Genetic Engineering-Potential Impacts On Population, Community, And Ecosystem
KARYA TULIS
POTENTIAL IMPACTS
ON
POPULATION, COMMUNITY, AND ECOSYSTEM
BY:
RAHMAWATY
DEPARTEMEN KEHUTANAN
FAKULTAS PERTANIAN
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
2010
Universitas Sumatera Utara
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kami panjatkan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, yang telah memberikan
segala rahmat dan karunia-Nya sehingga KARYA TULIS berjudul “GENETIC ENGINEERING:
POTENTIAL IMPACS ON POPULATION, COMMUNITY, AND ECOSYSTEM” ini dapat
diselesaikan.
Tulisan ini merupakan suatu hasil pemikiran yang diharapkan dapat memberikan
informasi kepada pembaca mengenai dampak potensial dari penggunaan GMOs pada
populasi, komunitas, dan ekosistem. Kami menyadari bahwa karya tulis ini masih jauh dari
sempurna, oleh karena itu kami mengharapkan saran dan kritik yang bersifat membangun
untuk lebih menyempurnakan karya tulis ini. Akhir kata kami ucapkan semoga karya tulis ini
dapat bermanfaat.
Medan, Maret 2010
Penulis
Universitas Sumatera Utara
DAFTAR ISI
I.
II.
III.
Introduction
1
A. Background
1
B. Objective of the Paper
2
Genetic Engineering (GE)
2
A. Definition
2
B. History
3
C. The Current Stage of GE
4
D. The Potential Harm of GE
4
E. GE and Research
5
F. Application of GE
5
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
5
A. Definition
5
B. The Benefit of GMOs
6
C. The Risks of GMOs
7
IV. The Impact of GMOs
on population, community, and
ecosystem
A. The impacts of GMOs on Human Health
V.
11
11
B. The nutritional concerns of consuming GMOs
13
The regulation and world trade issues of GMOs
14
A. United States
14
B. Europe
15
C. Others Countries
15
D. Cartagena Protocol and The Precautionary Principle
16
17
VI. Summary
18
References
iii
Universitas Sumatera Utara
POTENTIAL IMPACS ON
POPULATION, COMMUNITY, AND ECOSYSTEM
BY:
Rahmawaty
I. Introduction
A. Background
In recent years there have been controversies surrounding benefits and risks
arising from modern agricultural biotechnology. On the one hand, genetic
engineering (GE) technology presents unprecedented opportunities to improve food
security and human health; on the other hand, its potential risks to human health and
the environment have cast a shadow on the full utilization of this modern technology.
The challenge facing most countries, particularly those from the developing world, is
how to strike a careful balance between promoting biotechnologies but at the same
time protecting against potential risks associated with biotech development.
Often
genetic engineering will not only use the information of one gene and put it behind
the promoter of another gene, but will also take bits and pieces from other genes and
other species. Although this is aimed to benefit the expression and function of the
"new" gene it also causes more interference and enhances the risks of unpredictable
effects (Steinbrecher, 1998).
Unfortunately, the choice confronting governments is further complicated by
the politics concerning genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The different
attitudes toward GMOs in the European Union (EU) and the United States have been
politicized, with the United States accusing the EU of depriving the poor countries to
enjoy the benefits offered by modern biotechnology and thus worsen famine suffered
by many African countries. Yet some suspect that the motive of the United States is
to promote its own biotech and dominate the world food market. The controversy was
further fuelled when the United States resorted to the World Trade Organization
(WTO) to challenge de facto moratorium on new approval for the production and
import of GMOs maintained by EU since 1998 (Wang, 2004).
The disagreement between these two trading blocs heightens the tension of
transatlantic relationship, and the impacts spill over into the rest of the world, in
particular to the developing countries where they await a clear understanding on the
future of GMOs and how the economic powers will set the agenda for developing
country exports (Wang, 2004). According to Zhu (1998), Some scientists believe
that, since genetic codes determine the appearance, personality, health, and aging
process of human beings, if that genetic information in the chromosomes could be
Universitas Sumatera Utara
decoded and the genetic mechanism were understood, we could potentially control
and improve our health, quality of life, and the biochemical processes in our bodies.
In other words, we could control our own fate. Also, we would be able to improve the
genes of other animals and vegetables so that they could serve humankind better. At
first sight, these ideas seem reasonable and attractive. However, careful analysis
reveals that they are based upon an incorrect theory--the theory of gene
determinism.
B. Objectives of the Paper
The aims of this paper is giving information about Genetic engineering and
GMOs (like: definition, History, and application), the potential impacts on population,
community, and ecosystem, and the regulation and world trade issues of GMOs.
II. Genetic Engineering
A. Definition
Genetic engineering/genetic modification (GM) is terms for the process of
manipulating genes, generally implying that the process is outside the organism's
natural reproductive process. It involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction
of DNA into cells or model organisms, usually to express a protein. The aim is to
introduce new characteristics or attributes physiologically or physically, such as
making a crop resistant to a herbicide, introducing a novel trait, or producing a new
protein or enzyme, along with altering the organism to produce more of certain traits.
'Engineering' is a term that usually implies control over the results of any given
intervention. The use of the term 'engineering' by this field may thus be considered a
demonstration of hubris (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2007).
Genetic engineering (GE) is used to take genes and segments of DNA from
one species, e.g. fish, and put them into another species, e.g. tomato. To do so, GE
provides a set of techniques to cut DNA either randomly or at a number of specific
sites. Once isolated one can study the different segments of DNA, multiply them up
and splice them (stick them) next to any other DNA of another cell or organism
(Steinbrecher, 1998).
Genetic engineering aims to re-arrange the sequence of DNA in gene using
artificial methods. To determine the DNA sequence on such a long chain, a highspeed, low-cost method is needed. Unfortunately, the currently available method
(gel-electrophoresis) does not satisfy these requirements. It cannot provide sufficient
information about the genetic structure (Zhu, 1998). Genetic modification (GM)
technology using the transfer of genes can give rise to new plant characteristics, and
Universitas Sumatera Utara
may have major repercussions for food and farming. For example, some transferred
genes make a plant insect or herbicides resistant (WWF, 2007)
B. History of Genetic Engineering
By the early 1960s geneticists had a good basic picture of genetics. However,
they did not have any way to obtain and study the genes themselves except through
the laborious procedures of mating and testing mutants. These procedures take an
immense amount of time, money and effort and yield disproportionately MEAGER
RESULTS. Further, there were no techniques to examine the genes at a molecular
level, yet unless this was done the ultimate questions could never be answered.
Because of these problems older geneticists were leaving the field and younger,
ambitious ones, were looking elsewhere for their creative outlet. Then, as so often
happens in science, a series of TOTALLY UNRELATED SERENDIPITOUS
DISCOVERIES were made which propelled the genetic revolution upon the world. It
all started with a seemingly odd result obtained with some phage (Hurlbert, 1999).
In the 1950s it had been noted that if one grew a particular bacteriophage on
a particular bacterial mutant host strain (A) and then infected a bacterial mutantstrain (B), of the same species, with the phage A, the yield of phage from strain B
was VERY LOW. However, if we took the few phage B that were produced and
infected strain B with them, the phage yield was now NORMAL. Subsequently, in the
1960s, it was found that the phage DNA that grew on strain B had been
CHEMICALLY MODIFIED so that it could not be cleaved (destroyed) by a DNase in
strain B. The DNase involved in this cleavage was found to be somewhat specific, in
that it mainly cut the DNA at CERTAIN SEQUENCES; unless these sequences had
been CHEMICALLY MODIFIED by enzymes in the cell (missing in strain A). All
previous DNases cut DNA randomly, so this finding suggested that DNA could be cut
up into SPECIFIC FRAGMENTS which would ALWAYS contain the SAME SET OF
GENES between the cut-sites. However, these first "specific" DNases did not prove
as SPECIFIC as hoped. Finally, in 1970 Hamilton Smith accidentally found that a
DNase from the bacterium, Haemophilus influenzae, CUT DNA ONLY at UNIQUE
DNA SEQUENCES known as PALINDROME SITES (Hurlbert, 1999).
C. The Current Stage of Genetic Engineering
According to Zhu (1998), with every new scientific discovery, there are always
those who use it to seek profit. The field of genetics is no exception in this matter.
Investors began getting into GE business several years ago. The current stage of
development of GE roughly can be seen in three major fields:
Universitas Sumatera Utara
1. The determination of DNA sequence in chromosomes and other genes
2. Artificial horizontal gene transfer--a synthetic method of gene transfer
between different species
3. Cloning
D. The Potential Harm of Genetic Engineering
The main potential harm of GE is associated with artificial horizontal gene
transfer experimentation. Horizontal gene transfer occurs commonly in nature. Genes
can be exchanged between different bio-species. But the frequency of these natural
transfers is limited by the defense systems, i.e. immune systems, of each biospecies. The immune system serves to prevent invasion by harmful foreign genes,
viruses, and so forth, so that the bio-species can maintain its characteristic traits and
normal metabolism. The GE method of artificial horizontal gene transfer works by
penetrating or weakening the immune system and using virulent genes as delivery
vehicles. That is, the gene to be transferred is combined with a virulent gene to effect
penetration. This method allows harmful virulent genes, especially those with
resistance to antibiotics, to become widespread in nature. This results in two severe
consequences:
1. The production of virulent genes with multi-resistance to antibiotics will be
accelerated. If such virulent genes combine with the genes of harmful viruses to
form new viruses, it will be disastrous for humankind.
2. The frequency of horizontal gene transfer will greatly increase. Bio-species rely
on their immune systems to limit horizontal gene transfers. If virulent genes with
the ability to penetrate immune systems spread widely in nature, the frequency of
horizontal gene transfers will inevitably increase. Once genes can freely transfer
between species, bio-species start to lose their distinguishing characteristics. The
mutant insects produced in GE laboratories are a strong indication of this trend.
GE is also a potential threat to the human food supply. GE reduces
biodiversity. The nutritional level of our food depends on its diversity. In the long
term, GE leads to the destruction of the human food supply. At present there is no
evidence that GE food and GE protein is harmless to human health. The possibility of
harm cannot be eliminated. To develop potentially harmful food when there is an
adequate supply of natural food is not a wise thing to do (Zhu, 1998).
Universitas Sumatera Utara
E. Genetic Engineering and Research
According to Zhu, (1998), although there has been a tremendous revolution in
the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains
to be discovered. Genetic engineering has become the gold standard in protein
research, and major research progress has been made using a wide variety of
techniques, including:
1. Loss of function, such as in a knockout experiment, in which an organism is
engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. This allows the
experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be
considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially
frequently in developmental biology.
2. Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are
sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely
establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that
in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the
function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing
synthesis of the protein more frequently
F. Applications of Genetic Engineering
The first Genetically Engineered drug was human insulin approved by the
USA's FDA in 1982. Another early application of genetic engineering was to create
human growth hormone as replacement for a drug that was previously extracted from
human cadavers. In 1986 the FDA approved the first genetically engineered vaccine
for humans, for hepatitis B. Since these early uses of the technology in medicine, the
use of GE has expanded to supply many drugs and vaccines. One of the best known
applications of genetic engineering is that of the creation of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs). There are potentially momentous biotechnological applications of
GM, for example oral vaccines produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost. A radical
ambition of some groups is human enhancement via genetics, eventually by
molecular engineering (Zhu,1998).
III. The Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
A. Definition of GMOs
A genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is an organism whose genetic
structure has been altered by incorporating a gene that will express a desirable trait,
often termed gene splicing. Most often the transferred gene allows the organism to
Universitas Sumatera Utara
express a trait that will add to its desirability to producers or consumers of the end
product. Genetically modified organisms are also referred to as genetically
engineered organisms (GEOs), genetically altered organisms (GAOs), or transgenic
organisms. So the terms genetically modified (GM), genetically engineered (GE),
genetically altered (GA), and transgenic can be used interchangeably. GMO
technology has concentrated to date on plants and animals, with particular emphasis
on plants and their seeds (Anderson, 2001).
The modern countries, especially the United States, China, Australia, Canada
and the European Union have long been using genetic engineering in the production
of crops (Table 1).
Table 1. Area Sown to GMOs, by Country, 1998-2002
Country
In 1000 ha
1999
2000
2001
2002
European Union
12
31
30
25
USA
28700
30100
35700
39000
Argentina
3500
5800
11800
13500
Canada
4000
2500
3200
3500
China
300
500
1500
2100
Brazil
1200
1400
1400
1500
Chile
310
10
India
0
0
0
0
POTENTIAL IMPACTS
ON
POPULATION, COMMUNITY, AND ECOSYSTEM
BY:
RAHMAWATY
DEPARTEMEN KEHUTANAN
FAKULTAS PERTANIAN
UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA
2010
Universitas Sumatera Utara
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kami panjatkan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, yang telah memberikan
segala rahmat dan karunia-Nya sehingga KARYA TULIS berjudul “GENETIC ENGINEERING:
POTENTIAL IMPACS ON POPULATION, COMMUNITY, AND ECOSYSTEM” ini dapat
diselesaikan.
Tulisan ini merupakan suatu hasil pemikiran yang diharapkan dapat memberikan
informasi kepada pembaca mengenai dampak potensial dari penggunaan GMOs pada
populasi, komunitas, dan ekosistem. Kami menyadari bahwa karya tulis ini masih jauh dari
sempurna, oleh karena itu kami mengharapkan saran dan kritik yang bersifat membangun
untuk lebih menyempurnakan karya tulis ini. Akhir kata kami ucapkan semoga karya tulis ini
dapat bermanfaat.
Medan, Maret 2010
Penulis
Universitas Sumatera Utara
DAFTAR ISI
I.
II.
III.
Introduction
1
A. Background
1
B. Objective of the Paper
2
Genetic Engineering (GE)
2
A. Definition
2
B. History
3
C. The Current Stage of GE
4
D. The Potential Harm of GE
4
E. GE and Research
5
F. Application of GE
5
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
5
A. Definition
5
B. The Benefit of GMOs
6
C. The Risks of GMOs
7
IV. The Impact of GMOs
on population, community, and
ecosystem
A. The impacts of GMOs on Human Health
V.
11
11
B. The nutritional concerns of consuming GMOs
13
The regulation and world trade issues of GMOs
14
A. United States
14
B. Europe
15
C. Others Countries
15
D. Cartagena Protocol and The Precautionary Principle
16
17
VI. Summary
18
References
iii
Universitas Sumatera Utara
POTENTIAL IMPACS ON
POPULATION, COMMUNITY, AND ECOSYSTEM
BY:
Rahmawaty
I. Introduction
A. Background
In recent years there have been controversies surrounding benefits and risks
arising from modern agricultural biotechnology. On the one hand, genetic
engineering (GE) technology presents unprecedented opportunities to improve food
security and human health; on the other hand, its potential risks to human health and
the environment have cast a shadow on the full utilization of this modern technology.
The challenge facing most countries, particularly those from the developing world, is
how to strike a careful balance between promoting biotechnologies but at the same
time protecting against potential risks associated with biotech development.
Often
genetic engineering will not only use the information of one gene and put it behind
the promoter of another gene, but will also take bits and pieces from other genes and
other species. Although this is aimed to benefit the expression and function of the
"new" gene it also causes more interference and enhances the risks of unpredictable
effects (Steinbrecher, 1998).
Unfortunately, the choice confronting governments is further complicated by
the politics concerning genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The different
attitudes toward GMOs in the European Union (EU) and the United States have been
politicized, with the United States accusing the EU of depriving the poor countries to
enjoy the benefits offered by modern biotechnology and thus worsen famine suffered
by many African countries. Yet some suspect that the motive of the United States is
to promote its own biotech and dominate the world food market. The controversy was
further fuelled when the United States resorted to the World Trade Organization
(WTO) to challenge de facto moratorium on new approval for the production and
import of GMOs maintained by EU since 1998 (Wang, 2004).
The disagreement between these two trading blocs heightens the tension of
transatlantic relationship, and the impacts spill over into the rest of the world, in
particular to the developing countries where they await a clear understanding on the
future of GMOs and how the economic powers will set the agenda for developing
country exports (Wang, 2004). According to Zhu (1998), Some scientists believe
that, since genetic codes determine the appearance, personality, health, and aging
process of human beings, if that genetic information in the chromosomes could be
Universitas Sumatera Utara
decoded and the genetic mechanism were understood, we could potentially control
and improve our health, quality of life, and the biochemical processes in our bodies.
In other words, we could control our own fate. Also, we would be able to improve the
genes of other animals and vegetables so that they could serve humankind better. At
first sight, these ideas seem reasonable and attractive. However, careful analysis
reveals that they are based upon an incorrect theory--the theory of gene
determinism.
B. Objectives of the Paper
The aims of this paper is giving information about Genetic engineering and
GMOs (like: definition, History, and application), the potential impacts on population,
community, and ecosystem, and the regulation and world trade issues of GMOs.
II. Genetic Engineering
A. Definition
Genetic engineering/genetic modification (GM) is terms for the process of
manipulating genes, generally implying that the process is outside the organism's
natural reproductive process. It involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction
of DNA into cells or model organisms, usually to express a protein. The aim is to
introduce new characteristics or attributes physiologically or physically, such as
making a crop resistant to a herbicide, introducing a novel trait, or producing a new
protein or enzyme, along with altering the organism to produce more of certain traits.
'Engineering' is a term that usually implies control over the results of any given
intervention. The use of the term 'engineering' by this field may thus be considered a
demonstration of hubris (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2007).
Genetic engineering (GE) is used to take genes and segments of DNA from
one species, e.g. fish, and put them into another species, e.g. tomato. To do so, GE
provides a set of techniques to cut DNA either randomly or at a number of specific
sites. Once isolated one can study the different segments of DNA, multiply them up
and splice them (stick them) next to any other DNA of another cell or organism
(Steinbrecher, 1998).
Genetic engineering aims to re-arrange the sequence of DNA in gene using
artificial methods. To determine the DNA sequence on such a long chain, a highspeed, low-cost method is needed. Unfortunately, the currently available method
(gel-electrophoresis) does not satisfy these requirements. It cannot provide sufficient
information about the genetic structure (Zhu, 1998). Genetic modification (GM)
technology using the transfer of genes can give rise to new plant characteristics, and
Universitas Sumatera Utara
may have major repercussions for food and farming. For example, some transferred
genes make a plant insect or herbicides resistant (WWF, 2007)
B. History of Genetic Engineering
By the early 1960s geneticists had a good basic picture of genetics. However,
they did not have any way to obtain and study the genes themselves except through
the laborious procedures of mating and testing mutants. These procedures take an
immense amount of time, money and effort and yield disproportionately MEAGER
RESULTS. Further, there were no techniques to examine the genes at a molecular
level, yet unless this was done the ultimate questions could never be answered.
Because of these problems older geneticists were leaving the field and younger,
ambitious ones, were looking elsewhere for their creative outlet. Then, as so often
happens in science, a series of TOTALLY UNRELATED SERENDIPITOUS
DISCOVERIES were made which propelled the genetic revolution upon the world. It
all started with a seemingly odd result obtained with some phage (Hurlbert, 1999).
In the 1950s it had been noted that if one grew a particular bacteriophage on
a particular bacterial mutant host strain (A) and then infected a bacterial mutantstrain (B), of the same species, with the phage A, the yield of phage from strain B
was VERY LOW. However, if we took the few phage B that were produced and
infected strain B with them, the phage yield was now NORMAL. Subsequently, in the
1960s, it was found that the phage DNA that grew on strain B had been
CHEMICALLY MODIFIED so that it could not be cleaved (destroyed) by a DNase in
strain B. The DNase involved in this cleavage was found to be somewhat specific, in
that it mainly cut the DNA at CERTAIN SEQUENCES; unless these sequences had
been CHEMICALLY MODIFIED by enzymes in the cell (missing in strain A). All
previous DNases cut DNA randomly, so this finding suggested that DNA could be cut
up into SPECIFIC FRAGMENTS which would ALWAYS contain the SAME SET OF
GENES between the cut-sites. However, these first "specific" DNases did not prove
as SPECIFIC as hoped. Finally, in 1970 Hamilton Smith accidentally found that a
DNase from the bacterium, Haemophilus influenzae, CUT DNA ONLY at UNIQUE
DNA SEQUENCES known as PALINDROME SITES (Hurlbert, 1999).
C. The Current Stage of Genetic Engineering
According to Zhu (1998), with every new scientific discovery, there are always
those who use it to seek profit. The field of genetics is no exception in this matter.
Investors began getting into GE business several years ago. The current stage of
development of GE roughly can be seen in three major fields:
Universitas Sumatera Utara
1. The determination of DNA sequence in chromosomes and other genes
2. Artificial horizontal gene transfer--a synthetic method of gene transfer
between different species
3. Cloning
D. The Potential Harm of Genetic Engineering
The main potential harm of GE is associated with artificial horizontal gene
transfer experimentation. Horizontal gene transfer occurs commonly in nature. Genes
can be exchanged between different bio-species. But the frequency of these natural
transfers is limited by the defense systems, i.e. immune systems, of each biospecies. The immune system serves to prevent invasion by harmful foreign genes,
viruses, and so forth, so that the bio-species can maintain its characteristic traits and
normal metabolism. The GE method of artificial horizontal gene transfer works by
penetrating or weakening the immune system and using virulent genes as delivery
vehicles. That is, the gene to be transferred is combined with a virulent gene to effect
penetration. This method allows harmful virulent genes, especially those with
resistance to antibiotics, to become widespread in nature. This results in two severe
consequences:
1. The production of virulent genes with multi-resistance to antibiotics will be
accelerated. If such virulent genes combine with the genes of harmful viruses to
form new viruses, it will be disastrous for humankind.
2. The frequency of horizontal gene transfer will greatly increase. Bio-species rely
on their immune systems to limit horizontal gene transfers. If virulent genes with
the ability to penetrate immune systems spread widely in nature, the frequency of
horizontal gene transfers will inevitably increase. Once genes can freely transfer
between species, bio-species start to lose their distinguishing characteristics. The
mutant insects produced in GE laboratories are a strong indication of this trend.
GE is also a potential threat to the human food supply. GE reduces
biodiversity. The nutritional level of our food depends on its diversity. In the long
term, GE leads to the destruction of the human food supply. At present there is no
evidence that GE food and GE protein is harmless to human health. The possibility of
harm cannot be eliminated. To develop potentially harmful food when there is an
adequate supply of natural food is not a wise thing to do (Zhu, 1998).
Universitas Sumatera Utara
E. Genetic Engineering and Research
According to Zhu, (1998), although there has been a tremendous revolution in
the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains
to be discovered. Genetic engineering has become the gold standard in protein
research, and major research progress has been made using a wide variety of
techniques, including:
1. Loss of function, such as in a knockout experiment, in which an organism is
engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. This allows the
experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be
considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially
frequently in developmental biology.
2. Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are
sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely
establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that
in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the
function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing
synthesis of the protein more frequently
F. Applications of Genetic Engineering
The first Genetically Engineered drug was human insulin approved by the
USA's FDA in 1982. Another early application of genetic engineering was to create
human growth hormone as replacement for a drug that was previously extracted from
human cadavers. In 1986 the FDA approved the first genetically engineered vaccine
for humans, for hepatitis B. Since these early uses of the technology in medicine, the
use of GE has expanded to supply many drugs and vaccines. One of the best known
applications of genetic engineering is that of the creation of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs). There are potentially momentous biotechnological applications of
GM, for example oral vaccines produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost. A radical
ambition of some groups is human enhancement via genetics, eventually by
molecular engineering (Zhu,1998).
III. The Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
A. Definition of GMOs
A genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is an organism whose genetic
structure has been altered by incorporating a gene that will express a desirable trait,
often termed gene splicing. Most often the transferred gene allows the organism to
Universitas Sumatera Utara
express a trait that will add to its desirability to producers or consumers of the end
product. Genetically modified organisms are also referred to as genetically
engineered organisms (GEOs), genetically altered organisms (GAOs), or transgenic
organisms. So the terms genetically modified (GM), genetically engineered (GE),
genetically altered (GA), and transgenic can be used interchangeably. GMO
technology has concentrated to date on plants and animals, with particular emphasis
on plants and their seeds (Anderson, 2001).
The modern countries, especially the United States, China, Australia, Canada
and the European Union have long been using genetic engineering in the production
of crops (Table 1).
Table 1. Area Sown to GMOs, by Country, 1998-2002
Country
In 1000 ha
1999
2000
2001
2002
European Union
12
31
30
25
USA
28700
30100
35700
39000
Argentina
3500
5800
11800
13500
Canada
4000
2500
3200
3500
China
300
500
1500
2100
Brazil
1200
1400
1400
1500
Chile
310
10
India
0
0
0
0