Health management in dog and cat shelters
ABSTRAK
SAROJINI SELVARAJU. Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing
dan Kucing. Dibawah bimbingan R.P. AGUS LELANA.
Selama di Indonesia dan Malaysia, penulis melihat banyak anjing dan
kucing yang hidup menggelandang, liar, dan dalam kondisi kesehatan yang
memprihatinkan. Walaupun belum terdapat data mengenai situasi ini, pemerintah
dan masyarakat setempat perlu mengembangkan pusat pengayom untuk anjing
dan kucing tersebut. Telaah pustaka ini dirancang untuk mengetahui manajemen
kesehatan yang diperlukan dalam suatu pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing. Studi
yang dilakukan meliputi studi literatur yang tersedia mengenai hal-hal yang
seharusnya menjadi bagian dari manajemen tersebut supaya permasalahan
kesehatan yang sering timbul pada pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing dapat
dikurangi atau diatasi. Dari literatur-literatur yang didapatkan, masalah kesehatan
yang sering timbul adalah perilaku hewan di pusat pengayom, penyakit infeksius,
serta hewan yang ditemukan dalam kondisi menderita akibat kelaparan. Aspek
manajemen yang diperlukan untuk mengatasi permasalahan-permasalahan
tersebut antara lain meliputi cara penangkapan, pengendalian dan penanggulangan
penyakit, rehabilitasi, serta medik preventif. Penyelenggaraan manajemen
kesehatan ini harus disesuaikan dengan misi pusat pengayom termasuk
kesejahteraan hewan dan penyelamatan lingkungan.
Kata kunci: Manajemen kesehatan, Pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing
HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN DOG AND CAT SHELTERS
(MANAJEMEN KESEHATAN PADA PUSAT PENGAYOM
ANJING DAN KUCING)
SAROJINI SELVARAJU
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2012
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY STATEMENT FORM
I hereby certify that my undergraduate thesis entitled Health Management
in Dog and Cat Shelters (Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing
dan Kucing) is my own original work under the advice of my undergraduate
thesis advisor, and has not been proposed in any form at any tertiary institution.
No portion of my undergraduate thesis has been copyrighted previously unless
properly referenced under References at the end of this thesis.
Bogor, September 2012
Sarojini Selvaraju
NIM B04058004
PERNYATAAN MENGENAI SKRIPSI DAN SUMBER
INFORMASI
Dengan ini saya menyatakan bahwa skripsi Health Management in Dog
and Cat Shelters (Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing dan
Kucing) adalah karya saya dengan arahan dari pembimbing dan belum diajukan
dalam bentuk apapun kepada perguruan tinggi manapun. Sumber informasi yang
berasal atau dikutip dari karya yang diterbitkan maupun tidak diterbitkan dari
penulis lain telah disebutkan dalam teks dan dicantumkan dalam Daftar Pustaka di
bagian akhir skripsi.
Bogor, September 2012
Sarojini Selvaraju
NIM B04058004
ABSTRAK
SAROJINI SELVARAJU. Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing
dan Kucing. Dibawah bimbingan R.P. AGUS LELANA.
Selama di Indonesia dan Malaysia, penulis melihat banyak anjing dan
kucing yang hidup menggelandang, liar, dan dalam kondisi kesehatan yang
memprihatinkan. Walaupun belum terdapat data mengenai situasi ini, pemerintah
dan masyarakat setempat perlu mengembangkan pusat pengayom untuk anjing
dan kucing tersebut. Telaah pustaka ini dirancang untuk mengetahui manajemen
kesehatan yang diperlukan dalam suatu pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing. Studi
yang dilakukan meliputi studi literatur yang tersedia mengenai hal-hal yang
seharusnya menjadi bagian dari manajemen tersebut supaya permasalahan
kesehatan yang sering timbul pada pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing dapat
dikurangi atau diatasi. Dari literatur-literatur yang didapatkan, masalah kesehatan
yang sering timbul adalah perilaku hewan di pusat pengayom, penyakit infeksius,
serta hewan yang ditemukan dalam kondisi menderita akibat kelaparan. Aspek
manajemen yang diperlukan untuk mengatasi permasalahan-permasalahan
tersebut antara lain meliputi cara penangkapan, pengendalian dan penanggulangan
penyakit, rehabilitasi, serta medik preventif. Penyelenggaraan manajemen
kesehatan ini harus disesuaikan dengan misi pusat pengayom termasuk
kesejahteraan hewan dan penyelamatan lingkungan.
Kata kunci: Manajemen kesehatan, Pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing
©Hak Cipta milik IPB, tahun 2012
Hak Cipta dilindungi Undang-Undang
Dilarang mengutip sebagian atau seluruh karya tulis ini tanpa mencantumkan
atau menyebutkan sumbernya. Pengutipan hanya untuk kepentingan pendidikan,
penelitian, penulisan karya ilmiah, penyusunan laporan, penulisan kritik, atau
tinjauan suatu masalah, dan pengutipan tersebut tidak merugikan kepentingan
yang wajar IPB.
Dilarang mengumumkan dan memperbanyak sebagian atau seluruh karya tulis
dalam bentuk apapun tanpa izin IPB.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN DOG AND CAT SHELTERS
(MANAJEMEN KESEHATAN PADA PUSAT PENGAYOM
ANJING DAN KUCING)
SAROJINI SELVARAJU
Undergraduate Thesis
As partial fulfillment for the degree of
Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine in Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Bogor Agricultural University of Indonesia
Skripsi
sebagai salah satu syarat untuk memperoleh gelar
Sarjana Kedokteran Hewan pada
Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2012
Undergraduate thesis title : Health Management in Dog And Cat Shelters
Name
: Sarojini Selvaraju
NIM
: B04058004
Approved by:
Dr. drh. H. RP Agus Lelana, SpMP., MSi.
Undergraduate Thesis Advisor
Acknowledged,
drh. Agus Setiyono, MS, Ph.D APVet
Vice Dean of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Validation date:
PREFACE
This undergraduate thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for a Bachelor's Degree in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine of Bogor Agricultural University. It contains work done
from February 2012 up to August 2012. My supervisor on the project has been Dr.
drh. H. RP Agus Lelana, SpMP., MSi., whom has guided me so patiently. The
thesis has been made solely by the author; most of the text, however, is based on
the research of others, and I have done my best to provide references to these
sources. To have completed this project is like a dream come true, for I have
always been interested in sheltering animals. Throughout the process of
completing this undergraduate thesis, I have learned a lot, and the initial idea I had
on managing a shelter has surely changed for the better.
Without the help and guidance from the people around me, this project
would not have seen its end. For that, I would like to gratefully thank:
1. Dr. drh. Hj. Sri Murtini, MSi., my counselor for guiding me since my very
first years at the veterinary faculty making sure that I complete my
education, and for being one of the examiners for my viva.
2. My parents, Selvaraju and Kamala; siblings, Chechi and Mathan anne; and
my partner, Venothraj, for their unconditional support.
3. Drh. Rr. Soesatyoratih, MSi., and drh. Leni Maylina for being the
evaluators in my thesis seminar, and Drh. Wahono Esthi Prasetyaningtyas,
MSi., for being one of the examiners for my viva.
4. SPCA Selangor, Malaysia and Pondok Pengayom Satwa Jakarta,
Indonesia for their co-operation and time.
5. My faithful, motivating, and ever-consoling friends: Ade Ocktaviani,
Malni Sovinar ―Cupie‖, Vincentia Maria ―Vin‖, Indra Bagus Priastomo,
Jeffrey Matheus, and to those who have wished me well.
Bogor, September 2012
Sarojini Selvaraju
CURRICULUM VITAE
The author, Sarojini Selvaraju was born on the 6th of November 1985 at
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to father, Selvaraju, and mother, Kamala. Author is the
youngest of two children.
The author graduated from primary school at Sekolah Kebangsaan Taman
Bukit Maluri in the year 1997, furthered to secondary schooling at Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Taman Bukit Maluri, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Jalan Bukit, and Sekolah Menengah Engku Hussein where she graduated in the
year 2002. Author continued to high school at Sekolah Menengah St.Paul, in
which she graduated in 2004. In the year 2005, the author was accepted at Bogor
Agricultural University through a selection test, and had chosen to major in
Veterinary Medicine.
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ xi
ABBREVIATIONS ..........................................................................................xii
GLOSSARY.....................................................................................................xiii
INTRODUCTION
Background .................................................................................................. 1
Problem Formulation .................................................................................... 2
Objective ....................................................................................................... 3
Benefit .......................................................................................................... 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Animal Shelter Roles and Types ................................................................... 4
Policies and Protocols ................................................................................... 5
Welfare and Health Management.................................................................. 6
Common Health Problems in Shelters ......................................................... 7
Behaviour .............................................................................................. 7
Common Diseases ................................................................................. 8
METHOD...........................................................................................................11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 12
Capture and Surrender................................................................................. 12
Disease Control ........................................................................................... 13
Segregation .......................................................................................... 14
Quarantine ........................................................................................... 14
Selection .............................................................................................. 14
Isolation ............................................................................................... 14
Euthanasia ........................................................................................... 15
Biosecurity and Sanitation .................................................................. 15
Population Control .............................................................................. 16
Rehabilitation .............................................................................................. 16
Feeding ............................................................................................... 16
Emergency Treatments ....................................................................... 17
Pain Management ................................................................................ 17
Stress Management ............................................................................. 17
Behavioural Issues .............................................................................. 18
Preventive Medicine.................................................................................... 18
Nutrition .............................................................................................. 18
Vaccination ......................................................................................... 19
Parasite Control ................................................................................... 20
Stress Control ...................................................................................... 21
Spay and Neuter .................................................................................. 21
Lessons from Shelter Visits ........................................................................ 21
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS .......................................................... 24
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 25
ATTACHMENT ............................................................................................... 32
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1
Common diseases in shelter dogs ............................................................................9
2
Common diseases in shelter cats ............................................................................10
3
WSAVA guidelines on canine vaccination for the shelter environment ...............19
4
WSAVA guidelines on feline vaccination for the shelter environment .................20
ABBREVIATIONS
AAHA
SPCA
RSPCA
ASPCA
WSPA
OIPA
OIE
WHO
NCPPSP
URI
FeLV
FIV
FIP
CDV
CPV-2
CIV
FVR
FCoV
FPLV
PPS
HSUS
CHAI
RER
NSAIDs
CAV-2
MLV
CPiV
rCDV
FCV
FHV-1
WSAVA
VGG
ASPCApro
CAPC
ICAMC
American Animal Hospital Association
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals
World Society for the Protection of Animals
International Organization for Animal Protection
World Organisation for Animal Health
World Health Organization
National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy
Feline upper respiratory tract infections
Feline leukemia virus
Feline immunodeficiency virus
Feline infectious peritonitis
Canine distemper virus
Canine parvo virus type-2
Canine influenza virus
Feline viral rhinotracheitis
Feline coronavirus
Feline panleukopenia virus
Pondok Pengayom Satwa
Humane Society of the United States
Concern for Helping Animals in Israel
resting energy requirement
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Canine adenovirus type-2
Modified Live Virus
Canine parainfluenza Virus
Recombinant canine distemper virus
Feline calicivirus
Feline herpes virus
World Small Animals Veterinary Association
Vaccination Guidelines Group
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Professional
Companion Animal Parasite Council
International Companion Animals Management
Coalition
GLOSSARY
Animal shelter
Feral cats
Semi owned cats
Un-owned cats
Stray dogs
Municipal shelters
Private shelters
A holding facility for homeless animals, usually
awaiting adoption, rescue, reclaim by owners, or
euthanasia
Un-owned cats that cannot be handled and is unsocialised
Those for whom some kind of caregiver can be
identified even if the caregiver does not regard
themselves as owners in the conventional sense.
Those for whom an owner or caregiver cannot be
identified.
Any dog not under direct control to a person or
not prevented from roaming.
Completely government operated shelters.
Not-for-profit organizations.
INTRODUCTION
Background
A large number of stray dogs, as well as feral and un-owned cats still roam
the streets of Malaysia and Indonesia. Although official data regarding this
situation is not yet available, there is certainly a need for animal shelters amongst
the Indonesian and Malaysian society. Animal shelters have also become a
necessity as animal welfare is now a major concern globally.
Feral cats are un-owned cats that cannot be handled and is un-socialised;
therefore not suitable for placement in a home (Slater 2007). The OIE has defined
stray dogs to be any dog not under direct control to a person or not prevented from
roaming. ICAMC (2011) categorised cats into confined cats and roaming cats; and
roaming cats into three subcategories: owned, semi-owned, and un-owned. Semi
owned cats are those for whom some kind of caregiver can be identified even if
the caregiver does not regard themselves as owners in the conventional sense,
while un-owned cats are those for whom an owner or caregiver cannot be
identified (ICAMC 2011). The American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA)
(2011) defined an animal shelter as a holding facility for homeless animals,
usually awaiting adoption, rescue, or reclaim by owners. Steneroden et al. (2011)
added that animals in shelters are housed until transferred or euthanized in its
definition of an animal shelter.
The first few shelters were built in the 19th century starting at Britain and
followed with America by an animal welfare organization, Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA). The first known organized animal
welfare began in 1824 in Britain (SPCA 2002). There were 22 philanthropists
who founded the SPCA which was renamed, in 1840, as the Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) (RSPCA 2012). In the United States
though, it started from Henry Bergh‘s battle for animal welfare and thence to the
establishment of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(ASPCA) in 1866 (ASPCA 2012a).
The main concentration of most animal shelters is on dogs and cats, and in
some countries, horses too. The reason being these animals have been companions
to the human race for a very long time hence the concern of their welfare. The dog
has been a close companion of humans for at least 15,000 years (Savolainen et al.
2002) and cats have closely accompanied the development of human society for
over 4000 years (Slater 2007). Added with the increasing population of dogs and
cats on the streets, these animals have earned the attention of concerned parties.
The current world population of domestic dogs is estimated as 500 million dogs
(Villa 2008) and the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA)
estimates that 75% of the world‘s dog population are strays. The number of feral
cats worldwide is unknown, but it is estimated by ASPCA that the number of feral
cats in the United States of America alone to be in the tens of millions (ASPCA
2012b) and in China it is estimated to be 500,000 (OIPA 2009). In both Malaysia
and Indonesia, the total estimated number of either animal is still unknown.
Due to the drastic increase in animal shelters all over the world, there
should be more guidelines and scientifically researched standardization in the
management of it, and more specifically its health management. The term ‗health‘
in an animal shelter does not merely focus on the disease perspective. Therefore a
health management protocol should be made by shelters to cover all aspects of
health as extensively as possible.
Problem Formulation
With the increasing number of stray dogs and un-owned cats worldwide, it
can be assumed that Indonesia and Malaysia are facing the same situation. This
situation can be considered a problem due to its direct and indirect impact on
several issues. One of the problems caused by this situation is the spread of
infectious and zoonotic diseases, and the difficulty to curb these diseases;
therefore, affecting the public health. Other than that, the welfare of these animals
is compromised with the growth of the human population. Dogs and cats face
daily threats such as fast moving vehicles, and violence from those who find these
animals a nuisance. These animals may find it difficult to find food without being
exposed to threat; hence leading them to starvation and abuse. The environment is
indirectly affected due to the increase in stray dog and un-owned cat population.
One of the most effective means of stray population control is by providing them
with shelter, in which these animals are kept off the streets, are less exposed to
threat, and it also lessens their contribution to the spread of diseases. The health
management in a shelter plays a major role in its effectiveness. It is important that
a proper health management is instilled in every step starting from the capture and
surrender of these dogs and cats, controlling the disease, rehabilitating dogs and
cats in need, and preventive measures. These components can aid in increasing the
health status of each shelter animal, which consequently increases the health
status of the shelter‘s surrounding environment.
Objective
The main objective of this thesis is to study and outline the importance of
health management in animal shelters, its components, and also the elements that
should be taken account should there be standardization in animal shelters in
future.
Benefits
The benefits hoped to be provided from this thesis are information about
health in animal shelters, the management of health in animal shelters, and a
database for future research on relevant topics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Animal Shelter Role and Types
Most animal shelters back in 1800‘s were intended for handling large
numbers of dogs for brief periods of time as part of animal control programs
(Newbury et al. 2010). Wandering dogs, posing a nuisance and safety risk, would
have been picked up and taken to the pound. It was not uncommon for pound
masters to kill unclaimed dogs by clubbing or drowning them (Lane and
Zawistowski 2007).
According to ACTAsia For Animals (2012), shelters are a temporary
solution to a complex problem which include animal abuse, abandoned pets,
puppy mills and unwanted litters which then lead to overpopulation of strays,
disease transmission, sick and injured animals, and animal attacks. Therefore, a
shelter‘s role includes animal rescue, re-homing, re-uniting, public health and
safety, providing a permanent sanctuary, education and campaigning, and a means
for humane killing or euthanasia. According to Animals Asia and the Humane
Society International (2007), an animal shelter‘s tasks should include providing a
safe, clean, comfortable and species-appropriate environment for animals in need,
preventing animal cruelty and suffering, teaching humane principles to the
community, and lobbying for the enactment and enforcement of adequate animal
protection laws. Some shelters have no-kill policies and will hold dogs until they
are reclaimed, re-homed, are humanely killed for medical reasons, or die (Stafford
2006).
An observation was done by Eckhardt (2011) on the types of animal
shelters present at current time. From the observation, Eckhardt reported that there
are six types of shelters: municipal shelters, traditional animal shelters, limitedadmission
animal
shelters,
balanced-population
animal
shelters,
animal
sanctuaries, and rescue organizations. Hurley and Miller (2009) simply
categorized shelters into municipal shelters, private Zshelters, and other types of
shelters.
Municipal shelters are completely government operated shelters and
generally focus on stray animal pickup, control of dangerous animals, including
quarantines of animals that may have bitten someone, capture of free - roaming
animals, nuisance complaints, investigation of animal cruelty complaints,
handling of wildlife, and they are required to help every animal that comes to
them (Eckhardt 2011, Hurley and Miller 2009). Private shelters are not-for-profit
organizations; they are privately funded and their policies are often set by elected
or volunteer boards of directors (Hurley and Miller 2009).
Traditional animal shelters typically are committed to care for any animal
that comes to them, and may be under contract with the local municipality to
provide animal care or control. Limited-admission animal shelters do not
euthanize animals for space but limit intake. Balanced population animal shelters
exist in communities that have reached ‗balanced companion animal populations‘.
They take care of any animal in need, and do not euthanize for space. Animal
sanctuaries primarily handle special needs, unadoptable animals, and large
animals. Rescue organizations are dedicated to one breed or one type of animal,
work through volunteers and foster homes, and have finite number of space
(Eckhardt 2011).
Policies and Protocols
To build this foundation, organizations must have a clearly defined
mission, policies and protocols that reflect current information, adequate staff
training and supervision, and proper management of animal care. Animal health is
interwoven into virtually every facet of sheltering or rescue programs; therefore
veterinarians should be integrally involved with the development and
implementation of an organizational plan, and must have supervision of medical
and surgical care of animals (Newbury et al. 2010). Veterinarians work with
shelters in a variety of capacities as volunteers, employees, or consultants in
charge of the health-care program (Hurley and Miller 2009). According to the
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2011), the role of the veterinarian is
essential in providing adequate veterinary care that is in promoting an animal‘s
health and welfare, and they should have the authority and responsibility for
making judgements regarding animal welfare. Organizational functioning,
employee health and well-being, and animal wellness are inextricably linked
(Reeve et al. 2004; Rogelberg et al. 2007). Authority and responsibility must be
given only to those who have the appropriate knowledge and training. Supervision
and accountability for all staff and volunteers are essential to ensure that policies
and protocols guide daily activities (Newbury et al. 2010).
All animals must carry out basic life processes and therefore have basic
needs which can be grouped into five areas: physiological needs, social,
psychological needs, environmental needs, and behavioural needs. Animals in
captivity, such as pets or animals in a shelter or zoo are entirely dependent upon
humans to provide the conditions that will satisfy their basic needs (RSPCA
2006). The ACTAsia For Animals (2012) organization stated that a high standard
of animal welfare that covers the five freedoms in animal welfare is essential in an
animal shelter. The five freedoms: freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition,
freedom from discomfort, freedom from pain, injury and disease, freedom to
express normal behaviour, and freedom from fear and distress; they are applicable
to all animals use by humans and pets (Edwards 2010; Villalobos 2011).
According to RSPCA (2006), the most important policy decisions are on
neutering, rehoming and euthanasia. Newbury et al. (2010) stated that a clearly
defined mission that forms the basis of shelter policies should include animal care,
intake, treatment, adoption, and euthanasia. The establishment of policies helps to
guide an organisation‘s work and will shape the day-to-day running of a shelter.
The policies at a shelter should represent the principles that organisation sees as
important. Benefits of establishing shelter policies: sets, maintains and monitors
standards, ensures continuity of animal care, prevents misunderstanding and
confusion for staff and supporters, and it ensure compliance with relevant
legislation.
Welfare and Health Management
There is a critical relationship between animal health and animal welfare (OIE
2010). Health is not merely the absence of disease or injury but is also closely tied
to an animal‘s physical and mental well-being (Newbury et al. 2010). Health, as
defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1948, is a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. The OIE (2010) defined the ‗good state of welfare‘ as: if the
animal (as indicated by scientific evidence) is healthy, comfortable, well
nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from
unpleasant
states
such
as
pain,
fear,
and
distress.
Good animal
welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter,
management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing (OIE
2010).
Appropriate management is just as important for small animals, whether their
environment is that of a single or multiple-pet home or a more intensive housing
situation such as a kennel or cattery (Kahn and Line 2008). An understanding of
the shelter‘s mission is critical to the design of an effective shelter health program
(Hurley and Miller 2009). Hurley and Miller (2009) also stated that the design of a
comprehensive program to control, manage, and reduce the transmission of
disease in animal shelters is a challenge for the veterinary professional.
Common Health Problems in Shelters
Behaviour
The National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP)
Regional Shelter Study found that behavioural problems, including aggression
toward people or nonhuman animals, were the most frequently given reasons for
canine relinquishment and the second most frequently given reasons for feline
relinquishment (Salman et al. 2000). The behaviours associated with the decision
to relinquish a canine or feline include aggression, separation-related behaviour,
house soiling, fearful behaviour, destructiveness, vocalization, disobedience,
digging, and chewing (Salman et al. 2000).
When dogs are relinquished by their owners to shelters, problem
behaviours such
as
fearfulness,
aggression,
hyperactivity,
inappropriate
elimination, separation anxiety, destructiveness and vocalisation are most often
cited as the reason (Marston and Bennett 2003, Mondelli et al. 2004, Wells and
Hepper 2000). Behaviour, and in particular aggression, is also the single most
common reason for dogs to be returned by new owners to shelters (Wells and
Hepper 2000; Orihel et al. 2005).
Aggression is not a unitary phenomenon but serves a variety of functions
in an animal‘s life and can be dealt with effectively by determining the type of
aggression (Houpt 2011). Aggression is defined as a behavior that leads to - or of
which the apparent aim is to - to do harm to the physical (and/or psychological)
integrity or freedom of another individual (Dehasse and Cornett 2003). Terry
(2008) categorized dog aggression into human-directed aggression and inter-dog
aggression. Categories of human-directed aggression include fear, possessive,
territorial/protective, maternal, predatory, and dominance. Categories of inter-dog
aggression include status-related, fear, arousal, possessive, protective, territorial,
redirected, and predatory.
It is now understood that keeping a social, inquisitive species in a bland
environment results in abnormal behaviours indicative of compromised welfare.
Unwanted adult pets now outnumber puppies and kittens, with many euthanized
animals exhibiting potentially resolvable behaviour problems (Salman et al.
2000).
Common Diseases
Control of infectious and zoonotic diseases are a major problem in animal
shelters (Foley and Bannasch 2004) where newly introduced animals can carry a
variety of pathogens, stressed animals are more vulnerable to infection, and
crowded and less-than-excellent hygiene conditions promote the spread of
infection (Spain et al. 2001; Helps et al. 2005; Petersen et al. 2008).
Hurley (2005a) stated that some common serious diseases in shelters
include: Canine distemper, parvo, panleukopenia, kennel cough, feline upper
respiratory tract infections (URI), ringworm (dermatophytosis), feline leukemia
virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline infectious peritonitis
(FIP), Sarcoptic mange (scabies), infectious diarrheal diseases, such as
whipworm, hookworm, giardia, coccidia and campylobacter. According to
Peterson et al.(2008) common zoonotic diseases found in shelters are Bartonella
henselae, Borrelia burgdorferi, gardia, brucellosis, hookworms, ringworm,
leptospirosis, plague, rabies, roundworms, salmonella, and toxoplasmosis.
Canine distemper and canine parvo are the two most common infectious
diseases, and preventable infectious canine diseases especially in unvaccinated
dogs housed in pet shops, puppy mills and animal shelters (Larson and Schultz
2006; Schultz 2006b; Lechner et al. 2010; Steneroden et al. 2011) (Table 1).
Puppies are the most susceptible to parvo, especially if they have roundworms or
other internal intestinal parasites, protozoa, or bacteria. Despite aggressive
therapy, parvo may have a high fatality rate. On the other hand, many adult dogs
that become infected never actually show clinical signs of disease (Appel and Barr
2009). Canine distemper is associated with respiratory, gastrointestinal and
neurologic clinical signs and is commonly spread through aerosol or droplet
exposure however infection may occur through contact with other body secretions
or through transplacental transfer (Litster et al. 2011).
Table 1 Common diseases in shelter dogs
Name
Cause
Canine distemper
Canine
Virus
Distemper
Canine parvo
Canine Parvo Virus
Canine Influenza
Canine
influenza
subtype H3N8 virus
(CIV)
Information
Source
Distemper can be shed Hurley 2005d
in all body secretions
of acutely infected
animals. It can be
spread
by
direct
contact, aerosol, or
respiratory
droplet
exposure.
After infection, it takes Day et al.
5 days or longer for 2010
signs of disease to
appear. CPV-2 faecal
shedding rarely persists
for >2 weeks.
Canine
influenza Crawford and
outbreaks
reach King 2007
epidemic proportions in
facilities with high
density
and
high
turnover populations
Upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) are the most common infectious
diseases of shelter cats and can be challenging to control (Griffin 2009). Feline
leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) are among the
most common infectious diseases of cats (Levy 2008). FIP is a major problem in
cat shelters, and indeed for cats from any multicat environment (Addie 2005).
Ringworm, or dermatophytosis, is one of the most common infectious skin
diseases of young and long-haired cats (Miller 2007).
Table 2 Common diseases in shelter cats
Name
Cause
Information
Source
Majority of URI in cats is caused
by either FVR or FCV.
Stress is almost always the most
important factor influencing the
incidence and course of feline URI.
Griffin
2009
Feline leukemia
virus (FeLV)
Feline herpes virus
(also known as feline
viral rhinotracheitis or
FVR) and calicivirus,
Bordetella
bronchiseptica,
Mycoplasma
and
Chlamydophila
as
secondary infections.
Feline leukemia virus
(FeLV)
Levy et
al.
2008
Feline
immunodeficiency
virus (FIV)
Feline
immunodeficiency
virus (FIV)
Feline infectious
peritonitis (FIP)
Feline
(FCoV)
Panleukopenia
Feline panleukopenia
virus (FPLV)
Ringworm
Microsporum canis,
FeLV is commonly spread
vertically from infected queens to
their kittens and horizontally
among cats that live together or
that fight.
FIV is shed in high concentrations
in the saliva, which also contains
infected leukocytes. The major
mode of transmission is via bite
wounds.
The vaccine is not 100%
effective,so the main way to
prevent FIP is to attempt to stop
cats from ever being exposed
FCoV.
The main source of virus is the
faeces.
Kittens are most severely affected
due to immunodeficient with
maternal
antibody
blockage
combined
with
a
highly
contaminated environment.
M.canis, is responsible for 98
percent of cat cases and 70 percent
of dog cases.
Upper Respiratory
Infection (URI)
coronavirus
Levy et
al.
2008
Addie
2005
Stateler
2010
Miller
2007
METHOD
This study was done for 6 months, starting February 2012 up to August
2012. This study is mainly based on literature studies and supported by visits to
the main shelters at Malaysia and Indonesia for visual purposes. The shelters
visited were the SPCA Selangor, Malaysia, and the Pondok Pengayom Satwa
(PPS) at Jakarta, Indonesia. During the visits, a casual interview with the in-house
veterinarians was done.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Health Management Components in Dog and Cat Shelters
Health management in an animal shelter is the key to achieving a shelter‘s
role and missions as there is nothing more important than the health of its animals
and environment. Duffield et. al. (2003) defined health management in a
veterinary aspect as the promotion of health and prevention of disease in animals
within the economic or business framework of the animal owner or industry,
while recognizing the issues of animal welfare, human safety, and environmental
impact. With that definition, an effective health management for a dog and cat
shelter should start from the moment the dogs and cats are captured (Figure 1).
STRAY DOGS
AND CATS
CAPTURED &
SURRENDERED
DISEASE CONTROL
SEGREGATION
QUARANTINE
SELECTION
ISOLATION
EUTHANASIA
BIOSECURITY &
SANITATION
POPULATION
CONTROL
REHABILITATION
FEEDING
EMERGENCY
TREATMENTS
PAIN MANAGEMENT
STRESS MANAGEMENT
BEHAVIOURAL ISSUES
PREVENTIVE
MEDICINE
NUTRITION
VACCINATION
PARASITE
CONTROL
STRESS CONTROL
SPAY & NEUTER
Figure 1 The diagram of health management components in dog and cat shelters.
Capture or Surrender
More often than not, private shelters do not practise the capturing of stray
dogs and un-owned cats, but they do sometimes rescue abandoned and brutalised
animals. The municipal shelters, on the other hand, are authorised to capture
strays as a means to population control. The OIE (2012), under the terrestrial
animal health code, stated that capture of dogs should be achieved with the
minimum force required and equipment should be used that supports humane
handling, also uncovered wire loops should not be used for capture. Tame dogs
can be captured with a little bait and a simple covered loop to put around their
neck. More suspicious animals may be captured using a covered loop on the end
of a handle or a net. Wilder animals may need to be trapped using a cage trap
which is baited for a few days to get the animal accustomed to it before it is
sprung (Stafford 2006).
The use of catch poles or rabies poles must not be used to restrain cats. A
humane wire box-shaped live trap, purpose-designed boxes or nets should be used
for handling fractious cats (Griffin and Hume 2006; Newbury et al. 2010). Over
forceful handling is more likely to result in increased fear and aggressive
behaviour, and injury to animals and people. Judicious use of tranquilizers can be
the most humane option for handling a frightened, fractious, or feral animal
(Newbury et al. 2010).
Dogs should be transported in an enclosed vehicle, and dogs should be
penned individually to reduce inter-dog aggression, while cats should be
transported in individual carriers that are covered (Stafford 2006). During
transportation animals should have adequate space, comfortable air conditions,
and good air quality (Newbury et al. 2010).
Capture and surrender methods are the first approach to stray dogs ad unowned cats; it is vital that minimal stress is induced towards these animals so as to
not affect their future behaviour. The effect that an animal's experience has on its
future behaviour varies because an animal‘s behaviour is a result of genetics and
lifetime experiences.
Disease Control
The optimal health care program relies on implementation of policies
aimed at preventing disease transmission rather than treating disease after it
occurs (Miller 2006). Important factors, such as population density, ventilation,
sanitation, staff training, etc., must be taken into consideration when
implementing an infectious disease control plan (AAHA 2011).
Segregation. Different holding areas should be provided for animals to be
euthanized, strays, adoptable animals, quarantined animals, and those in isolation.
Within these areas, adults must be separated from juveniles of the same species.
The adults have a much greater chance of carrying disease without showing any
clinical signs, and the young are most susceptible.
Stress is minimized through keeping dogs away from cats. A study on
measuring and assessing stress in shelter cats showed that urine cortisol-tocreatinine ratios were highest among cats with high exposure to dogs (Dinnage
2006). Urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios can be monitored to noninvasively assess
stress levels in confined cats (McCobb et al. 2005). Pregnant and nursing animals
should be separated from the rest, also spayed/neutered animals for easy
identification (HSUS 2012, RSPCA 2006, CHAI 2004, Newbury et al. 2010).
Quarantine. Pre-adoption quarantine is the mandatory waiting period an
animal is held before being displayed for adoption. All new arrivals should be
examined by a veterinarian within 24 hours of their arrival at the shelter (HSUS
2012; RSPCA 2006). The HSUS suggests that dogs should be quarantined for 10
days, and cats for 14 days, while RSPCA suggests 7 to 10 days of quarantine for
dogs, and 14 days for cats. Animals showing clinical signs should be isolated and
treated on-site or on a separate facility, treated in general, or removed from shelter
or euthanized (Hurley 2005a).
Selection. Eliminating the obviously sick and poor-conditioned animals
from the population first will automatically raise the overall level of health in the
facility (CHAI 2004). After removing these factors, subjective factors such as
breed, temperament, available space and comparative condition and adoptability
are used.
Isolation. True isolation is a necessity in shelters to protect the whole
population from disease spread (CHAI 2004). Due to financial restrictions this
measure is not always practised by shelters. All facilities should have a means of
providing isolation that will allow for humane care and not put other animals at
risk. Isolation may be accomplished physically on-site, or through transfer to an
appropriate facility (Newbury et al. 2010). Isolation areas should have good
biosecurity measures including air flow with exhaust separated from other animal
housing areas (CHAI 2004).
Euthanasia. Euthanasia is the most severe way to separate an animal out
of the population (CHAI 2004). Depending on the shelter‘s policy, euthanasia is
usually done to end the suffering of an animal, spreading of disease, behavioural
issues and as population control. The HSUS (2012) recommends an overdose
injection of sodium pentobarbital for the euthanasia of companion animals
because it rapidly causes loss of consciousness, followed by cessation of
respiration and cardia arrest. The dosage 2.24 ml per 10 kgs (IV/IC) or 6.72 ml
per 10 kgs (IP/PO) of body weight as a baseline, then adjust upward for specific
circumstances to achieve smooth, rapid, and peaceful transition through the four
stages of anaesthesia (CHAI 2004). Pre-medication such as acepromazine and
xylazine can be used.
Biosecurity and sanitation. Biosecurity are measures put in place to
reduce the likelihood of the introduction of a disease into a country, region, or
specific location, such as veterinary premises, or animal facility. The protocols
and precautions include proper cleaning, disinfection and precautionary methods
of ensuring that diseases are not carried from one premise to another. Clean and
disinfect animal housing, bowls, dishes and other feeding and watering containers
daily or more often when necessary. When moving animals always clean and
disinfect the area where the animal will be kept and then clean and disinfect the
area where the animal was moved from. Wear clean coveralls or smocks to handle
and care for animals. If caring for sick animals, take care of healthy animals first.
Change clothes (from isolation area) and wash hands prior to moving from one
group of animals to another. Do not use or allow equipment to enter the premises
unless it has been properly cleaned and disinfected prior to entering the premises.
Foot baths used to disinfect footwear of people coming and going from animal
areas can be used, especially at isolation area.
The animal density of a shelter should be reduced. The quality of air and
ventilation must be improved, and particulates (dust) and gases in the air be
reduced. It is vital that a shelter reduces the stress on the animal. Animals that
develop clinical signs need to be isolated. Pens, cages or rooms should be kept
clean using disinfectants that are known to kill the organisms associated with
diseases (Schultz 2006a).
Population control. Newbury et al. (2010) stated that shelters must have
policies and protocols to maintain adequate capacity for care and housing. Policies
must provide a means of balancing admission with the outcomes available
(adoption, transfer, release, return to owner, euthanasia, or others).
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is a treatment or treatments designed to facilitate the
process of recovery from injury, illness, or disease to as normal a condition as
possible (Wolbring 2009). With that definition, rehabilitation should be a part of
health management in shelters where the health of shelter animals or intakes are
always challenged and should be restored to as normal a condition as possible
(Orihel and Fraser 2008).
Feeding. The most basic treatment to start with is nutrition. Intakes that
have gone through starvation due to being neglected or trapped in a place without
food and water should be re-fed with caution due to the occurrence of ‗refeeding
syndrome. ―Refeeding syndrome‖ is a description of multiple metabolic
disturbances that occur during and complicate the reinstatement of oral, enteral, or
parenteral nutrition in malnourished or starved patients (Lippo and Byers 2008). A
refeeding diet should be high-fat and low carbohydrate, with adequate potassium,
phosphate, and magnesium (Hurley 2005b). Hurley (2005b) suggests that initially,
¼ of resting energy requirement (RER = (30 x BWkgs) + 70) should be given in
six small meals per day. Later, it can be increased by 1/8 to ¼ of the total
requirement over several days.
Orphaned puppies and kittens too need special nutrition. Orphaned kittens
can be bottle fed Q 2-4 hours for neonates, Q 4-6 hours for older using kitten milk
replacer; kittens < 1week require about 10-15% of body weight in milk replacer,
1-4 weeks old about 20-25% (Hurley 2005c). Orphaned puppies share the same
feeding formula as orphaned kittens.
Geriatric dogs may require a diet restricted to canned food or the dry food
mixture, soaked. Nursing mothers must be fed with puppy chow on puppy
schedule. Geriatric cats and nursing cats, and sick cats are restricted to canned
food (CHAI 2004).
Emergency treatments. Wound treatment must be implied to injured
animals. Open injuries should be treated with care so as to prevent infection or to
immobilize already infected wounds from further damage. Most animal shelters
only can afford to provide symptomatic relief for medical conditions, unless the
shelters are of the sanctuary type. Symptomatic relief include analgesics,
antimicrobials, antipyretics and diarrhoea treatment. Response to disease must be
an integral part of every shelter health program; plan should include measures to
minimize transmissions to unaffected animal or people and ensure appropriate
care of the affected animal (Newbury et al. 2010; Hurley and Miller 2009).
Pain management. Pain must be treated to alleviate suffering; there is a
pharmacological and non-pharmacological approach to treatment of pain
(Newbury et al. 2010). Non pharmacological approach include: providing quiet
areas, human contact (routine, brushing, grooming, and even massage), and
positive
training
and
exercise
are
extremely
important
for
animals;
pharmacological approach include the use of analgesics such as opioids, alpha-2agonists, Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and adjuvant agents
(Looney 2006).
Stress management. The most important effect from a shelter health
standpoint is that stress causes the body to produce excess steroids such as
adrenalin, suppressing the immune system, leaving animals wide open to
infection, and may make vaccination ineffective; therefore, anything that can be
done to decrease stress will improve overall health (CHAI 2004).
For most dogs admitted to shelters, cortisol levels rise significantly in the
first 2-3 days, and then gradually decrease until day 9 (Poulsen et al. 2009;
Hennesy et al. 2001). A dog confined in a public animal shelter experiences a
whole array of psychogenic stressors, including not only social separation and
exposure to novel surroundings, but also noise, restraint, alteration of light-dark
cycles and probably of circadian rhythms, disruption of familiar habits, and more
generally, unpredictability and loss of control.
Healthy animals should be kept in the same cage for the duration of their
stay at the shelter whenever possible, and not removed from the cage every day
for disinfection. Cages should be cleaned with minimal disruption to the occupant,
and only disinfected between occupants (HSUS 2012).
Behavioural issues. Dog behaviour assessments in shelters are
increasingly used to determine their suitability for rehoming, and help to increase
the rate of successful adoptions. Temperament and physiologic profile assessment
of dogs placed for adoption in a shelter would be of value for the management of
the shelter. It would allow predictions about the (re)activity of dogs in the new
environment, and at the same time makes it possible to alert the future owner on
the characteristics of the dog he is going to adopt (Costanza 2009).
Aggression can be treated according to its type. Possessive aggression can
be treated by denying the dog desired items and by offering a more desirable item.
Territorial aggression can be treated by denying the dog the opportunity to
practice this type of behaviour – desensitized and counter-condition to dogs and
people. Counterconditioning and desensitization are the cornerstones to treatment
of fears and anxieties (Horwitz 2002). Inter-dog aggression can be prevented by
early age neutering and by spaying/neutering adult dogs. Training dogs in the
shelter to be good with other dogs increases the chance of their being rehomed
(Poulsen et al. 2010).
Feline aggression due to fear can be treated by desensitizing and counterconditioning gradually. Medications to decrease anxiety include serotonin partial
agonists – buspirone (Terry 2008).
Preventive Medicine
Nutrition. Proper management and nutrition are essential to the health and
well-being of domestic a
SAROJINI SELVARAJU. Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing
dan Kucing. Dibawah bimbingan R.P. AGUS LELANA.
Selama di Indonesia dan Malaysia, penulis melihat banyak anjing dan
kucing yang hidup menggelandang, liar, dan dalam kondisi kesehatan yang
memprihatinkan. Walaupun belum terdapat data mengenai situasi ini, pemerintah
dan masyarakat setempat perlu mengembangkan pusat pengayom untuk anjing
dan kucing tersebut. Telaah pustaka ini dirancang untuk mengetahui manajemen
kesehatan yang diperlukan dalam suatu pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing. Studi
yang dilakukan meliputi studi literatur yang tersedia mengenai hal-hal yang
seharusnya menjadi bagian dari manajemen tersebut supaya permasalahan
kesehatan yang sering timbul pada pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing dapat
dikurangi atau diatasi. Dari literatur-literatur yang didapatkan, masalah kesehatan
yang sering timbul adalah perilaku hewan di pusat pengayom, penyakit infeksius,
serta hewan yang ditemukan dalam kondisi menderita akibat kelaparan. Aspek
manajemen yang diperlukan untuk mengatasi permasalahan-permasalahan
tersebut antara lain meliputi cara penangkapan, pengendalian dan penanggulangan
penyakit, rehabilitasi, serta medik preventif. Penyelenggaraan manajemen
kesehatan ini harus disesuaikan dengan misi pusat pengayom termasuk
kesejahteraan hewan dan penyelamatan lingkungan.
Kata kunci: Manajemen kesehatan, Pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing
HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN DOG AND CAT SHELTERS
(MANAJEMEN KESEHATAN PADA PUSAT PENGAYOM
ANJING DAN KUCING)
SAROJINI SELVARAJU
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2012
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY STATEMENT FORM
I hereby certify that my undergraduate thesis entitled Health Management
in Dog and Cat Shelters (Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing
dan Kucing) is my own original work under the advice of my undergraduate
thesis advisor, and has not been proposed in any form at any tertiary institution.
No portion of my undergraduate thesis has been copyrighted previously unless
properly referenced under References at the end of this thesis.
Bogor, September 2012
Sarojini Selvaraju
NIM B04058004
PERNYATAAN MENGENAI SKRIPSI DAN SUMBER
INFORMASI
Dengan ini saya menyatakan bahwa skripsi Health Management in Dog
and Cat Shelters (Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing dan
Kucing) adalah karya saya dengan arahan dari pembimbing dan belum diajukan
dalam bentuk apapun kepada perguruan tinggi manapun. Sumber informasi yang
berasal atau dikutip dari karya yang diterbitkan maupun tidak diterbitkan dari
penulis lain telah disebutkan dalam teks dan dicantumkan dalam Daftar Pustaka di
bagian akhir skripsi.
Bogor, September 2012
Sarojini Selvaraju
NIM B04058004
ABSTRAK
SAROJINI SELVARAJU. Manajemen Kesehatan pada Pusat Pengayom Anjing
dan Kucing. Dibawah bimbingan R.P. AGUS LELANA.
Selama di Indonesia dan Malaysia, penulis melihat banyak anjing dan
kucing yang hidup menggelandang, liar, dan dalam kondisi kesehatan yang
memprihatinkan. Walaupun belum terdapat data mengenai situasi ini, pemerintah
dan masyarakat setempat perlu mengembangkan pusat pengayom untuk anjing
dan kucing tersebut. Telaah pustaka ini dirancang untuk mengetahui manajemen
kesehatan yang diperlukan dalam suatu pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing. Studi
yang dilakukan meliputi studi literatur yang tersedia mengenai hal-hal yang
seharusnya menjadi bagian dari manajemen tersebut supaya permasalahan
kesehatan yang sering timbul pada pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing dapat
dikurangi atau diatasi. Dari literatur-literatur yang didapatkan, masalah kesehatan
yang sering timbul adalah perilaku hewan di pusat pengayom, penyakit infeksius,
serta hewan yang ditemukan dalam kondisi menderita akibat kelaparan. Aspek
manajemen yang diperlukan untuk mengatasi permasalahan-permasalahan
tersebut antara lain meliputi cara penangkapan, pengendalian dan penanggulangan
penyakit, rehabilitasi, serta medik preventif. Penyelenggaraan manajemen
kesehatan ini harus disesuaikan dengan misi pusat pengayom termasuk
kesejahteraan hewan dan penyelamatan lingkungan.
Kata kunci: Manajemen kesehatan, Pusat pengayom anjing dan kucing
©Hak Cipta milik IPB, tahun 2012
Hak Cipta dilindungi Undang-Undang
Dilarang mengutip sebagian atau seluruh karya tulis ini tanpa mencantumkan
atau menyebutkan sumbernya. Pengutipan hanya untuk kepentingan pendidikan,
penelitian, penulisan karya ilmiah, penyusunan laporan, penulisan kritik, atau
tinjauan suatu masalah, dan pengutipan tersebut tidak merugikan kepentingan
yang wajar IPB.
Dilarang mengumumkan dan memperbanyak sebagian atau seluruh karya tulis
dalam bentuk apapun tanpa izin IPB.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN DOG AND CAT SHELTERS
(MANAJEMEN KESEHATAN PADA PUSAT PENGAYOM
ANJING DAN KUCING)
SAROJINI SELVARAJU
Undergraduate Thesis
As partial fulfillment for the degree of
Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine in Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Bogor Agricultural University of Indonesia
Skripsi
sebagai salah satu syarat untuk memperoleh gelar
Sarjana Kedokteran Hewan pada
Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2012
Undergraduate thesis title : Health Management in Dog And Cat Shelters
Name
: Sarojini Selvaraju
NIM
: B04058004
Approved by:
Dr. drh. H. RP Agus Lelana, SpMP., MSi.
Undergraduate Thesis Advisor
Acknowledged,
drh. Agus Setiyono, MS, Ph.D APVet
Vice Dean of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Validation date:
PREFACE
This undergraduate thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for a Bachelor's Degree in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine of Bogor Agricultural University. It contains work done
from February 2012 up to August 2012. My supervisor on the project has been Dr.
drh. H. RP Agus Lelana, SpMP., MSi., whom has guided me so patiently. The
thesis has been made solely by the author; most of the text, however, is based on
the research of others, and I have done my best to provide references to these
sources. To have completed this project is like a dream come true, for I have
always been interested in sheltering animals. Throughout the process of
completing this undergraduate thesis, I have learned a lot, and the initial idea I had
on managing a shelter has surely changed for the better.
Without the help and guidance from the people around me, this project
would not have seen its end. For that, I would like to gratefully thank:
1. Dr. drh. Hj. Sri Murtini, MSi., my counselor for guiding me since my very
first years at the veterinary faculty making sure that I complete my
education, and for being one of the examiners for my viva.
2. My parents, Selvaraju and Kamala; siblings, Chechi and Mathan anne; and
my partner, Venothraj, for their unconditional support.
3. Drh. Rr. Soesatyoratih, MSi., and drh. Leni Maylina for being the
evaluators in my thesis seminar, and Drh. Wahono Esthi Prasetyaningtyas,
MSi., for being one of the examiners for my viva.
4. SPCA Selangor, Malaysia and Pondok Pengayom Satwa Jakarta,
Indonesia for their co-operation and time.
5. My faithful, motivating, and ever-consoling friends: Ade Ocktaviani,
Malni Sovinar ―Cupie‖, Vincentia Maria ―Vin‖, Indra Bagus Priastomo,
Jeffrey Matheus, and to those who have wished me well.
Bogor, September 2012
Sarojini Selvaraju
CURRICULUM VITAE
The author, Sarojini Selvaraju was born on the 6th of November 1985 at
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to father, Selvaraju, and mother, Kamala. Author is the
youngest of two children.
The author graduated from primary school at Sekolah Kebangsaan Taman
Bukit Maluri in the year 1997, furthered to secondary schooling at Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Taman Bukit Maluri, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Jalan Bukit, and Sekolah Menengah Engku Hussein where she graduated in the
year 2002. Author continued to high school at Sekolah Menengah St.Paul, in
which she graduated in 2004. In the year 2005, the author was accepted at Bogor
Agricultural University through a selection test, and had chosen to major in
Veterinary Medicine.
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ xi
ABBREVIATIONS ..........................................................................................xii
GLOSSARY.....................................................................................................xiii
INTRODUCTION
Background .................................................................................................. 1
Problem Formulation .................................................................................... 2
Objective ....................................................................................................... 3
Benefit .......................................................................................................... 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Animal Shelter Roles and Types ................................................................... 4
Policies and Protocols ................................................................................... 5
Welfare and Health Management.................................................................. 6
Common Health Problems in Shelters ......................................................... 7
Behaviour .............................................................................................. 7
Common Diseases ................................................................................. 8
METHOD...........................................................................................................11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 12
Capture and Surrender................................................................................. 12
Disease Control ........................................................................................... 13
Segregation .......................................................................................... 14
Quarantine ........................................................................................... 14
Selection .............................................................................................. 14
Isolation ............................................................................................... 14
Euthanasia ........................................................................................... 15
Biosecurity and Sanitation .................................................................. 15
Population Control .............................................................................. 16
Rehabilitation .............................................................................................. 16
Feeding ............................................................................................... 16
Emergency Treatments ....................................................................... 17
Pain Management ................................................................................ 17
Stress Management ............................................................................. 17
Behavioural Issues .............................................................................. 18
Preventive Medicine.................................................................................... 18
Nutrition .............................................................................................. 18
Vaccination ......................................................................................... 19
Parasite Control ................................................................................... 20
Stress Control ...................................................................................... 21
Spay and Neuter .................................................................................. 21
Lessons from Shelter Visits ........................................................................ 21
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS .......................................................... 24
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 25
ATTACHMENT ............................................................................................... 32
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1
Common diseases in shelter dogs ............................................................................9
2
Common diseases in shelter cats ............................................................................10
3
WSAVA guidelines on canine vaccination for the shelter environment ...............19
4
WSAVA guidelines on feline vaccination for the shelter environment .................20
ABBREVIATIONS
AAHA
SPCA
RSPCA
ASPCA
WSPA
OIPA
OIE
WHO
NCPPSP
URI
FeLV
FIV
FIP
CDV
CPV-2
CIV
FVR
FCoV
FPLV
PPS
HSUS
CHAI
RER
NSAIDs
CAV-2
MLV
CPiV
rCDV
FCV
FHV-1
WSAVA
VGG
ASPCApro
CAPC
ICAMC
American Animal Hospital Association
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals
World Society for the Protection of Animals
International Organization for Animal Protection
World Organisation for Animal Health
World Health Organization
National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy
Feline upper respiratory tract infections
Feline leukemia virus
Feline immunodeficiency virus
Feline infectious peritonitis
Canine distemper virus
Canine parvo virus type-2
Canine influenza virus
Feline viral rhinotracheitis
Feline coronavirus
Feline panleukopenia virus
Pondok Pengayom Satwa
Humane Society of the United States
Concern for Helping Animals in Israel
resting energy requirement
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Canine adenovirus type-2
Modified Live Virus
Canine parainfluenza Virus
Recombinant canine distemper virus
Feline calicivirus
Feline herpes virus
World Small Animals Veterinary Association
Vaccination Guidelines Group
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Professional
Companion Animal Parasite Council
International Companion Animals Management
Coalition
GLOSSARY
Animal shelter
Feral cats
Semi owned cats
Un-owned cats
Stray dogs
Municipal shelters
Private shelters
A holding facility for homeless animals, usually
awaiting adoption, rescue, reclaim by owners, or
euthanasia
Un-owned cats that cannot be handled and is unsocialised
Those for whom some kind of caregiver can be
identified even if the caregiver does not regard
themselves as owners in the conventional sense.
Those for whom an owner or caregiver cannot be
identified.
Any dog not under direct control to a person or
not prevented from roaming.
Completely government operated shelters.
Not-for-profit organizations.
INTRODUCTION
Background
A large number of stray dogs, as well as feral and un-owned cats still roam
the streets of Malaysia and Indonesia. Although official data regarding this
situation is not yet available, there is certainly a need for animal shelters amongst
the Indonesian and Malaysian society. Animal shelters have also become a
necessity as animal welfare is now a major concern globally.
Feral cats are un-owned cats that cannot be handled and is un-socialised;
therefore not suitable for placement in a home (Slater 2007). The OIE has defined
stray dogs to be any dog not under direct control to a person or not prevented from
roaming. ICAMC (2011) categorised cats into confined cats and roaming cats; and
roaming cats into three subcategories: owned, semi-owned, and un-owned. Semi
owned cats are those for whom some kind of caregiver can be identified even if
the caregiver does not regard themselves as owners in the conventional sense,
while un-owned cats are those for whom an owner or caregiver cannot be
identified (ICAMC 2011). The American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA)
(2011) defined an animal shelter as a holding facility for homeless animals,
usually awaiting adoption, rescue, or reclaim by owners. Steneroden et al. (2011)
added that animals in shelters are housed until transferred or euthanized in its
definition of an animal shelter.
The first few shelters were built in the 19th century starting at Britain and
followed with America by an animal welfare organization, Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA). The first known organized animal
welfare began in 1824 in Britain (SPCA 2002). There were 22 philanthropists
who founded the SPCA which was renamed, in 1840, as the Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) (RSPCA 2012). In the United States
though, it started from Henry Bergh‘s battle for animal welfare and thence to the
establishment of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(ASPCA) in 1866 (ASPCA 2012a).
The main concentration of most animal shelters is on dogs and cats, and in
some countries, horses too. The reason being these animals have been companions
to the human race for a very long time hence the concern of their welfare. The dog
has been a close companion of humans for at least 15,000 years (Savolainen et al.
2002) and cats have closely accompanied the development of human society for
over 4000 years (Slater 2007). Added with the increasing population of dogs and
cats on the streets, these animals have earned the attention of concerned parties.
The current world population of domestic dogs is estimated as 500 million dogs
(Villa 2008) and the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA)
estimates that 75% of the world‘s dog population are strays. The number of feral
cats worldwide is unknown, but it is estimated by ASPCA that the number of feral
cats in the United States of America alone to be in the tens of millions (ASPCA
2012b) and in China it is estimated to be 500,000 (OIPA 2009). In both Malaysia
and Indonesia, the total estimated number of either animal is still unknown.
Due to the drastic increase in animal shelters all over the world, there
should be more guidelines and scientifically researched standardization in the
management of it, and more specifically its health management. The term ‗health‘
in an animal shelter does not merely focus on the disease perspective. Therefore a
health management protocol should be made by shelters to cover all aspects of
health as extensively as possible.
Problem Formulation
With the increasing number of stray dogs and un-owned cats worldwide, it
can be assumed that Indonesia and Malaysia are facing the same situation. This
situation can be considered a problem due to its direct and indirect impact on
several issues. One of the problems caused by this situation is the spread of
infectious and zoonotic diseases, and the difficulty to curb these diseases;
therefore, affecting the public health. Other than that, the welfare of these animals
is compromised with the growth of the human population. Dogs and cats face
daily threats such as fast moving vehicles, and violence from those who find these
animals a nuisance. These animals may find it difficult to find food without being
exposed to threat; hence leading them to starvation and abuse. The environment is
indirectly affected due to the increase in stray dog and un-owned cat population.
One of the most effective means of stray population control is by providing them
with shelter, in which these animals are kept off the streets, are less exposed to
threat, and it also lessens their contribution to the spread of diseases. The health
management in a shelter plays a major role in its effectiveness. It is important that
a proper health management is instilled in every step starting from the capture and
surrender of these dogs and cats, controlling the disease, rehabilitating dogs and
cats in need, and preventive measures. These components can aid in increasing the
health status of each shelter animal, which consequently increases the health
status of the shelter‘s surrounding environment.
Objective
The main objective of this thesis is to study and outline the importance of
health management in animal shelters, its components, and also the elements that
should be taken account should there be standardization in animal shelters in
future.
Benefits
The benefits hoped to be provided from this thesis are information about
health in animal shelters, the management of health in animal shelters, and a
database for future research on relevant topics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Animal Shelter Role and Types
Most animal shelters back in 1800‘s were intended for handling large
numbers of dogs for brief periods of time as part of animal control programs
(Newbury et al. 2010). Wandering dogs, posing a nuisance and safety risk, would
have been picked up and taken to the pound. It was not uncommon for pound
masters to kill unclaimed dogs by clubbing or drowning them (Lane and
Zawistowski 2007).
According to ACTAsia For Animals (2012), shelters are a temporary
solution to a complex problem which include animal abuse, abandoned pets,
puppy mills and unwanted litters which then lead to overpopulation of strays,
disease transmission, sick and injured animals, and animal attacks. Therefore, a
shelter‘s role includes animal rescue, re-homing, re-uniting, public health and
safety, providing a permanent sanctuary, education and campaigning, and a means
for humane killing or euthanasia. According to Animals Asia and the Humane
Society International (2007), an animal shelter‘s tasks should include providing a
safe, clean, comfortable and species-appropriate environment for animals in need,
preventing animal cruelty and suffering, teaching humane principles to the
community, and lobbying for the enactment and enforcement of adequate animal
protection laws. Some shelters have no-kill policies and will hold dogs until they
are reclaimed, re-homed, are humanely killed for medical reasons, or die (Stafford
2006).
An observation was done by Eckhardt (2011) on the types of animal
shelters present at current time. From the observation, Eckhardt reported that there
are six types of shelters: municipal shelters, traditional animal shelters, limitedadmission
animal
shelters,
balanced-population
animal
shelters,
animal
sanctuaries, and rescue organizations. Hurley and Miller (2009) simply
categorized shelters into municipal shelters, private Zshelters, and other types of
shelters.
Municipal shelters are completely government operated shelters and
generally focus on stray animal pickup, control of dangerous animals, including
quarantines of animals that may have bitten someone, capture of free - roaming
animals, nuisance complaints, investigation of animal cruelty complaints,
handling of wildlife, and they are required to help every animal that comes to
them (Eckhardt 2011, Hurley and Miller 2009). Private shelters are not-for-profit
organizations; they are privately funded and their policies are often set by elected
or volunteer boards of directors (Hurley and Miller 2009).
Traditional animal shelters typically are committed to care for any animal
that comes to them, and may be under contract with the local municipality to
provide animal care or control. Limited-admission animal shelters do not
euthanize animals for space but limit intake. Balanced population animal shelters
exist in communities that have reached ‗balanced companion animal populations‘.
They take care of any animal in need, and do not euthanize for space. Animal
sanctuaries primarily handle special needs, unadoptable animals, and large
animals. Rescue organizations are dedicated to one breed or one type of animal,
work through volunteers and foster homes, and have finite number of space
(Eckhardt 2011).
Policies and Protocols
To build this foundation, organizations must have a clearly defined
mission, policies and protocols that reflect current information, adequate staff
training and supervision, and proper management of animal care. Animal health is
interwoven into virtually every facet of sheltering or rescue programs; therefore
veterinarians should be integrally involved with the development and
implementation of an organizational plan, and must have supervision of medical
and surgical care of animals (Newbury et al. 2010). Veterinarians work with
shelters in a variety of capacities as volunteers, employees, or consultants in
charge of the health-care program (Hurley and Miller 2009). According to the
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2011), the role of the veterinarian is
essential in providing adequate veterinary care that is in promoting an animal‘s
health and welfare, and they should have the authority and responsibility for
making judgements regarding animal welfare. Organizational functioning,
employee health and well-being, and animal wellness are inextricably linked
(Reeve et al. 2004; Rogelberg et al. 2007). Authority and responsibility must be
given only to those who have the appropriate knowledge and training. Supervision
and accountability for all staff and volunteers are essential to ensure that policies
and protocols guide daily activities (Newbury et al. 2010).
All animals must carry out basic life processes and therefore have basic
needs which can be grouped into five areas: physiological needs, social,
psychological needs, environmental needs, and behavioural needs. Animals in
captivity, such as pets or animals in a shelter or zoo are entirely dependent upon
humans to provide the conditions that will satisfy their basic needs (RSPCA
2006). The ACTAsia For Animals (2012) organization stated that a high standard
of animal welfare that covers the five freedoms in animal welfare is essential in an
animal shelter. The five freedoms: freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition,
freedom from discomfort, freedom from pain, injury and disease, freedom to
express normal behaviour, and freedom from fear and distress; they are applicable
to all animals use by humans and pets (Edwards 2010; Villalobos 2011).
According to RSPCA (2006), the most important policy decisions are on
neutering, rehoming and euthanasia. Newbury et al. (2010) stated that a clearly
defined mission that forms the basis of shelter policies should include animal care,
intake, treatment, adoption, and euthanasia. The establishment of policies helps to
guide an organisation‘s work and will shape the day-to-day running of a shelter.
The policies at a shelter should represent the principles that organisation sees as
important. Benefits of establishing shelter policies: sets, maintains and monitors
standards, ensures continuity of animal care, prevents misunderstanding and
confusion for staff and supporters, and it ensure compliance with relevant
legislation.
Welfare and Health Management
There is a critical relationship between animal health and animal welfare (OIE
2010). Health is not merely the absence of disease or injury but is also closely tied
to an animal‘s physical and mental well-being (Newbury et al. 2010). Health, as
defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1948, is a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. The OIE (2010) defined the ‗good state of welfare‘ as: if the
animal (as indicated by scientific evidence) is healthy, comfortable, well
nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from
unpleasant
states
such
as
pain,
fear,
and
distress.
Good animal
welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter,
management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing (OIE
2010).
Appropriate management is just as important for small animals, whether their
environment is that of a single or multiple-pet home or a more intensive housing
situation such as a kennel or cattery (Kahn and Line 2008). An understanding of
the shelter‘s mission is critical to the design of an effective shelter health program
(Hurley and Miller 2009). Hurley and Miller (2009) also stated that the design of a
comprehensive program to control, manage, and reduce the transmission of
disease in animal shelters is a challenge for the veterinary professional.
Common Health Problems in Shelters
Behaviour
The National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP)
Regional Shelter Study found that behavioural problems, including aggression
toward people or nonhuman animals, were the most frequently given reasons for
canine relinquishment and the second most frequently given reasons for feline
relinquishment (Salman et al. 2000). The behaviours associated with the decision
to relinquish a canine or feline include aggression, separation-related behaviour,
house soiling, fearful behaviour, destructiveness, vocalization, disobedience,
digging, and chewing (Salman et al. 2000).
When dogs are relinquished by their owners to shelters, problem
behaviours such
as
fearfulness,
aggression,
hyperactivity,
inappropriate
elimination, separation anxiety, destructiveness and vocalisation are most often
cited as the reason (Marston and Bennett 2003, Mondelli et al. 2004, Wells and
Hepper 2000). Behaviour, and in particular aggression, is also the single most
common reason for dogs to be returned by new owners to shelters (Wells and
Hepper 2000; Orihel et al. 2005).
Aggression is not a unitary phenomenon but serves a variety of functions
in an animal‘s life and can be dealt with effectively by determining the type of
aggression (Houpt 2011). Aggression is defined as a behavior that leads to - or of
which the apparent aim is to - to do harm to the physical (and/or psychological)
integrity or freedom of another individual (Dehasse and Cornett 2003). Terry
(2008) categorized dog aggression into human-directed aggression and inter-dog
aggression. Categories of human-directed aggression include fear, possessive,
territorial/protective, maternal, predatory, and dominance. Categories of inter-dog
aggression include status-related, fear, arousal, possessive, protective, territorial,
redirected, and predatory.
It is now understood that keeping a social, inquisitive species in a bland
environment results in abnormal behaviours indicative of compromised welfare.
Unwanted adult pets now outnumber puppies and kittens, with many euthanized
animals exhibiting potentially resolvable behaviour problems (Salman et al.
2000).
Common Diseases
Control of infectious and zoonotic diseases are a major problem in animal
shelters (Foley and Bannasch 2004) where newly introduced animals can carry a
variety of pathogens, stressed animals are more vulnerable to infection, and
crowded and less-than-excellent hygiene conditions promote the spread of
infection (Spain et al. 2001; Helps et al. 2005; Petersen et al. 2008).
Hurley (2005a) stated that some common serious diseases in shelters
include: Canine distemper, parvo, panleukopenia, kennel cough, feline upper
respiratory tract infections (URI), ringworm (dermatophytosis), feline leukemia
virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline infectious peritonitis
(FIP), Sarcoptic mange (scabies), infectious diarrheal diseases, such as
whipworm, hookworm, giardia, coccidia and campylobacter. According to
Peterson et al.(2008) common zoonotic diseases found in shelters are Bartonella
henselae, Borrelia burgdorferi, gardia, brucellosis, hookworms, ringworm,
leptospirosis, plague, rabies, roundworms, salmonella, and toxoplasmosis.
Canine distemper and canine parvo are the two most common infectious
diseases, and preventable infectious canine diseases especially in unvaccinated
dogs housed in pet shops, puppy mills and animal shelters (Larson and Schultz
2006; Schultz 2006b; Lechner et al. 2010; Steneroden et al. 2011) (Table 1).
Puppies are the most susceptible to parvo, especially if they have roundworms or
other internal intestinal parasites, protozoa, or bacteria. Despite aggressive
therapy, parvo may have a high fatality rate. On the other hand, many adult dogs
that become infected never actually show clinical signs of disease (Appel and Barr
2009). Canine distemper is associated with respiratory, gastrointestinal and
neurologic clinical signs and is commonly spread through aerosol or droplet
exposure however infection may occur through contact with other body secretions
or through transplacental transfer (Litster et al. 2011).
Table 1 Common diseases in shelter dogs
Name
Cause
Canine distemper
Canine
Virus
Distemper
Canine parvo
Canine Parvo Virus
Canine Influenza
Canine
influenza
subtype H3N8 virus
(CIV)
Information
Source
Distemper can be shed Hurley 2005d
in all body secretions
of acutely infected
animals. It can be
spread
by
direct
contact, aerosol, or
respiratory
droplet
exposure.
After infection, it takes Day et al.
5 days or longer for 2010
signs of disease to
appear. CPV-2 faecal
shedding rarely persists
for >2 weeks.
Canine
influenza Crawford and
outbreaks
reach King 2007
epidemic proportions in
facilities with high
density
and
high
turnover populations
Upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) are the most common infectious
diseases of shelter cats and can be challenging to control (Griffin 2009). Feline
leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) are among the
most common infectious diseases of cats (Levy 2008). FIP is a major problem in
cat shelters, and indeed for cats from any multicat environment (Addie 2005).
Ringworm, or dermatophytosis, is one of the most common infectious skin
diseases of young and long-haired cats (Miller 2007).
Table 2 Common diseases in shelter cats
Name
Cause
Information
Source
Majority of URI in cats is caused
by either FVR or FCV.
Stress is almost always the most
important factor influencing the
incidence and course of feline URI.
Griffin
2009
Feline leukemia
virus (FeLV)
Feline herpes virus
(also known as feline
viral rhinotracheitis or
FVR) and calicivirus,
Bordetella
bronchiseptica,
Mycoplasma
and
Chlamydophila
as
secondary infections.
Feline leukemia virus
(FeLV)
Levy et
al.
2008
Feline
immunodeficiency
virus (FIV)
Feline
immunodeficiency
virus (FIV)
Feline infectious
peritonitis (FIP)
Feline
(FCoV)
Panleukopenia
Feline panleukopenia
virus (FPLV)
Ringworm
Microsporum canis,
FeLV is commonly spread
vertically from infected queens to
their kittens and horizontally
among cats that live together or
that fight.
FIV is shed in high concentrations
in the saliva, which also contains
infected leukocytes. The major
mode of transmission is via bite
wounds.
The vaccine is not 100%
effective,so the main way to
prevent FIP is to attempt to stop
cats from ever being exposed
FCoV.
The main source of virus is the
faeces.
Kittens are most severely affected
due to immunodeficient with
maternal
antibody
blockage
combined
with
a
highly
contaminated environment.
M.canis, is responsible for 98
percent of cat cases and 70 percent
of dog cases.
Upper Respiratory
Infection (URI)
coronavirus
Levy et
al.
2008
Addie
2005
Stateler
2010
Miller
2007
METHOD
This study was done for 6 months, starting February 2012 up to August
2012. This study is mainly based on literature studies and supported by visits to
the main shelters at Malaysia and Indonesia for visual purposes. The shelters
visited were the SPCA Selangor, Malaysia, and the Pondok Pengayom Satwa
(PPS) at Jakarta, Indonesia. During the visits, a casual interview with the in-house
veterinarians was done.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Health Management Components in Dog and Cat Shelters
Health management in an animal shelter is the key to achieving a shelter‘s
role and missions as there is nothing more important than the health of its animals
and environment. Duffield et. al. (2003) defined health management in a
veterinary aspect as the promotion of health and prevention of disease in animals
within the economic or business framework of the animal owner or industry,
while recognizing the issues of animal welfare, human safety, and environmental
impact. With that definition, an effective health management for a dog and cat
shelter should start from the moment the dogs and cats are captured (Figure 1).
STRAY DOGS
AND CATS
CAPTURED &
SURRENDERED
DISEASE CONTROL
SEGREGATION
QUARANTINE
SELECTION
ISOLATION
EUTHANASIA
BIOSECURITY &
SANITATION
POPULATION
CONTROL
REHABILITATION
FEEDING
EMERGENCY
TREATMENTS
PAIN MANAGEMENT
STRESS MANAGEMENT
BEHAVIOURAL ISSUES
PREVENTIVE
MEDICINE
NUTRITION
VACCINATION
PARASITE
CONTROL
STRESS CONTROL
SPAY & NEUTER
Figure 1 The diagram of health management components in dog and cat shelters.
Capture or Surrender
More often than not, private shelters do not practise the capturing of stray
dogs and un-owned cats, but they do sometimes rescue abandoned and brutalised
animals. The municipal shelters, on the other hand, are authorised to capture
strays as a means to population control. The OIE (2012), under the terrestrial
animal health code, stated that capture of dogs should be achieved with the
minimum force required and equipment should be used that supports humane
handling, also uncovered wire loops should not be used for capture. Tame dogs
can be captured with a little bait and a simple covered loop to put around their
neck. More suspicious animals may be captured using a covered loop on the end
of a handle or a net. Wilder animals may need to be trapped using a cage trap
which is baited for a few days to get the animal accustomed to it before it is
sprung (Stafford 2006).
The use of catch poles or rabies poles must not be used to restrain cats. A
humane wire box-shaped live trap, purpose-designed boxes or nets should be used
for handling fractious cats (Griffin and Hume 2006; Newbury et al. 2010). Over
forceful handling is more likely to result in increased fear and aggressive
behaviour, and injury to animals and people. Judicious use of tranquilizers can be
the most humane option for handling a frightened, fractious, or feral animal
(Newbury et al. 2010).
Dogs should be transported in an enclosed vehicle, and dogs should be
penned individually to reduce inter-dog aggression, while cats should be
transported in individual carriers that are covered (Stafford 2006). During
transportation animals should have adequate space, comfortable air conditions,
and good air quality (Newbury et al. 2010).
Capture and surrender methods are the first approach to stray dogs ad unowned cats; it is vital that minimal stress is induced towards these animals so as to
not affect their future behaviour. The effect that an animal's experience has on its
future behaviour varies because an animal‘s behaviour is a result of genetics and
lifetime experiences.
Disease Control
The optimal health care program relies on implementation of policies
aimed at preventing disease transmission rather than treating disease after it
occurs (Miller 2006). Important factors, such as population density, ventilation,
sanitation, staff training, etc., must be taken into consideration when
implementing an infectious disease control plan (AAHA 2011).
Segregation. Different holding areas should be provided for animals to be
euthanized, strays, adoptable animals, quarantined animals, and those in isolation.
Within these areas, adults must be separated from juveniles of the same species.
The adults have a much greater chance of carrying disease without showing any
clinical signs, and the young are most susceptible.
Stress is minimized through keeping dogs away from cats. A study on
measuring and assessing stress in shelter cats showed that urine cortisol-tocreatinine ratios were highest among cats with high exposure to dogs (Dinnage
2006). Urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratios can be monitored to noninvasively assess
stress levels in confined cats (McCobb et al. 2005). Pregnant and nursing animals
should be separated from the rest, also spayed/neutered animals for easy
identification (HSUS 2012, RSPCA 2006, CHAI 2004, Newbury et al. 2010).
Quarantine. Pre-adoption quarantine is the mandatory waiting period an
animal is held before being displayed for adoption. All new arrivals should be
examined by a veterinarian within 24 hours of their arrival at the shelter (HSUS
2012; RSPCA 2006). The HSUS suggests that dogs should be quarantined for 10
days, and cats for 14 days, while RSPCA suggests 7 to 10 days of quarantine for
dogs, and 14 days for cats. Animals showing clinical signs should be isolated and
treated on-site or on a separate facility, treated in general, or removed from shelter
or euthanized (Hurley 2005a).
Selection. Eliminating the obviously sick and poor-conditioned animals
from the population first will automatically raise the overall level of health in the
facility (CHAI 2004). After removing these factors, subjective factors such as
breed, temperament, available space and comparative condition and adoptability
are used.
Isolation. True isolation is a necessity in shelters to protect the whole
population from disease spread (CHAI 2004). Due to financial restrictions this
measure is not always practised by shelters. All facilities should have a means of
providing isolation that will allow for humane care and not put other animals at
risk. Isolation may be accomplished physically on-site, or through transfer to an
appropriate facility (Newbury et al. 2010). Isolation areas should have good
biosecurity measures including air flow with exhaust separated from other animal
housing areas (CHAI 2004).
Euthanasia. Euthanasia is the most severe way to separate an animal out
of the population (CHAI 2004). Depending on the shelter‘s policy, euthanasia is
usually done to end the suffering of an animal, spreading of disease, behavioural
issues and as population control. The HSUS (2012) recommends an overdose
injection of sodium pentobarbital for the euthanasia of companion animals
because it rapidly causes loss of consciousness, followed by cessation of
respiration and cardia arrest. The dosage 2.24 ml per 10 kgs (IV/IC) or 6.72 ml
per 10 kgs (IP/PO) of body weight as a baseline, then adjust upward for specific
circumstances to achieve smooth, rapid, and peaceful transition through the four
stages of anaesthesia (CHAI 2004). Pre-medication such as acepromazine and
xylazine can be used.
Biosecurity and sanitation. Biosecurity are measures put in place to
reduce the likelihood of the introduction of a disease into a country, region, or
specific location, such as veterinary premises, or animal facility. The protocols
and precautions include proper cleaning, disinfection and precautionary methods
of ensuring that diseases are not carried from one premise to another. Clean and
disinfect animal housing, bowls, dishes and other feeding and watering containers
daily or more often when necessary. When moving animals always clean and
disinfect the area where the animal will be kept and then clean and disinfect the
area where the animal was moved from. Wear clean coveralls or smocks to handle
and care for animals. If caring for sick animals, take care of healthy animals first.
Change clothes (from isolation area) and wash hands prior to moving from one
group of animals to another. Do not use or allow equipment to enter the premises
unless it has been properly cleaned and disinfected prior to entering the premises.
Foot baths used to disinfect footwear of people coming and going from animal
areas can be used, especially at isolation area.
The animal density of a shelter should be reduced. The quality of air and
ventilation must be improved, and particulates (dust) and gases in the air be
reduced. It is vital that a shelter reduces the stress on the animal. Animals that
develop clinical signs need to be isolated. Pens, cages or rooms should be kept
clean using disinfectants that are known to kill the organisms associated with
diseases (Schultz 2006a).
Population control. Newbury et al. (2010) stated that shelters must have
policies and protocols to maintain adequate capacity for care and housing. Policies
must provide a means of balancing admission with the outcomes available
(adoption, transfer, release, return to owner, euthanasia, or others).
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is a treatment or treatments designed to facilitate the
process of recovery from injury, illness, or disease to as normal a condition as
possible (Wolbring 2009). With that definition, rehabilitation should be a part of
health management in shelters where the health of shelter animals or intakes are
always challenged and should be restored to as normal a condition as possible
(Orihel and Fraser 2008).
Feeding. The most basic treatment to start with is nutrition. Intakes that
have gone through starvation due to being neglected or trapped in a place without
food and water should be re-fed with caution due to the occurrence of ‗refeeding
syndrome. ―Refeeding syndrome‖ is a description of multiple metabolic
disturbances that occur during and complicate the reinstatement of oral, enteral, or
parenteral nutrition in malnourished or starved patients (Lippo and Byers 2008). A
refeeding diet should be high-fat and low carbohydrate, with adequate potassium,
phosphate, and magnesium (Hurley 2005b). Hurley (2005b) suggests that initially,
¼ of resting energy requirement (RER = (30 x BWkgs) + 70) should be given in
six small meals per day. Later, it can be increased by 1/8 to ¼ of the total
requirement over several days.
Orphaned puppies and kittens too need special nutrition. Orphaned kittens
can be bottle fed Q 2-4 hours for neonates, Q 4-6 hours for older using kitten milk
replacer; kittens < 1week require about 10-15% of body weight in milk replacer,
1-4 weeks old about 20-25% (Hurley 2005c). Orphaned puppies share the same
feeding formula as orphaned kittens.
Geriatric dogs may require a diet restricted to canned food or the dry food
mixture, soaked. Nursing mothers must be fed with puppy chow on puppy
schedule. Geriatric cats and nursing cats, and sick cats are restricted to canned
food (CHAI 2004).
Emergency treatments. Wound treatment must be implied to injured
animals. Open injuries should be treated with care so as to prevent infection or to
immobilize already infected wounds from further damage. Most animal shelters
only can afford to provide symptomatic relief for medical conditions, unless the
shelters are of the sanctuary type. Symptomatic relief include analgesics,
antimicrobials, antipyretics and diarrhoea treatment. Response to disease must be
an integral part of every shelter health program; plan should include measures to
minimize transmissions to unaffected animal or people and ensure appropriate
care of the affected animal (Newbury et al. 2010; Hurley and Miller 2009).
Pain management. Pain must be treated to alleviate suffering; there is a
pharmacological and non-pharmacological approach to treatment of pain
(Newbury et al. 2010). Non pharmacological approach include: providing quiet
areas, human contact (routine, brushing, grooming, and even massage), and
positive
training
and
exercise
are
extremely
important
for
animals;
pharmacological approach include the use of analgesics such as opioids, alpha-2agonists, Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and adjuvant agents
(Looney 2006).
Stress management. The most important effect from a shelter health
standpoint is that stress causes the body to produce excess steroids such as
adrenalin, suppressing the immune system, leaving animals wide open to
infection, and may make vaccination ineffective; therefore, anything that can be
done to decrease stress will improve overall health (CHAI 2004).
For most dogs admitted to shelters, cortisol levels rise significantly in the
first 2-3 days, and then gradually decrease until day 9 (Poulsen et al. 2009;
Hennesy et al. 2001). A dog confined in a public animal shelter experiences a
whole array of psychogenic stressors, including not only social separation and
exposure to novel surroundings, but also noise, restraint, alteration of light-dark
cycles and probably of circadian rhythms, disruption of familiar habits, and more
generally, unpredictability and loss of control.
Healthy animals should be kept in the same cage for the duration of their
stay at the shelter whenever possible, and not removed from the cage every day
for disinfection. Cages should be cleaned with minimal disruption to the occupant,
and only disinfected between occupants (HSUS 2012).
Behavioural issues. Dog behaviour assessments in shelters are
increasingly used to determine their suitability for rehoming, and help to increase
the rate of successful adoptions. Temperament and physiologic profile assessment
of dogs placed for adoption in a shelter would be of value for the management of
the shelter. It would allow predictions about the (re)activity of dogs in the new
environment, and at the same time makes it possible to alert the future owner on
the characteristics of the dog he is going to adopt (Costanza 2009).
Aggression can be treated according to its type. Possessive aggression can
be treated by denying the dog desired items and by offering a more desirable item.
Territorial aggression can be treated by denying the dog the opportunity to
practice this type of behaviour – desensitized and counter-condition to dogs and
people. Counterconditioning and desensitization are the cornerstones to treatment
of fears and anxieties (Horwitz 2002). Inter-dog aggression can be prevented by
early age neutering and by spaying/neutering adult dogs. Training dogs in the
shelter to be good with other dogs increases the chance of their being rehomed
(Poulsen et al. 2010).
Feline aggression due to fear can be treated by desensitizing and counterconditioning gradually. Medications to decrease anxiety include serotonin partial
agonists – buspirone (Terry 2008).
Preventive Medicine
Nutrition. Proper management and nutrition are essential to the health and
well-being of domestic a