarctic host-parasite
system Notothenia coriiceps and Aspersentis megarhynchus Acanthocephala caught at King George Island, South Shetland Islands. Polar Biology 2610, 680-
686.
Williams, H.H., MacKenzie, K., McCarthy, A.M., 1992. Parasites as biological indicators of the population biology, migrations, diet, and phylogenetics of fish. Reviews in
Fish Biology and Fisheries 22, 144-176.
50
GOVERNANCE PROBLEMS IN MANAGING DONAN RIVER USES, CILACAP, JAVA, INDONESIA
by
Slamet Rosyadi
1
, Imam Widhiono
2
, Petrus Hary Tjahja Sudibya
2 1
Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, University of Jenderal Soedirman, Purwokerto, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Biology, University of Jenderal Soedirman, Purwokerto, Indonesia slametrosyadiyahoo.com
Introduction
The common use of natural resources can bring about over-exploitation since the resource-users are so individualistic that the tragedy of the commons takes place Hardin,
1968. This situation is shown by the absence of individuals who have the incentive to protect common resources from over-exploitation. As a consequence, many common
resources were gradually converted into open access ones in which the rules of capture drove each to get as much as possible before others did. In many areas, particularly in
developing countries, all communities will be confronted with collective action problems as they use a common resource.
In Cilacap, Donan River has been used in various interests for a long time. Apong net fishermen, industries, port management and ordinary fishermen are found to be users of
Donan River. Apong net is a kind of modified trawl that actually has been banned by the government since 1990s because it leads to over-fishing practices. Conflict arises because
practices of apong net have impeded interests of other users such as sea fishermen, industries and port administration. Placement of apong nets along Donan River has
hindered the ship transportation traffic of industries as well as port users. For ordinary fishermen, apong nets are responsible for fish scarcity in ocean since they catch most of
fish seeds. These conflicts have led to huge governance problems for creating a sustainable Donan River management.
To overcome these river use conflicts, some efforts have been undertaken. The Government of Kabupaten Cilacap has influenced it with issuing District Regulation No.
162001 on Conservation Zone in Segara Anakan Area. One of the chapters of this regulation governs license of apong net ownership. However, disturbance due to apong net
practices keeps taking place instead of decreasing the conflicts. According to survey, the number of apong nets impeding ship traffic has increased approximately 11-fold from the
year 2001 to 2004 from 12 to 131. Other efforts are undertaken by Cement Cibinong Company by launching some community development programs such as fishery culture,
provision of alternative net sirang net, and poultry. The main aim of these programs is to facilitate apong net fishermen in order to alter their job. Again, these efforts failed to
handle the conflicts. Responding to this government and industry failure, University of Jenderal Soedirman tries to mediate between the various parties involved in the Donan
conflict through the framework of Tripartite Cooperation Program since the beginning of 2005. The Program develops a consensus building approach among conflicting parties. The
Tripartite Cooperation Program consists of collaboration between university, local government and industries.
This paper is written based on the results of social mapping with qualitative methods in four villages along Donan River Kutawaru, Donan, Tritih Kulon, and Karang
Talun with some focuses: development of fish trap net, social norms in managing the river uses, and underlying causes of the river conflict uses. Data was collected by observation,
51 in-depth-interview, and focus group discussion with heads of and some influential apong
net fishermen. Data analysis used an interactive model with the following procedures: data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing Miles and Huberman,
1990. The Root of Governance Problems
Adoption of Apong Net by Donan Fishermen
Apong net started well known by fishermen community which lived along Donan River since 1980’s before the use of tiger prawn banned by government. Formerly the
society used sero or tadahan as the tools to catch the fish. Sero is made from bamboo or wood which placed in the river edge as a media to trap the fishes which are brought by the
river flow. Meanwhile, apong net is the modification of tiger prawn net. When formerly tiger prawn net was put in the ship which sailed to look for the fish a lot of coral reef
destruction occurred. After the ban was issued, some fisherman returned to operate this net with small changes. If formally it was put in trawl ships so it moved according to ship
channel, so after being apong net, this net become such river barrier, so every material which followed the river flow was trapped by the net.
Apong net for the first time was developed in Kutawaru village. It was Purwadi an informal leader in 1982 with his work experience in Jakarta found a lot of weaknesses
from Sero, such as it was broke easily if hinted by the fast current and less of catching results. Through trial efforts, he put tiger prawn permanently to replace sero.
Unfortunately, his effort has not gained maximum results. But tiger prawn as an alternative tool to catch beside sero then it developed rapidly after the existence of government
banning toward tiger prawn use in open sea. In its development, the society is able to catch much more as they use tiger prawn, which is well-known as apong net, in comparison with
sero. According to survey, the maximum catching results as using sero only amount to 25.000 rupiah. When they use apong net, the earnings reach 100.000 rupiah. According to
Widodo an influential apong fisherman, before apong was developed the catching results were less. After apong nets existed, the fishermens economic condition got better.
Formerly, they could only afford to buy bicycles, now they are able to buy motorcycles. In addition, they can improve their houses, for instance, from gedek bamboo-made wall to
permanent walls.
The practical use of apong net diffused to few villages along Donan River. Its development is becoming massive, and then it has already led to decreasing or even
stopping traditional catch techniques like: fishing, mintur or madong. Weak Property Regime
Viewed from the typology of resource property, Donan River includes the kinds of sources which is owned together common property. It is because Donan River has been
long time used together by fisherman society which lived along the river as a main source to support their economic life. The society use Donan River to catch any kind of fish by
using apong net. The fishes that they catch includes: jari shrimp, peci shrimp, tiny sea fish, belanak and rebon.
To arrange Donan River use, the society formed a fisherman organization which is structurally affiliated to the Indonesian Fisherman Association Organization IFAO. The
52 chief of fisherman organization is elected by its members of fisherman on the basis of trust
and able to accommodate aspiration and fisherman interest. Culturally, the society saw the chief just like their father who able to “guide” its
children. Therefore, all the time the chief represent its members in every forum which become the interest of its members always voiced and struggled.
In managing Donan River use, the prevailing norm system is not too complicated. Everybody, who lived inside and outside the village, is able to use Donan River as long as
he has already got permission from and gained agreement by the fishermen which has existed already there. Thus, a fisherman who would put the poles and apong net should be
agreed first by the other fishermen especially whether the place of new apong net is not disturbing the activities of other fishermen which has already existed there. If it is
considered as disturbing the others, then the new fisherman is banned to put the poles and his net. So far, the conflict intensity between fishermen particularly in putting the poles and
apong net in Donan River territory is at low level.
Even though some restrictions have been applied by apong fishermen, there were some apong net owners coming from outside the village. The interesting thing is that the
development of apong net number which increases year by year has caused “parceling of land” of Donan River. The land parceling of Donan River territory was unavoidable
because the society competes to get the location of poles placed which were predicted to become the source of fishes. The placement of apong net formerly in the edge of river
moved to the middle of river flow slice with the increasing of society interest to use apong net. In its development, the locations which tend to middle are considered as the more
strategic place compared to the edge of river. It is because the current in the middle is more rapid compared to the edge so it can bring any kinds of fishes which are able to be trapped
in apong net with relatively bigger amount compared in the flow of the edge.
The characteristics of apong net which is valued efficient from time and cost have encourage higher enough society attention to compete in placing apong net. The working
field which is getting scarce has also encouraged the activities of apong net to become the main choice of society to support their economical life. Even though not all placement of
apong nets gives satisfaction results, some people own more than one apong net. Even there were some members who already bequeathed its poles to their children who have
already own family. Or there were also who sold the poles location to others parties interested in investing apong net. The interesting thing is that the placement of poles
undertaken by someone will be socially admitted by others apong fishermen. In other words, the poles are considered as a property right. Therefore, the border of land parceling
who is owned by apong fisherman has determined his property clearly and guaranteed free from disturbance of other parties. Even though there were no written law, every fisherman
would respect the others poles ownership. This means that no one will try to remove or even block the poles with his poles. Thus, the border fishing catching property area is
becoming much clearer.
From the explanation above, the characteristic of Donan River as common property has changed into private property. Therefore, it brings big enough consequences in
property rights. An apong net fisherman is not only able to ruled the river area with the poles, but also able to sell, to rent it even bequeathed its poles to others parties. Even
though the management of apong net uses in an area or village is still controlled by a fisherman organization as the authority source of apong fisherman society.
53
Governance Problems
Governance approach sees that conflict of resource users is because of the absence of a credible institutional framework accommodating the interests of conflicting parties. In
Donan area, the conflicts of using Donan River rise up as the users are not only dominated by apong fishermen. The development of Tanjung Intan harbor as an international harbor
as well as some industries in Cilacap also increases the uses of Donan River to support their activities. The more crowded ship harbor and industry ship traffic demand for a
secure sailing line from all kinds of distraction. The increasing use of apong net in along flow of Donan has become a threat for industry and harbor parties. While for some apong
fishermen, the ship traffics in the river flow have disturbed many people which have already existed for long time. Ironically, the government intervention through Law No.
162001 has not showed effectively in managing the uses of Donan river flow for common interest because of decreasing government credibility and legitimacy after reform era.
From the analysis above, there are some conflict types which occur in Donan river flow. Using the framework of types of conflicts arising in natural resource management
developed by Warner 2000, the Donan conflicts are divided into three conflict level. First, intern micro-macro conflict, which is one occurring at internal level of apong net
fisherman community itself. There is some conflict phenomenon which can be identified as follows:
1. Some apong fisherman is hard to be controlled by the chief of fisherman because of
placing of apong net in ship traffic line. 2. The competition among apong net fishermen in finding poles locations which are
considered as fish sources. In the first conflict, the authority of chief of fishermen was limited in managing the
development of apong net but unable to disciplines the member of apong fishermen who put poles and their net in sailing line area. Meanwhile in the second conflict, there are
some not satisfied from few fishermen toward informal rules which are agreed in apong fisherman community that the new apong placing is able to be placed as long as it does not
disturb apong activity existence and should get approval from others which is in one line.
The second type of conflict is inter micro-macro conflict, which is conflict between apong fishermen with open sea fishermen. In this conflict, the open sea fisherman felt loss
with the increasing of apong net number in Donan River area. They claim that the decreasing number of fish in the open sea was because the impact of the exercise of
catching fish by using apong net. According to them, apong net had killed the baby fish and hamper the development of any kind of fish. In a few meeting forum which involved
few parties, open sea fishermen often stated their complaint to the regency government to quickly solve apong problems.
The third type of conflict is micro-macro conflict, which is conflict between apong fishermen with other parties like Cilacap local government, Tanjung Intan harbor
administration, Pertamina national oil company, and Cement Cibinong company, as well as sea security apparatus. Against Cilacap local government, apong fishermen felt that
government never involved them in formulating the local law No. 162001. Indeed, the government ever asked a few chief of fishermen to count the number and the place of
apong net, but then government left the role of fisherman organization in local law making. As a consequence, most of apong net fisherman didn’t know about local law No. 162001
governing apong property license. In addition, the local government also faces a heavy challenge from apong fishermen demands in order to compensate their apong nets which is
equal to current price of net and provides alternative jobs for them if apong net practices
54 are really prohibited. Such demands can be realized by the local government because of
very limited government budget. Against Pertamina party, beside because of Pertamina ship traffic which a few time causes broken-apong, Pertamina waste is claimed as a cause
of the lost of few kind of fish and the decreasing of fish catching results using apong net. While against Cement Cibinong Company, the complaint that apong fishermen arise is the
frequency of ships or tongkang of Cibinong hitting their apong net. For Cement Cibinong party, the sporadic placement of apong net in shipping line has caused the increasing of
transportation cost and hampered production process because of the slowness of material supply to the processing location. Whilst, against harbor administration party, apong
fishermen complain one side action from harbor party which diffused the sailing line without acknowledged by apong fishermen. In harbor administration point of view, Donan
line area is their authority area or their work field area so it no need even no obligation to be acknowledged by others parties. Moreover, the management of sailing line has been
guaranteed by the national sailing law. The other conflict phenomenon was the one between apong fishermen and sea security apparatus. The action of taking out apong net in
the sea security operation was considered only to awake the tenser between apong fishermen and security apparatus. According to apong fishermen, they often does not
obtain the information about sailing line cleaning from apong net so some fishermen felt loss because of those operations. Beside that, the labeling of “society disease” to apong
fisherman community by security apparatus in some meeting forum had caused society touchiness. These practices not only preserve the conflict that has developed for a long
time ago, but also contra productive for the cooperation building from the parties involved in arranging sustainability of Donan River line.
Box 1.
Demands of Apong net fishermen if their practices are really prohibited by law Developing A New Governance Approach
Tripartite cooperation is developed to address complicated governance problem in Donan River area. It is conceptualized as collaborative cooperation among three
institutions consisting of university, industry and local government see Figure 1. The main aim of tripartite cooperation is to support accomplishment of national education goal,
which is improving national competitiveness. The contribution of university to the national education goal is through improvement of education curriculum and research strategies to
generate competitive graduation as well as excellent research results. The outputs of higher education can be utilized for industry in order to improve its product competitiveness in
market place. In exchange, the role of industry for higher education is providing laboratory and probably financial resources for research activities. For local government, expertise of
higher education human resources can be used to improve institutional effectiveness in 1. Compensation for their apong net value which is equal to current
net price and provision of alternative jobs 85.4 ; 2. Providing apong net fishermen an alternative fish trap net 12.3 ;
3. Providing apong net fishermen access to capital for developing business 1.5
4. Enforcing law in strict and non-discriminative manners 0.8 . Source: Survey Data 2005
55 public services and building investment climate on the basis of good governance
principles.
Figure 1. Tripartite Cooperation Framework
In the context of Donan River case, Jenderal Soedirman University plays an important role to take a part in searching for win-win conflict resolution involving various
actors together with Cement Cibinong Company and Cilacap Government. The main role of Jenderal Soedirman University is developing negotiation approach to formulate a
platform or multistakeholders forum to overcome river resource use conflicts. In other words, the conflicts can only be handled if all stakeholders are aware of the importance of
cooperation instead of egoistic rational behavior see Ostrom, 1990; Kooiman, 1993. In initial stage, Tripartite Cooperation Program has designed a cooperation forum with four
working division: academic study, community awareness, community empowerment and law enforcement. This forum is jointly led by Rector of Jenderal Soedirman University,
Head of Cilacap Local Government, some industrial representatives and other supporting institutions.
In order to have a common platform, this forum has also been successfully formulated a shared vision, that is “Donan River management in sustainable manners”. The
forum participants are also aware that the Donan conflicts are caused by some factors such as poverty, empowerless, weak law enforcement and institution, and industrial complaint,
in addition to disturbances of sailing line in Donan River because of apong nets placement. Therefore, the future community development programs will be focused to handle the
issues above. Tripartite Results
The tripartite Cooperation Program will be implemented for 5 years. The main tripartite cooperation activities in 2005 particularly undertaken by University of Jenderal
Soedirman were undertaking academic studies in forms of social mapping and introduction of improved wadong bottom-fish trap net as an alternative fish trap net. Social mapping
was held with the following objectives: identification of socioeconomic characteristics of apong fishermen households, causes of conflict, and parties involved in the conflicts.
Whilst, introduction of improved wadong was aimed at offering alternative fish trap net to some apong fishermen in order to reduce their dependency to apong net practices.
Industry University
National Education Goal Local
Government
56 Information gained from these two activities is used as policy recommendations for
developing community development programs by Cilacap Government as well as Cement Cibinong Company in apong net fishermen community.
Until approaching the end of 2005, there are at least some intangible impacts of the tripartite activities instead of tangible ones.
1. Awareness building towards the importance of cooperation in managing the
