Combined use of inorganic and organic fertilizers for tomato yield and fertility of oxisols
COMBINED USE OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC
FERTILIZERS FOR TOMATO YIELD AND
FERTILITY OF OXISOLS
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2011
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis entitled “Combined Use of Inorganic and Organic
Fertilizers for Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols” was entirely completed by
myself with resourceful help from the Department of Soil Science and Land
Resource, Bogor Agricultural University. Information and quotes which were
sourced from journals and books have been acknowledged and mentioned where
in the thesis they appear. All complete references are given at the end of the paper.
Bogor, January 2011
Phimmasone Sisouvanh
A151088091
ABSTRAK
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH. A151088091. Kombinasi Penggunaan Pupuk
Anorganik dan Organik pada Produksi Tomat dan Kesuburan Tanah Oxisols
Dibimbing oleh SYAIFUL ANWAR, KOMARUDDIN IDRIS, ATANG
SUTANDI
Produktivitas tanah Oxisols dapat ditingkatkan dengan penambahan pupuk
organik dan anorganik. Belakangan ini, penggunaan pupuk organik semakin
meningkat, didukung dengan sistem manajemen pemupukan yang ramah
lingkungan untuk jangka panjang. Tujuan penelitian ini menitikberatkan pada
penentuan kombinasi yang sesuai dalam menggunakan pupuk anorganik dan
organik pada hasil panen tomat serta peningkatan efisiensi penyerapan dan
pemanfaatan nutrisi dari dalam tanah, dan menentukan efek kombinasi pupuk
anorganik dengan organik terhadap sifat kimia tanah. Penelitian ini dilakukan di
Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) dimulai pada bulan November 2009 sampai Juli
2010. Perlakuan yang diberikan didesain menggunakan rancangan Faktorial dalam
Rancangan Acak Kelompok Lengkap dengan tiga kali pengulangan. Perlakuan
terdiri atas dua faktor yaitu dosis pupuk anorganik [(0-0-0), (2,53 urea- 1,68 SP- 3
KCl), (4,68 urea- 3,12 SP- 6,52 KCl) dan (7,2 urea- 4,8 SP- 10 KCl) (g/pot)], dan
pupuk organik [0, 200, dan 400 (g/pot), (Kompos kotoran sapi, sekam dan jerami
padi dalam perbandingan rasio 1:1:2 dengan volume) atau (Kompos kotoran sapi,
sekam dan gambut dalam perbandingan rasio 1:1:2 dengan volume)]. Ulangan
ditetapkan sebagai kelompok. Data dianalisis dengan program Microsoft Excel,
ANOVA dengan General Linear Model (GLM) yang merupakan pilihan
perangkat lunak dari Minitab. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kombinasi
penggunaan pupuk anorganik dan organik mempunyai efek yang positif pada hasil
panen tomat dan efisiensi hara. Kombinasi terbaik terdapat pada pupuk organik
taraf 200 atau 400 g/pot dengan pupuk anorganik yang mempunyai taraf paling
rendah. Kombinasi pupuk anorganik pada taraf (2.53 urea-1.68 SP-3 KCl, g/pot)
dengan jerami padi atau kompos gambut pada taraf 400 g/pot menghasilkan
produksi tomat tertinggi daripada kombinasi yang lain. Kombinasi pupuk
anorganik pada taraf (2.53 urea-1.68 SP-3 KCl, g/pot) dengan kompos jerami padi
pada taraf 400 g/pot atau kompos gambut pada taraf 200 dan 400 g/pot
menghasilkan efisiensi hara tertinggi. Sifat kimia tanah setelah panen pada
perlakuan pupuk organik maupun anorganik mampu meningkatkan kesuburan
tanah daripada tanah sebelum ditanami atau diberikan pupuk dan peningkatan
penggunaan pupuk juga meningkatkan kesuburan tanah.
Kata Kunci: Pupuk Anorganik, Pupuk Organik, Tomat, Oxisols, Kesuburan
Tanah
ABSTRACT
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH. A151088091. Combined Use of Inorganic and
Organic Fertilizers for Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols. Under direction of
SYAIFUL ANWAR, KOMARUDDIN IDRIS, ATANG SUTANDI
Productivity of Oxisols could be improved by addition of organic and
inorganic fertilizer. Recently, the use of organic fertilizer is increasing for long
term friendly fertility management. The objectives of this research were to
determine the appropriate combination of inorganic and organic fertilizer
application on tomato yield and to increase nutrient utilization efficiency in the
soil, and to determine the effect of combination of inorganic with organic
fertilizers on soil chemical properties. The experiment was conducted at Bogor
Agricultural University from November, 2009 to July, 2010. The treatments were
designed using Factorial experiment in Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with three replications. The treatment consisted of two factors which
were rates of inorganic fertilizer [(0-0-0), (2.53 urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl), (4.68 urea3.12 SP- 6.52 KCl) and (7.2 urea- 4.8 SP- 10 KCl) (g/pot)], and organic fertilizer
[0, 200, and 400 (g/pot), (Compost of cow dung, husk and straw in the ratio 1:1:2
by volume) or (Compost of cow dung, husk and peat in the ratio 1:1:2 by
volume)]. Replication was treated as block. Data were analyzed using Microsoft
Excel, ANOVA using the General Linear Model (GLM) option of Minitab
software. The result of the research indicated that combined use of inorganic and
organic fertilizers had positive effects on tomato yield and plant nutrient
efficiency. The best combination of inorganic fertilizer occurred at lowest doses
with organic fertilizer at 200 or 400 g/pot. Combination of inorganic fertilizer at
(2.53 urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw or peat compost at 400 g/pot
resulted in the highest tomato yield than other combinations. Combination of
inorganic fertilizer at (2.53 urea - 1.68 SP - 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw compost at
400 g/pot or peat compost at 200 and 400 g/pot resulted in the highest nutrient
efficiency. Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting in both organic and
inorganic fertilizer treatments had a sound of soil fertility than the soil before
planting or fertilizing and increased the use of fertilizers also increased on the soil
fertility.
Keywords: Inorganic fertilizer, Organic fertilizer, Tomato, Oxisols, Soil fertility
SUMMARY
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH. A151088091. Combined Use of Inorganic and
Organic Fertilizers for Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols. Under direction of
SYAIFUL ANWAR, KOMARUDDIN IDRIS, ATANG SUTANDI
Tomato is the most popular vegetable in gardens; It requires enough
quantities of N, P and K containing fertilizers, enough organic matter, and some
more other minerals for the growth, fruit set, fruit growth, and development.
Oxisols have low quantities of essential nutrient elements, often rich in Fe and Al
oxide mineral, high P retention by oxide minerals, low in CEC, and low in total
quantities of Ca, Mg and K. To enhance the productivity of Oxisols is
recommended to have a sound fertility management. Apply lime to raise soil pH,
supply organic fertilizers to improve soil structure, provide micronutrients, and
improve the efficiency of nutrient uptake, and supply inorganic fertilizers to
provide major nutrients to plants in a form that is quickly available. The
advantages of organic and inorganic fertilizer need to be integrated in order to
achieve optimum performance by each type of fertilizer, and to realize balanced
nutrient management for maintaining long term productivity. The objectives of
this research were (1) to determine the appropriate combination of inorganic and
organic fertilizer application on tomato yield and to increase nutrient utilization
efficiency in the soil, and (2) to determine the effect of combination of inorganic
with organic fertilizers on soil chemical properties.
The research was done at Bogor Agricultural University green house. The
soil, and plant were analyzed in soil analysis Laboratory, Department of Soil
Science, and Land Resource, Bogor Agricultural University from November,
2009 to July, 2010. The treatments were designed using Factorial experiment in
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The
treatment consisted of two factors which were rates of inorganic fertilizer [(0-0-0),
(2.53 Urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl), (4.68 Urea- 3.12 SP- 6.52 KCl), and (7.2 Urea- 4.8
SP- 10 KCl) (g/pot)], and organic fertilizer [0, 200, and 400 (g/pot), (Compost of
cow dung, husk, and straw in the ratio 1:1:2 by volume) or (Compost of cow
dung, husk, and peat in the ratio 1:1:2 by volume)]. Replication was treated as
block. Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, ANOVA using the General
Linear Model (GLM) option of Minitab software.
The result of the research indicated that combined use of inorganic and
organic fertilizers had positive effects on tomato yield and plant nutrient
efficiency. The best combination of inorganic fertilizer occurred at lowest doses
with organic fertilizer at 200 or 400 g/pot. Combination of inorganic fertilizer at
(2.53 urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw or peat compost at 400 g/pot
resulted in the highest tomato yield than other combinations. Combination of
inorganic fertilizer at (2.53 urea - 1.68 SP - 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw compost at
400 g/pot or peat compost at 200 and 400 g/pot resulted in the highest nutrient
efficiency. Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting in both organic and
inorganic fertilizer treatments had a sound of soil fertility than the soil before
planting or fertilizing and increased the use of fertilizers also increased on the soil
fertility.
Keywords: Inorganic fertilizer, Organic fertilizer, Tomato, Oxisols, Soil fertility
© Copyright of IPB, year 2011
Copyright reserved
1. Forbidden to quote part or all of these writings without including or
mentioning the source.
a. Be cited only for educational purposes, research, writing papers,
drafting reports, writing criticism or review an issue;
b. Quotation must not harm the affairs of IPB.
2. Prohibit publication and reproduction of part or all of the paper in any
form without permission of IPB or the writer.
COMBINED USE OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC
FERTILIZER FOR TOMATO YIELD AND
FERTILITY OF OXISOLS
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH
Thesis
As Partial fulfillment of the requirement to obtain
Master of Science Degree in Soil Science
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2011
Thesis External Examiner: Dr. Ir. Untung Sudadi, MSc
Title
Name
Registration Number
: Combined Use of Inorganic and Organic Fertilizers for
Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols
: Phimmasone Sisouvanh
: A151088091
Approved:
Advisory Committee
Dr. Ir. Syaiful Anwar, MSc
(Chairman)
Ir. Atang Sutandi, MSi, PhD
(Member)
Dr. Ir. Komaruddin Idris, MS
(Member)
Agreed:
Coordinator of Major
Ir. Atang Sutandi, MSi, PhD
Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr.Ir. Khairil Anwar Notodiputro, MS
Examination Date: 03 January 2011 Date of completing studies:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My study would not have been completed without the help of many people
Sincere thank you to Dr. Ir. Syaiful Anwar, MSc, Dr. Ir. Komaruddin
Idris, MS, and Ir. Atang Sutandi, MSi, PhD supervisory committee for the
research work in which invaluable guidance and direction was given for the whole
research period at IPB
Special thank you to the Department of Soil Science and Land Resource
for the full support given to enable the successful completion of this research
Thank you also to all the invaluable lecturing staff members as well as lab
and technical staff of Soil Science and Land Resource Department who have
imparted knowledge that I acknowledge with gratitude
Extended thank you to all fellow students of Soil Science and Land
Resource Department and the family of KNB Scholarship group, special mention
my close friends Mamihery Ravoniarijaona, Marty Linda Hasu, Sanou Faye, Chea
Sinath, Bruce Ochieng Obura, Pauliasy Tokasaya, Adeel ABD Alkarim Fadhl,
Andrew Mulwanyi, Elle Frishel, Christopher Hamadi, Thato Tseuoa, Andi Tiara
Eka Suardi, and Rafeah Matusin thank you all for your support, assistance and
providing a helping hand during the course of Masters Degree studies in Bogor
Agricultural University
Further, heartfelt gratitude and thank you to parents, sisters (Phannapeng,
Phannaphone, Phonekeo and phiengphone), and brother Hairkham for all you who
always inspire, encourage and endless support me for higher education
Finally, thanks a lot to my sponsor KNB (Kemitraan Negara Berkembang)
who provided for my scholarship throughout my masters course
My study would have not reached this end without the support from all of
you.
Wish you all have a successful and prosperity in your life and may this
study be beneficial for us.
Bogor, January 2011
Phimmasone Sisouvanh
BIOGRAPHY
The writer was born on the 6th of September, 1979 in Vientiane
municipality to Mr Fay Sisouvanh and Mrs Kirst Sisouvanh from Laos. The writer
is the third born of six children
In 1998, the writer finished Completed Senior High School from Saysettha
High School and continued with Bachelors Degree studies in agronomy and
graduated in June 2004, from the National University of Laos. After Bachelors
level, in 2004 to 2007 the writer had worked for Department of Crop Science,
Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Laos as lecturer assistant.
In September 2007, the writer was accepted under the Developing
countries partnership program (KNB - Kemitraan Negara Berkembang) awarded
by the Indonesian Government to do Masters Degree majoring in Soil Science in
Bogor Agricultural University, with official permission from the Department of
Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, National University and Laos Ministry of
Education for a period of Master Degree study program in Indonesia
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1 Nutritional Composition in Tomato..........................................................
4
2 Lime Requirements of Various Soil Types...............................................
13
3 Selected Chemical Composition of Raw Plant Materials for Compost...
15
4 Selected Chemical Composition of Animal Dung for Compost..............
15
5 Selected Chemical Composition of Compost Derived from Different
Materials...................................................................................................
16
6 List of Major Microorganisms Present in Compost..................................
16
7 The combination of inorganic and organic fertilizers provided
following treatments.................................................................................
21
8 Soil Parameters.........................................................................................
23
9 Inorganic Fertilizer Parameters................................................................
23
10 Organic Fertilizer Parameters...................................................................
24
11 Plant Parameters.......................................................................................
24
12 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on soil pH,
organic C, and CEC in the soil..................................................................
26
13 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on total N,
available P, and exchangeable K in the soil..............................................
27
14 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on
exchangeable Ca, Mg, and Na in the soil..................................................
28
15 Effect of using straw compost and inorganic fertilizer on tomato
height.........................................................................................................
34
16 Effect of using peat compost and inorganic fertilizer on tomato
height.........................................................................................................
35
17 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on tomato
yield...........................................................................................................
36
18 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on plant
nutrient uptake..........................................................................................
38
19 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on plant
nutrient efficiency.....................................................................................
40
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1 Relationships Between the Various Components of the Dynamic
Soil System...............................................................................................
8
2 The Nitrogen Cycle..................................................................................
9
3 Schematic Representation of the P Cycle in the Soil...............................
10
4 K Equilibria and Cyling in Soil................................................................
11
5 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
Peat (b) compost on soil pH.....................................................................
29
6 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on C-organic in the soil................................................
36
7 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on CEC in the soil......................................................... 30
8 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on total N in the soil.....................................................
31
9 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on available P in the soil............................................... 31
10 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable K in the soil....................................... 32
11 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable Ca in the soil.....................................
32
12 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable Mg in the soil....................................
33
13 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable Na in the soil.....................................
33
14 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on tomato height...........................................................
35
15 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on fresh weight of fruit per plant..................................
37
16 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant N uptake.......................................................... 38
17 Respose of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant P uptake..........................................................
39
18 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant K uptake.......................................................... 39
19 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
xv
peat (b) compost on plant N efficiency....................................................
40
20 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant P efficiency.....................................................
41
21 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant K efficiency....................................................
41
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
1 Soil sample chemical characteristics...........................................................
51
2 Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting...............................................
52
3 Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting...............................................
53
4 Effect of combined use of inorganic with organic fertilizer on plant
height...........................................................................................................
54
5 Effect of combined use of straw or peat compost with inorganic fertilizer
on tomato yield............................................................................................
55
6 Effect of combined use of inorganic with organic fertilizer on plant
(N, P, and K) uptake and efficiency............................................................
56
7 Assessment Criterion of Soil Chemical Property (Staf Pusat Penelitian
Tanah, 1983)..............................................................................................
57
8 Compost chemical characteristics...............................................................
57
9 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of
chemical characteristics after harvesting.....................................................
57
10 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of chemical
characteristics after harvesting....................................................................
59
11 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of tomato
growth........................................................................................................
60
12 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of tomato
growth.........................................................................................................
62
13 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of tomato
yield............................................................................................................
63
14 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of tomato
yield............................................................................................................
64
15 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of plant
nutrient uptake.............................................................................................
64
16 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of plant
nutrient uptake.............................................................................................
65
17 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of plant
nutrient efficiency.......................................................................................
65
18 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of plant
nutrient efficiency.......................................................................................
66
1
INTRODUCTION
Background
With 6.5 billion people worldwide, the pressure of producing quality, lowcost food is becoming more apparent, and often more challenging. The world
population has doubled since 1950, requiring additional space and more food.
These factors challenge the agricultural industry to be more efficient and produce
higher yields on less land. To harvest these yields, food producers are required to
utilize technological and scientific advancements, while at the same time
remaining profitable. One of the major advancements to stimulate crop yield is the
increase in the use of fertilizers. In fact, estimates indicate that at least one-third of
a crop‟s yield can be attributed solely to fertilizer. Interestingly, as fertilizer helps
growers produce more crops (Hoyum, 2006), the hope of producing enough to
feed the population cannot be obtained.
Sustainability of agriculture has become a major global concern since
1980s. Soil organic matter (SOM) is very important in the functions of soil in as
much as it is a good indicator of soil quality because it mediates many chemical,
physical, and biological processes controlling the ability of soil to perform
successfully. A comparison of cultivated and uncultivated soils has demonstrated
a reduction in SOM with cultivation (Mann, 1986). SOM properties have been
proposed as diagnostic criteria for soil health quality and performance. However,
the importance of organic matter (OM) to crop production has received less
emphasis, and its proper use in soil management is sometimes neglected or even
forgotten. Moreover, understanding nutrient supply or agricultural systems is
essential for maintaining long term productivity and yields of crops grown both in
organic and conventional production systems (Drinkwater et al., 1995;
Stamatoados et al., 1999). In addition, agriculture or agro-industries produce high
quantities of organic wastes that are typically rich in nutrients, which can well be
used in agriculture to conserve nutrients as well as to reduce waste discharge and
the use of chemical fertilizers.
For good growth, the plant must have space in the soil to get air, room to
grow roots, suitable soil acidity or alkalinity, and adequate water, sunlight, and
2
mineral nutrients. Air pour, root zone, and water available to a plant depend
largely on the soil structure. This is closely related to the OM in the soil and a
suitable distribution of mineral particles of different sizes to keep the soil freeable and porous, permit excess water to drain, and good aeration. The plant
absorbs mineral elements and water from the soil and carbon dioxide gas from the
air. The elements most frequently deficient include those normally present in
commercial fertilizers nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Other
important nutrient elements calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are added in
commercial fertilizers and more particularly in agricultural lime that also serves as
a neutralizing agent (Hillock, 1990).
To improve the productivity of Oxisols, it is recommended to have a sound
fertility management. For example, application of lime to raise soil pH, and
fertilization of nitrogen (N), phosphor (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers to supply
the nutrient requirements of the plants.
Chemical fertilizers alone, however,
cannot sustain crop yields over time due to their negative residual effects and
availability. Combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers is recommended.
Organic fertilizers improve soil structure, provide micronutrients, and improve the
efficiency of nutrient uptake in the soil. Inorganic fertilizers provide major
nutrients to plants in a form that is quickly available.
Problem Statement
Oxisols have low quantities of essential nutrient elements, they are often
rich in Fe and Al oxide minerals, high phosphorus retention by oxide minerals,
low in cation exchange capacity (CEC) (McDaniel, 2009), and low in total
quantities of Ca, Mg, and K (Buol and Eswaran, 2000). Despite their low fertility,
Oxisols can be quite productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers (McDaniel,
2009). If the lime rate was increased or to high, however, it will decrease
concentrations of manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), boron (B), copper (Cu), and zinc
(Zn) (Martin and Liebhardt, 1994).
3
Objectives
1. To determine the appropriate combination of inorganic and organic
fertilizer application on tomato yield and to increase nutrient utilization
efficiency in the soil.
2. To determine the effect of combination of inorganic with organic
fertilizers on soil chemical properties.
Hypothesis
1. The combination of inorganic and organic fertilization will increase
nutrient utilization efficiency in the soil.
2. The combination of inorganic and organic fertilization will increase
soil fertility
Scope of Study
This research was conducted at Bogor Agricultural University green
house. The soil and plant parameters were analyzed in chemical and soil fertility
analysis laboratory, Department of Soil Science and Land Resource, Bogor
Agricultural University. The experiment was utilized the combined use of organic
(straw or peat compost) and inorganic fertilizers (Urea, superphosphate (SP), and
potassium chloride (KCl)). Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] used to increase Oxisols soil
pH.
4
LITERATURE REVIEW
Tomato
The tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is a member of the nightshade
family Solanaceae (Dekker, 1999). Tomato is native to the mountains of South
America; it was taken to Europe where it was a popular vegetable by the 1500s.
The tomato did not gain wide acceptance in the United States until the mid 1800s.
Today it is the most popular vegetable in gardens (Splittstoesser, 1990).
Tomato has substance composition quite completely and good. It has
enough prominent composition of vitamin A, B, C, and other nutrition. The
substance composition is presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Nutritional Composition in Tomato
Nutritional composition per 100g foodstuff.
1g
4g
0.2 g
Protein
Lipids
Sugar
Vitamin A
Vitamin B (Thiamine)
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Niacin
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
1,700 IU
0.1 g
0.02 g
0.6 g
2.1 mg
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
13 mg
27 mg
0.5 mg
3 mg
244 mg
Energy
Source: Dekker (1999)
23 calories
From 2006 to 2008 the production of tomato in Indonesia increased from
629,744 ton in 2006; to 635,474 ton in 2007, and to 689,420 ton in 2008 but still
not enough with population demand in consumption. The statistic data of tomato
5
import in Indonesia to fulfill the demand increased from 8,743,981 kg in 2007 and
to 12,011,183 kg in 2008 (Statistic Data of Agriculture, 2009).
The Tomato’s Requirements
Growing tomato requires siliceous-clay loose, deep, well drained soils that
are rich in organic matter. The best pH value is between 6 and 7. It requires a lot
of calcium, potassium, and magnesium (Dekker, 1999).
Tomato requires enough nutrition for the growth, development of plants,
fruit set, fruit growth, and development. For growing tomato, the crop requires
enough quantities of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) containing
fertilizers, enough organic manure, and some other minerals. How much fertilizers
and manure are required for growing tomato is dependent on several factors.
Principally, it depends on the nutrients available in the soils. Secondly, how much
nutrients the crop deplete from the soils (Anonymous, 2009).
Tomato is a hungry crop, requiring high levels of K, optimum growing
temperature about 25-30oC in the daytime and about 15-20oC at night (Davies and
Lennartsson, 2005). Tomato plants which yield about 40 ton of the fruits from 1
hectare of land take about 93 kg of N, 20 kg of P, and 126 kg of P from the soils.
The rate can be 40-60 kg N, 60-80 kg P, and 100-120 kg P per hectare. Another
fertilization recommendation includes 100 kg N, 80 kg P, 50 kg K, and 25 ton of
farmyard manure per hectare (Anonymous, 2009).
Tomato fertilizers applications when the cultivation is conducted in field
includes a single application of 30 t/ha of dung, fertilizer application in the soil
per hectare of 60 kg N, 80-100 kg P2O5, and 200-250 kg K2O, and surface
fertilizer applications per hectare of 3 applications of 90 kg N, 1 application of
each of 20 kg P2O5 and 90 kg K2O. For greenhouse cultivation, these quantities
have to be increased, and divided into a larger number of applications, in order to
increase production (Dekker, 1999). The common fertilization of tomato in
Indonesia is a single application of 10-20 ton/ha of dung, together with several
applications of 175 kg/ha Urea, 350 kg/ha SP, and 200 kg/ha KCl (Trisnawati and
Setiawan, 2005).
6
Harvesting
To obtain the best flavor, tomato fruits should be harvested when they are
fully ripe and firm. When the tomato becomes soft before the color has fully
developed, the fruits should be picked every other day when the fruits have turned
pink and ripened (Splittstoesser, 1990).
Oxisols
Oxisols are very highly weathered soils that found primarily in the intertropical regions of the world. These soils have low quantities of essential nutrient
elements, content less than 10% of weather-able minerals, and often rich in Fe and
Al oxide minerals (McDaniel, 2009).
Most of these soils are characterized by extremely low native fertility,
resulting from very low nutrient reserves, high phosphorus retention by oxide
minerals, and low cation exchange capacity (CEC) (McDaniel, 2009). Oxisols
have low total quantities of Ca, Mg, and K.
Most Oxisols have low total
quantities of P, most of which are quite insoluble, and unavailable for plant uptake
(Buol and Eswaran, 2000). Most nutrients in Oxisols ecosystems are contained in
the standing vegetation, and decomposing plant material. Despite low fertility,
Oxisols can be quite productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers (McDaniel,
2009).
Sources of Nutrients
Most of the nutrients required by green plants are available in abundant
quantity from the air, water, and soil (Havlin et al., 1999). Organic fertilizers are
natural materials of either plant or animal origin, including livestock manure,
green manures, crop residues, household waste, compost, and woodland litter.
Inorganic (or mineral) fertilizers are fertilizers mined from mineral deposits with
little processing (e.g., lime, potassium, or phosphate rock), or industrially
manufactured through chemical processes (e.g., urea). Inorganic fertilizers vary in
appearance depending on the process of manufacture. The particles can be of
many different sizes, and shapes (crystals, pellets, granules, or dust), and the
fertilizer grades can include straight fertilizers (containing one nutrient element
7
only), compound fertilizers (containing two or more nutrients usually combined in
a homogeneous mixture by chemical interaction), and fertilizer blends (formed by
physically blending mineral fertilizers to obtain desired nutrient ratios) (Tine and
Verlinden, 2003).
Soil - Plant Relationships
Nutrient supply to plant root is a very dynamic process. Plants absorb
nutrients (cations and anions) from the soil solution and release small quantities of
ions such as H+, OH-, and HCO3- (Figure 1, interaction 1 and 2). Changes in ion
concentrations in soil solution are “buffered” by ions adsorbed on the surfaces of
soil minerals (Figure 1, interactions 3 and 4). Ion removal from solution causes
partial desorption of the same ions from these surfaces. Soils contain mineral that
can dissolve to resupply soil solution with many ions (Figure 1, interactions 5 and
6). Likewise, increasing in ion concentration in soil solution resulting from
fertilization or other inputs can cause some minerals to precipitate (Havlin et al.,
1999).
Soil microorganisms remove ions from soil solution and incorporate them
into microbial tissues (Figure 1, interaction 7). When microbes or other organisms
die, they release nutrients to the soil solution (Figure 1, interaction 8). Microbial
activity produces and decomposes organic matter or humus in soil. These dynamic
processes are very dependent on adequate energy supply from organic carbon, C
(i.e., crop residues), inorganic ion availability, and numerous environmental
conditions. Plant roots and soil organisms utilize O2 and respired CO2 through
metabolic activity (Figure 1, interactions 9 and 10). As a result CO2 concentration
in soil air is greater than in the atmosphere. Diffusion of gases in soil decreases
dramatically with increasing soil water content (Havlin et al., 1999).
Numerous environmental factors and human activities can influence ion
concentration in soil solution, which interacts with the mineral and biological
processes in soil (Figure 1, interactions 11 and 12). For example, adding P
fertilizer to soil initially increases the H2PO4- concentration in solution. With time,
the H2PO4- concentration will decrease with plant uptake, H2PO4- adsorption on
mineral surfaces, and P mineral precipitation (Havlin et al., 1999).
8
Figure 1 Relationship between the Various Components of the Dynamic Soil
System (Lindsay, 1979).
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
Nitrogen in plant and animal residues, and N derived from the atmosphere
through electrical, combustion, and industrial processes (N2 is combined with H2
or O2) is added to the soil (Figure 2, step 1). Organic N in residues is mineralized
to NH4+ by soil organisms (Figure 2, step 2). Plant root absorb a portion of the
NH4+. Much of NH4+ is converted to NO3- by nitrifying bacteria in process called
nitrification (Figure 2, step 3). NO3- and NH4+ are taken up by plant roots and used
to produce the protein in crops that are eaten by humans or fed to livestock
(Figure 2, step 4). Some of NO3- is lost to groundwater or drainage systems as a
result of downward movement through the soil in percolating water (Figure 2, step
5). Some of NO3- is converted by denitrifying bacteria into N2 and nitrogen oxides
(N2O and NO) that escapes into the atmosphere, completing the cycle (Figure 2,
step 6). Some of NH4+ can be converted to NH3 through a process called
volatilization (Figure 2, step 7).
9
Figure 2 The Nitrogen Cycle (Havlin et al., 1999).
The Phosphorus (P) Cycle
Figure 3 illustrates the interrelationships between the various forms of P in
soils. The decrease in soil solution P concentration with absorption by plant roots
is buffered by both inorganic and organic P fraction in soils. Primary and
secondary P minerals dissolve to resupply H2PO4-/ HPO42- (labile inorganic P) to
buffer decreases in solution P. Numerous soil microorganisms digest plant
residues containing P and produce many organic P compounds in soil that are
mineralized through microbial activity to supply solution P.
Water-soluble fertilizer P applied to soil readily dissolves and increases
the concentration of soil solution P. Again inorganic and organic P fractions can
buffer the increase in solution P. In addition to P uptake by roots, solution P can
be adsorbed on mineral surfaces and precipitated as secondary P minerals. Soil
10
microbes immobilize solution P as microbial P, eventually producing readily
mineralize-able P compounds (labile organic P) and organic P compounds more
resistant to microbial degradation. Maintenance of solution P concentration
(intensity) for adequate P nutrition in the plant depends on the ability of labile P
(quantity) to replace soil solution P taken up by the plant. The ratio of quantity to
intensity factor is called the buffer capacity, which expresses the relative ability of
the soil to buffer changes in soil solution P. The larger the buffer capacity, the
greater the ability to buffer solution P
The P cycle can be simplified to the following relationship:
Soil solution ↔ labile P ↔ nonlabile P,
where labile and nonlabile P represent both inorganic and organic fractions
(Figure 3). Labile P is the readily available portion of the quantity faction that
exhibits a high dissociation rate and rapidly replenishes solution P. Depletion of
labile P cause some nonlabile P to become labile, but at a slow rate. Thus, the
quantity factor comprises both labile and nonlabile P fractions.
Figure 3 Schematic Representation of the P Cycle in the Soil (Havlin et al., 1999).
11
The Potassium (K) Cycle
Listed in increasing order of plant availability, soil K exists in four forms:
Mineral (5 000 to 25 000 ppm), nonexchangeable (50 to 750 ppm), exchangeable
(40 to 600 ppm) and solution (1 to 10 ppm). The unavailable form accounts for 90
to 98% of total soil K; the slowly available form, 1 to 10%; and the readily
available form, 0.1 to 2%. The relationships and transformations among the
various forms of K in soils are depicted in Figure 4. K cycle or transformations
among the K forms in soils are dynamic. Because of the continuous removal of K
by crop uptake and leaching, there is a continuous but slow transfer of K in the
primary minerals to the exchangeable and slowly available forms. Under some
soil conditions, including applications of large amounts of fertilizer K, some
reversion to the slowly available form will occur.
Exchangeable and solution K equilibrate rapidly, whereas fixed K
equilibrates very slowly with the exchangeable and solution forms. Transfer of K
from the mineral fraction to any of the other three forms is extremely slow in most
soils, and this K is considered essentially unavailable to crops during a single
growing season.
Figure 4 K Equilibrium and Cycling in Soil (Havlin et al., 1999).
12
Soil Fertility and Sources of Plant Nutrients
Nitrogen is needed for the development of dark, green color in plants. It is
essential for rapid and continuous vegetative growth. Phosphorus aids plants in
getting off to a rapid, vigorous start, promotes early root formation, stimulates
blooming, seed production, and hastens maturity. Potassium or potash is needed
for plant health and disease resistance. It is important in ripening of fruit, helps to
develop full and plump seeds.
Where needed and applied in required amounts, commercial fertilizers do
not injure the soil. They do not poison vegetables or other plant growth. They do
not destroy animal life, earthworms or bacteria in the soil. On the contrary, the
addition of fertilizer provides both plant and animal life in the soil with nutrients
essential to their welfare (Hillock, 1990).
Fertile soils are capable of storing nutrients that are added to them and
releasing the nutrients again whenever they are necessary for plant growth. Plants
can uptake these nutrients from the soil through their roots out of two different
sources: mineral components (mainly clay) and organic matter.
Clay particles can carry positive or negative electrical charge. When
negatively charged the clay particles bond with cation (positive charged) in the
soil and when positively charged they bond with anions (negatively charged) in
the soil. The soils ability to store the positively charged cations is called Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC), while Anion Storage Capacity (ASC) is a measure of
the soil ability to hold on to the negatively charged anions. Soil cation and anion
exchange capacity reduce leaching by holding and storing nutrients (Leer, 2006).
The other source that plants can extract nutrients from is organic matter,
often used by plants when present in the form of humus. Humus has similar work
as clay, concerning CEC, with the difference that clay releases nutrient when the
plants require them while organic matter releases nutrients whenever the situation
allows mineralization to take place, independent of plant needs (Leer, 2006).
Nutrient Availability
Nutrients from most organic sources are slowly available over time.
Therefore, it is wise to apply organic fertilizers well before planting so that
13
adequate amounts of nutrients will be released before plants need them. When a
deficiency does occur, it is not easy to get quick corrective action from organic
sources. Soil moisture, temperature, and pH all affect nutrient availability. Very
wet, dry, or cool soil can prevent nutrient release. Phosphate availability is limited
in soils with pH values below 6.0 (Leer, 2006).
Influences of Soil pH
It is important to manage the pH of the soil since it can affect the plant‟s
ability to take up nutrients and the microbial activity in the soil that affects the
processes needed for plant nutrition. When adjusting the pH, it is important to
know the crop‟s pH requirement since different crops grow best at different pH
levels. For most crops, optimum pH levels are between 6.0 and 7.0 (Leer, 2006)
and lime requirements of various soil type is show in Table 2.
Table 2 Lime requirements of various soil types (Hillock, 1990)
Pounds of agricultural Limestone Needed per 100 sq. ft. to Raise:
Existing
Sandy Loam Soil
Silt Loam Soil
Silty-Clay Loam Soil
pH of Soil
to pH 6.0
to pH 6.5
to pH 6.0
to pH 6.5
to pH 6.0
to pH 6.5
6.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
4.0
0.0
5.0
5.5
2.0
4.0
4.0
7.0
5.0
10.0
5.0
4.0
6.0
7.0
11.0
10.0
15.0
4.8
4.5
7.0
8.0
12.0
12.0
17.0
Characteristics of Organic Fertilizer
The requirement for an organic manure to supply inorganic N
synchronously with crop demand is in conflict with the requirement for a soil
conditioner to provide persistent, stable organic matter. It is important to quantify
the effect of compost on (1) the nutritional and (2) the conditioning value of
organic materials, to enable one function to be maximized over the other, or a
balance to be found between the two functions, according to the requirements of
the situation (Robertson and Morgan, 1995).
14
Composting is a biochemical process converting various components in
organic wastes into relatively stable humus-like substances that can be used as a
soil amendment or organic fertilizer (Jeong and Kim, 2001). It helps improve the
physical and chemical properties of the waste and reduce its phytotoxicity
(Marchain et al., 1991). Composting is also considered one of the most suitable
ways of disposing of unpleasant wastes and of increasing the amount of organic
matter that can be used to restore and preserve the environment (Stentiford, 1987).
The finished compost was rated as “stable” with minimum impact on soil C and N
dynamics. Good compost should be tolerated readily by growing crops and should
not interfere with root growth and development in the way which fresh manure
can do. Composted organic materials, therefore, can act as slow-release sources of
plant-available N. Therefore, mature compost is the first choice. Nutrient contents
can vary widely according to manure type or compost materials (Titiloye et al.,
1985).
Organic matters added to soils contain a wide range of C compounds that
vary in rates of decomposition. The biological breakdown of the added organic
matter depends on the rate of degradation on each of the C-containing materials
present in the sample (Reddy et al., 1980). Ajwa and Tabataba (1994) showed that
the amount of CO2-C releases increased rapidly initially, but the pattern differed
among the organic materials used. Gilbertson et al. (1979) showed that the annual
mineralization rate of organic N in animal manure was positively correlated with
the N content of waste. Variation in environmental factors, however, may cause a
change in the decomposition rates of organic materials in soils. Most of the N
found in a composting mixture is organic, principally as part of the structure of
proteins, and simple peptides. The proportion of added organic matter that is
mineralized after compost application ranks from several up to a hundred percent,
depending on experimental conditions, and compost types.
Hadas and Pornoy (1994) reported that the mineralization constant for
composted manure was commonly 5% to 10% per year. Bitzer and Sims (1988)
found that an average of 66% of the organic N in poultry manure was mineralized
in the first year. Cabrera et al. (1994) confirmed this rapid mineralization from
poultry manure, estimating that 35% to 50% of organic N could be mineralized
15
within 14 days of incorporation into soil. Griffin et al. (2000) reported that the
amount of N in manure mineralized in a cropping season varied with the different
manures: cattle manure 25%; dairy manure 35%; poultry manure 60%; and swine
manure 50%. Traditionally, manure has been applied to farmlands to increase soil
fertility on the basis of crop N requirement. Organic matter applied, therefore,
should be calculated based on its mineralization rate. For example, the application
of cattle manure is 20 000 kg/ha at a rate of 100 kg N/ha. Compost is a source of
fertilizer N in varying degrees. Thus, understanding the factors that control
mineralization will make compost more valuable for agricultural and horticultural
uses (Sikora and Szmide, 2001). The nutrients composition of plant material and
animal dung are show in Table 3, 4, and 5.
Table 3 Chemical Composition of Raw Plant Materials for Compost (g/kg)
(Titiloye et al., 1985)
Source
Straw
Husk
C
540-560
390-520
N
6.4-6.9
3.6-7.0
C/N ratio
78-88
74-108
P
0.2-0.5
0.3-2.0
K
16.6-17.4
2.3-10.8
Ca
3.0-8.6
1.1-2.4
Mg
1.8-3.1
0.3-2.4
Table 4 Chemical Composition of Animal Dung for Compost (g/kg) (Titiloye et
al., 1985)
Source
C
N
Cattle dung
(dry)
Swine dung
(dry)
Chicken
dung (dry)
Goat dung
(dry)
250-400
18.9-23.5
C/N
ratio
15-28
40-450
16.0-47.8
250-470
360-480
P
K
Ca
Mg
2.1-2.4
6.1-29.0
1.4-14.3
3.6-12.6
14-31
4.4-51.1
1.3-16.0
5.7-10.4
0.9-10.2
6.0-41.0
8-28
6.1-30.5
6.4-35.0
11.2-90.0
3.0-12.1
16.0-24.0
18-23
6.5-23.0
15.8-33.2
9.3-38.6
4.2-8.4
16
Table 5 Chemical Composition of Compost Derived from Different Materials
(g/kg) (Titiloye et al., 1985)
Compost
C
N
Cattle dung
104-370
10.2-31.9
C/N
ratio
10-20
Swine dung-saw dust
360-385
20.9-70.5
Chicken dung
170-500
4.0-57.0
P
K
Ca
Mg
3.5-10.6
9.9-143
1.6-2.3
5.3-8.9
10-16
4.7-7.6
4.9-181
26.1-39.7
4.5-6.1
6-94
0.9-91.7
2.5-54.8
13.6-235.7
1.8-30
Table 6 List of Major Microorganisms Present in Compost
Actinomycetes
Actinobifida ahromogena
Microbispora bispora
Micorpolyspora faeni
Nocardia sp.
Pseudocardia thermophilia
Streptomyces rectus
S. thermofuscus
S. theromviolaceus
S. thermovulgaris
S. violaceus-ruber
Thermoactinomyces sacchari
T. vulgaris
Thermomonospora curvata
T. viridis
Fungi
Aspergillus fumigates
Humicola grisea
H. insolens
H. lanuginose
Malbranchea pulchella
Myriococcum thermophilum
Paecilomyces variotti
Papulospora thermophilia
Scytalidium thermophilim
Sporotrichum thermophile
Bacteria
Alcaligenes faecalis
Bacillus brevis
B. circulans complex
B. coagulans type A
B. coagulans type B
B. licheniformis
B. megaterium
B. pumilus
B. sphaericus
B. stearothermphilus
B. subtillis
Clostridium thermocellum
Escherichia coli
Flavobacterium sp.
Pseudomonas sp.
Serratia sp.
Thermus sp.
Source: Palmisano and Bartaz (1996)
Fundamentals of Organic Fertilizer Application
Just like chemical fertilizers, adequate organic fertilization programs
supply the amount of plant nutrients needed to maximize crop production and net
return. Essentially, fertilization management makes certain that soil fertility is not
a limiting factor in crop production. The major factors that affect the selection of
the kind, rate, and placement of organic fertilizers are fertilizer characteristics,
crop characteristics, soil characteristics, and management, fertilizer placement,
and carryover effects. Manure application in excess of crop needs can cause a
significant buildup of P, N, other ions, and salts in the soil. Dormar and Chang
17
(1995) showed that cattle feedlot manure application for 20 years resulted in a
significant increase in soil P levels (from 9 mg/kg to 1,200 mg/kg). Th
FERTILIZERS FOR TOMATO YIELD AND
FERTILITY OF OXISOLS
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2011
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis entitled “Combined Use of Inorganic and Organic
Fertilizers for Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols” was entirely completed by
myself with resourceful help from the Department of Soil Science and Land
Resource, Bogor Agricultural University. Information and quotes which were
sourced from journals and books have been acknowledged and mentioned where
in the thesis they appear. All complete references are given at the end of the paper.
Bogor, January 2011
Phimmasone Sisouvanh
A151088091
ABSTRAK
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH. A151088091. Kombinasi Penggunaan Pupuk
Anorganik dan Organik pada Produksi Tomat dan Kesuburan Tanah Oxisols
Dibimbing oleh SYAIFUL ANWAR, KOMARUDDIN IDRIS, ATANG
SUTANDI
Produktivitas tanah Oxisols dapat ditingkatkan dengan penambahan pupuk
organik dan anorganik. Belakangan ini, penggunaan pupuk organik semakin
meningkat, didukung dengan sistem manajemen pemupukan yang ramah
lingkungan untuk jangka panjang. Tujuan penelitian ini menitikberatkan pada
penentuan kombinasi yang sesuai dalam menggunakan pupuk anorganik dan
organik pada hasil panen tomat serta peningkatan efisiensi penyerapan dan
pemanfaatan nutrisi dari dalam tanah, dan menentukan efek kombinasi pupuk
anorganik dengan organik terhadap sifat kimia tanah. Penelitian ini dilakukan di
Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) dimulai pada bulan November 2009 sampai Juli
2010. Perlakuan yang diberikan didesain menggunakan rancangan Faktorial dalam
Rancangan Acak Kelompok Lengkap dengan tiga kali pengulangan. Perlakuan
terdiri atas dua faktor yaitu dosis pupuk anorganik [(0-0-0), (2,53 urea- 1,68 SP- 3
KCl), (4,68 urea- 3,12 SP- 6,52 KCl) dan (7,2 urea- 4,8 SP- 10 KCl) (g/pot)], dan
pupuk organik [0, 200, dan 400 (g/pot), (Kompos kotoran sapi, sekam dan jerami
padi dalam perbandingan rasio 1:1:2 dengan volume) atau (Kompos kotoran sapi,
sekam dan gambut dalam perbandingan rasio 1:1:2 dengan volume)]. Ulangan
ditetapkan sebagai kelompok. Data dianalisis dengan program Microsoft Excel,
ANOVA dengan General Linear Model (GLM) yang merupakan pilihan
perangkat lunak dari Minitab. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kombinasi
penggunaan pupuk anorganik dan organik mempunyai efek yang positif pada hasil
panen tomat dan efisiensi hara. Kombinasi terbaik terdapat pada pupuk organik
taraf 200 atau 400 g/pot dengan pupuk anorganik yang mempunyai taraf paling
rendah. Kombinasi pupuk anorganik pada taraf (2.53 urea-1.68 SP-3 KCl, g/pot)
dengan jerami padi atau kompos gambut pada taraf 400 g/pot menghasilkan
produksi tomat tertinggi daripada kombinasi yang lain. Kombinasi pupuk
anorganik pada taraf (2.53 urea-1.68 SP-3 KCl, g/pot) dengan kompos jerami padi
pada taraf 400 g/pot atau kompos gambut pada taraf 200 dan 400 g/pot
menghasilkan efisiensi hara tertinggi. Sifat kimia tanah setelah panen pada
perlakuan pupuk organik maupun anorganik mampu meningkatkan kesuburan
tanah daripada tanah sebelum ditanami atau diberikan pupuk dan peningkatan
penggunaan pupuk juga meningkatkan kesuburan tanah.
Kata Kunci: Pupuk Anorganik, Pupuk Organik, Tomat, Oxisols, Kesuburan
Tanah
ABSTRACT
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH. A151088091. Combined Use of Inorganic and
Organic Fertilizers for Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols. Under direction of
SYAIFUL ANWAR, KOMARUDDIN IDRIS, ATANG SUTANDI
Productivity of Oxisols could be improved by addition of organic and
inorganic fertilizer. Recently, the use of organic fertilizer is increasing for long
term friendly fertility management. The objectives of this research were to
determine the appropriate combination of inorganic and organic fertilizer
application on tomato yield and to increase nutrient utilization efficiency in the
soil, and to determine the effect of combination of inorganic with organic
fertilizers on soil chemical properties. The experiment was conducted at Bogor
Agricultural University from November, 2009 to July, 2010. The treatments were
designed using Factorial experiment in Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with three replications. The treatment consisted of two factors which
were rates of inorganic fertilizer [(0-0-0), (2.53 urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl), (4.68 urea3.12 SP- 6.52 KCl) and (7.2 urea- 4.8 SP- 10 KCl) (g/pot)], and organic fertilizer
[0, 200, and 400 (g/pot), (Compost of cow dung, husk and straw in the ratio 1:1:2
by volume) or (Compost of cow dung, husk and peat in the ratio 1:1:2 by
volume)]. Replication was treated as block. Data were analyzed using Microsoft
Excel, ANOVA using the General Linear Model (GLM) option of Minitab
software. The result of the research indicated that combined use of inorganic and
organic fertilizers had positive effects on tomato yield and plant nutrient
efficiency. The best combination of inorganic fertilizer occurred at lowest doses
with organic fertilizer at 200 or 400 g/pot. Combination of inorganic fertilizer at
(2.53 urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw or peat compost at 400 g/pot
resulted in the highest tomato yield than other combinations. Combination of
inorganic fertilizer at (2.53 urea - 1.68 SP - 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw compost at
400 g/pot or peat compost at 200 and 400 g/pot resulted in the highest nutrient
efficiency. Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting in both organic and
inorganic fertilizer treatments had a sound of soil fertility than the soil before
planting or fertilizing and increased the use of fertilizers also increased on the soil
fertility.
Keywords: Inorganic fertilizer, Organic fertilizer, Tomato, Oxisols, Soil fertility
SUMMARY
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH. A151088091. Combined Use of Inorganic and
Organic Fertilizers for Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols. Under direction of
SYAIFUL ANWAR, KOMARUDDIN IDRIS, ATANG SUTANDI
Tomato is the most popular vegetable in gardens; It requires enough
quantities of N, P and K containing fertilizers, enough organic matter, and some
more other minerals for the growth, fruit set, fruit growth, and development.
Oxisols have low quantities of essential nutrient elements, often rich in Fe and Al
oxide mineral, high P retention by oxide minerals, low in CEC, and low in total
quantities of Ca, Mg and K. To enhance the productivity of Oxisols is
recommended to have a sound fertility management. Apply lime to raise soil pH,
supply organic fertilizers to improve soil structure, provide micronutrients, and
improve the efficiency of nutrient uptake, and supply inorganic fertilizers to
provide major nutrients to plants in a form that is quickly available. The
advantages of organic and inorganic fertilizer need to be integrated in order to
achieve optimum performance by each type of fertilizer, and to realize balanced
nutrient management for maintaining long term productivity. The objectives of
this research were (1) to determine the appropriate combination of inorganic and
organic fertilizer application on tomato yield and to increase nutrient utilization
efficiency in the soil, and (2) to determine the effect of combination of inorganic
with organic fertilizers on soil chemical properties.
The research was done at Bogor Agricultural University green house. The
soil, and plant were analyzed in soil analysis Laboratory, Department of Soil
Science, and Land Resource, Bogor Agricultural University from November,
2009 to July, 2010. The treatments were designed using Factorial experiment in
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The
treatment consisted of two factors which were rates of inorganic fertilizer [(0-0-0),
(2.53 Urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl), (4.68 Urea- 3.12 SP- 6.52 KCl), and (7.2 Urea- 4.8
SP- 10 KCl) (g/pot)], and organic fertilizer [0, 200, and 400 (g/pot), (Compost of
cow dung, husk, and straw in the ratio 1:1:2 by volume) or (Compost of cow
dung, husk, and peat in the ratio 1:1:2 by volume)]. Replication was treated as
block. Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, ANOVA using the General
Linear Model (GLM) option of Minitab software.
The result of the research indicated that combined use of inorganic and
organic fertilizers had positive effects on tomato yield and plant nutrient
efficiency. The best combination of inorganic fertilizer occurred at lowest doses
with organic fertilizer at 200 or 400 g/pot. Combination of inorganic fertilizer at
(2.53 urea- 1.68 SP- 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw or peat compost at 400 g/pot
resulted in the highest tomato yield than other combinations. Combination of
inorganic fertilizer at (2.53 urea - 1.68 SP - 3 KCl, g/pot) with straw compost at
400 g/pot or peat compost at 200 and 400 g/pot resulted in the highest nutrient
efficiency. Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting in both organic and
inorganic fertilizer treatments had a sound of soil fertility than the soil before
planting or fertilizing and increased the use of fertilizers also increased on the soil
fertility.
Keywords: Inorganic fertilizer, Organic fertilizer, Tomato, Oxisols, Soil fertility
© Copyright of IPB, year 2011
Copyright reserved
1. Forbidden to quote part or all of these writings without including or
mentioning the source.
a. Be cited only for educational purposes, research, writing papers,
drafting reports, writing criticism or review an issue;
b. Quotation must not harm the affairs of IPB.
2. Prohibit publication and reproduction of part or all of the paper in any
form without permission of IPB or the writer.
COMBINED USE OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC
FERTILIZER FOR TOMATO YIELD AND
FERTILITY OF OXISOLS
PHIMMASONE SISOUVANH
Thesis
As Partial fulfillment of the requirement to obtain
Master of Science Degree in Soil Science
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2011
Thesis External Examiner: Dr. Ir. Untung Sudadi, MSc
Title
Name
Registration Number
: Combined Use of Inorganic and Organic Fertilizers for
Tomato Yield and Fertility of Oxisols
: Phimmasone Sisouvanh
: A151088091
Approved:
Advisory Committee
Dr. Ir. Syaiful Anwar, MSc
(Chairman)
Ir. Atang Sutandi, MSi, PhD
(Member)
Dr. Ir. Komaruddin Idris, MS
(Member)
Agreed:
Coordinator of Major
Ir. Atang Sutandi, MSi, PhD
Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr.Ir. Khairil Anwar Notodiputro, MS
Examination Date: 03 January 2011 Date of completing studies:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My study would not have been completed without the help of many people
Sincere thank you to Dr. Ir. Syaiful Anwar, MSc, Dr. Ir. Komaruddin
Idris, MS, and Ir. Atang Sutandi, MSi, PhD supervisory committee for the
research work in which invaluable guidance and direction was given for the whole
research period at IPB
Special thank you to the Department of Soil Science and Land Resource
for the full support given to enable the successful completion of this research
Thank you also to all the invaluable lecturing staff members as well as lab
and technical staff of Soil Science and Land Resource Department who have
imparted knowledge that I acknowledge with gratitude
Extended thank you to all fellow students of Soil Science and Land
Resource Department and the family of KNB Scholarship group, special mention
my close friends Mamihery Ravoniarijaona, Marty Linda Hasu, Sanou Faye, Chea
Sinath, Bruce Ochieng Obura, Pauliasy Tokasaya, Adeel ABD Alkarim Fadhl,
Andrew Mulwanyi, Elle Frishel, Christopher Hamadi, Thato Tseuoa, Andi Tiara
Eka Suardi, and Rafeah Matusin thank you all for your support, assistance and
providing a helping hand during the course of Masters Degree studies in Bogor
Agricultural University
Further, heartfelt gratitude and thank you to parents, sisters (Phannapeng,
Phannaphone, Phonekeo and phiengphone), and brother Hairkham for all you who
always inspire, encourage and endless support me for higher education
Finally, thanks a lot to my sponsor KNB (Kemitraan Negara Berkembang)
who provided for my scholarship throughout my masters course
My study would have not reached this end without the support from all of
you.
Wish you all have a successful and prosperity in your life and may this
study be beneficial for us.
Bogor, January 2011
Phimmasone Sisouvanh
BIOGRAPHY
The writer was born on the 6th of September, 1979 in Vientiane
municipality to Mr Fay Sisouvanh and Mrs Kirst Sisouvanh from Laos. The writer
is the third born of six children
In 1998, the writer finished Completed Senior High School from Saysettha
High School and continued with Bachelors Degree studies in agronomy and
graduated in June 2004, from the National University of Laos. After Bachelors
level, in 2004 to 2007 the writer had worked for Department of Crop Science,
Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Laos as lecturer assistant.
In September 2007, the writer was accepted under the Developing
countries partnership program (KNB - Kemitraan Negara Berkembang) awarded
by the Indonesian Government to do Masters Degree majoring in Soil Science in
Bogor Agricultural University, with official permission from the Department of
Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, National University and Laos Ministry of
Education for a period of Master Degree study program in Indonesia
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1 Nutritional Composition in Tomato..........................................................
4
2 Lime Requirements of Various Soil Types...............................................
13
3 Selected Chemical Composition of Raw Plant Materials for Compost...
15
4 Selected Chemical Composition of Animal Dung for Compost..............
15
5 Selected Chemical Composition of Compost Derived from Different
Materials...................................................................................................
16
6 List of Major Microorganisms Present in Compost..................................
16
7 The combination of inorganic and organic fertilizers provided
following treatments.................................................................................
21
8 Soil Parameters.........................................................................................
23
9 Inorganic Fertilizer Parameters................................................................
23
10 Organic Fertilizer Parameters...................................................................
24
11 Plant Parameters.......................................................................................
24
12 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on soil pH,
organic C, and CEC in the soil..................................................................
26
13 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on total N,
available P, and exchangeable K in the soil..............................................
27
14 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on
exchangeable Ca, Mg, and Na in the soil..................................................
28
15 Effect of using straw compost and inorganic fertilizer on tomato
height.........................................................................................................
34
16 Effect of using peat compost and inorganic fertilizer on tomato
height.........................................................................................................
35
17 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on tomato
yield...........................................................................................................
36
18 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on plant
nutrient uptake..........................................................................................
38
19 Effect of using inorganic fertilizer, straw and peat compost on plant
nutrient efficiency.....................................................................................
40
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1 Relationships Between the Various Components of the Dynamic
Soil System...............................................................................................
8
2 The Nitrogen Cycle..................................................................................
9
3 Schematic Representation of the P Cycle in the Soil...............................
10
4 K Equilibria and Cyling in Soil................................................................
11
5 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
Peat (b) compost on soil pH.....................................................................
29
6 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on C-organic in the soil................................................
36
7 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on CEC in the soil......................................................... 30
8 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on total N in the soil.....................................................
31
9 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on available P in the soil............................................... 31
10 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable K in the soil....................................... 32
11 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable Ca in the soil.....................................
32
12 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable Mg in the soil....................................
33
13 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on exchangeable Na in the soil.....................................
33
14 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on tomato height...........................................................
35
15 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on fresh weight of fruit per plant..................................
37
16 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant N uptake.......................................................... 38
17 Respose of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant P uptake..........................................................
39
18 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant K uptake.......................................................... 39
19 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
xv
peat (b) compost on plant N efficiency....................................................
40
20 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant P efficiency.....................................................
41
21 Response of combined use of inorganic fertilizer with straw (a) or
peat (b) compost on plant K efficiency....................................................
41
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
1 Soil sample chemical characteristics...........................................................
51
2 Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting...............................................
52
3 Soil chemical characteristic after harvesting...............................................
53
4 Effect of combined use of inorganic with organic fertilizer on plant
height...........................................................................................................
54
5 Effect of combined use of straw or peat compost with inorganic fertilizer
on tomato yield............................................................................................
55
6 Effect of combined use of inorganic with organic fertilizer on plant
(N, P, and K) uptake and efficiency............................................................
56
7 Assessment Criterion of Soil Chemical Property (Staf Pusat Penelitian
Tanah, 1983)..............................................................................................
57
8 Compost chemical characteristics...............................................................
57
9 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of
chemical characteristics after harvesting.....................................................
57
10 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of chemical
characteristics after harvesting....................................................................
59
11 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of tomato
growth........................................................................................................
60
12 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of tomato
growth.........................................................................................................
62
13 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of tomato
yield............................................................................................................
63
14 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of tomato
yield............................................................................................................
64
15 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of plant
nutrient uptake.............................................................................................
64
16 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of plant
nutrient uptake.............................................................................................
65
17 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with straw compost) of plant
nutrient efficiency.......................................................................................
65
18 Analysis of Variance (inorganic fertilizer with peat compost) of plant
nutrient efficiency.......................................................................................
66
1
INTRODUCTION
Background
With 6.5 billion people worldwide, the pressure of producing quality, lowcost food is becoming more apparent, and often more challenging. The world
population has doubled since 1950, requiring additional space and more food.
These factors challenge the agricultural industry to be more efficient and produce
higher yields on less land. To harvest these yields, food producers are required to
utilize technological and scientific advancements, while at the same time
remaining profitable. One of the major advancements to stimulate crop yield is the
increase in the use of fertilizers. In fact, estimates indicate that at least one-third of
a crop‟s yield can be attributed solely to fertilizer. Interestingly, as fertilizer helps
growers produce more crops (Hoyum, 2006), the hope of producing enough to
feed the population cannot be obtained.
Sustainability of agriculture has become a major global concern since
1980s. Soil organic matter (SOM) is very important in the functions of soil in as
much as it is a good indicator of soil quality because it mediates many chemical,
physical, and biological processes controlling the ability of soil to perform
successfully. A comparison of cultivated and uncultivated soils has demonstrated
a reduction in SOM with cultivation (Mann, 1986). SOM properties have been
proposed as diagnostic criteria for soil health quality and performance. However,
the importance of organic matter (OM) to crop production has received less
emphasis, and its proper use in soil management is sometimes neglected or even
forgotten. Moreover, understanding nutrient supply or agricultural systems is
essential for maintaining long term productivity and yields of crops grown both in
organic and conventional production systems (Drinkwater et al., 1995;
Stamatoados et al., 1999). In addition, agriculture or agro-industries produce high
quantities of organic wastes that are typically rich in nutrients, which can well be
used in agriculture to conserve nutrients as well as to reduce waste discharge and
the use of chemical fertilizers.
For good growth, the plant must have space in the soil to get air, room to
grow roots, suitable soil acidity or alkalinity, and adequate water, sunlight, and
2
mineral nutrients. Air pour, root zone, and water available to a plant depend
largely on the soil structure. This is closely related to the OM in the soil and a
suitable distribution of mineral particles of different sizes to keep the soil freeable and porous, permit excess water to drain, and good aeration. The plant
absorbs mineral elements and water from the soil and carbon dioxide gas from the
air. The elements most frequently deficient include those normally present in
commercial fertilizers nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Other
important nutrient elements calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are added in
commercial fertilizers and more particularly in agricultural lime that also serves as
a neutralizing agent (Hillock, 1990).
To improve the productivity of Oxisols, it is recommended to have a sound
fertility management. For example, application of lime to raise soil pH, and
fertilization of nitrogen (N), phosphor (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers to supply
the nutrient requirements of the plants.
Chemical fertilizers alone, however,
cannot sustain crop yields over time due to their negative residual effects and
availability. Combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers is recommended.
Organic fertilizers improve soil structure, provide micronutrients, and improve the
efficiency of nutrient uptake in the soil. Inorganic fertilizers provide major
nutrients to plants in a form that is quickly available.
Problem Statement
Oxisols have low quantities of essential nutrient elements, they are often
rich in Fe and Al oxide minerals, high phosphorus retention by oxide minerals,
low in cation exchange capacity (CEC) (McDaniel, 2009), and low in total
quantities of Ca, Mg, and K (Buol and Eswaran, 2000). Despite their low fertility,
Oxisols can be quite productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers (McDaniel,
2009). If the lime rate was increased or to high, however, it will decrease
concentrations of manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), boron (B), copper (Cu), and zinc
(Zn) (Martin and Liebhardt, 1994).
3
Objectives
1. To determine the appropriate combination of inorganic and organic
fertilizer application on tomato yield and to increase nutrient utilization
efficiency in the soil.
2. To determine the effect of combination of inorganic with organic
fertilizers on soil chemical properties.
Hypothesis
1. The combination of inorganic and organic fertilization will increase
nutrient utilization efficiency in the soil.
2. The combination of inorganic and organic fertilization will increase
soil fertility
Scope of Study
This research was conducted at Bogor Agricultural University green
house. The soil and plant parameters were analyzed in chemical and soil fertility
analysis laboratory, Department of Soil Science and Land Resource, Bogor
Agricultural University. The experiment was utilized the combined use of organic
(straw or peat compost) and inorganic fertilizers (Urea, superphosphate (SP), and
potassium chloride (KCl)). Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] used to increase Oxisols soil
pH.
4
LITERATURE REVIEW
Tomato
The tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is a member of the nightshade
family Solanaceae (Dekker, 1999). Tomato is native to the mountains of South
America; it was taken to Europe where it was a popular vegetable by the 1500s.
The tomato did not gain wide acceptance in the United States until the mid 1800s.
Today it is the most popular vegetable in gardens (Splittstoesser, 1990).
Tomato has substance composition quite completely and good. It has
enough prominent composition of vitamin A, B, C, and other nutrition. The
substance composition is presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Nutritional Composition in Tomato
Nutritional composition per 100g foodstuff.
1g
4g
0.2 g
Protein
Lipids
Sugar
Vitamin A
Vitamin B (Thiamine)
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Niacin
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
1,700 IU
0.1 g
0.02 g
0.6 g
2.1 mg
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
13 mg
27 mg
0.5 mg
3 mg
244 mg
Energy
Source: Dekker (1999)
23 calories
From 2006 to 2008 the production of tomato in Indonesia increased from
629,744 ton in 2006; to 635,474 ton in 2007, and to 689,420 ton in 2008 but still
not enough with population demand in consumption. The statistic data of tomato
5
import in Indonesia to fulfill the demand increased from 8,743,981 kg in 2007 and
to 12,011,183 kg in 2008 (Statistic Data of Agriculture, 2009).
The Tomato’s Requirements
Growing tomato requires siliceous-clay loose, deep, well drained soils that
are rich in organic matter. The best pH value is between 6 and 7. It requires a lot
of calcium, potassium, and magnesium (Dekker, 1999).
Tomato requires enough nutrition for the growth, development of plants,
fruit set, fruit growth, and development. For growing tomato, the crop requires
enough quantities of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) containing
fertilizers, enough organic manure, and some other minerals. How much fertilizers
and manure are required for growing tomato is dependent on several factors.
Principally, it depends on the nutrients available in the soils. Secondly, how much
nutrients the crop deplete from the soils (Anonymous, 2009).
Tomato is a hungry crop, requiring high levels of K, optimum growing
temperature about 25-30oC in the daytime and about 15-20oC at night (Davies and
Lennartsson, 2005). Tomato plants which yield about 40 ton of the fruits from 1
hectare of land take about 93 kg of N, 20 kg of P, and 126 kg of P from the soils.
The rate can be 40-60 kg N, 60-80 kg P, and 100-120 kg P per hectare. Another
fertilization recommendation includes 100 kg N, 80 kg P, 50 kg K, and 25 ton of
farmyard manure per hectare (Anonymous, 2009).
Tomato fertilizers applications when the cultivation is conducted in field
includes a single application of 30 t/ha of dung, fertilizer application in the soil
per hectare of 60 kg N, 80-100 kg P2O5, and 200-250 kg K2O, and surface
fertilizer applications per hectare of 3 applications of 90 kg N, 1 application of
each of 20 kg P2O5 and 90 kg K2O. For greenhouse cultivation, these quantities
have to be increased, and divided into a larger number of applications, in order to
increase production (Dekker, 1999). The common fertilization of tomato in
Indonesia is a single application of 10-20 ton/ha of dung, together with several
applications of 175 kg/ha Urea, 350 kg/ha SP, and 200 kg/ha KCl (Trisnawati and
Setiawan, 2005).
6
Harvesting
To obtain the best flavor, tomato fruits should be harvested when they are
fully ripe and firm. When the tomato becomes soft before the color has fully
developed, the fruits should be picked every other day when the fruits have turned
pink and ripened (Splittstoesser, 1990).
Oxisols
Oxisols are very highly weathered soils that found primarily in the intertropical regions of the world. These soils have low quantities of essential nutrient
elements, content less than 10% of weather-able minerals, and often rich in Fe and
Al oxide minerals (McDaniel, 2009).
Most of these soils are characterized by extremely low native fertility,
resulting from very low nutrient reserves, high phosphorus retention by oxide
minerals, and low cation exchange capacity (CEC) (McDaniel, 2009). Oxisols
have low total quantities of Ca, Mg, and K.
Most Oxisols have low total
quantities of P, most of which are quite insoluble, and unavailable for plant uptake
(Buol and Eswaran, 2000). Most nutrients in Oxisols ecosystems are contained in
the standing vegetation, and decomposing plant material. Despite low fertility,
Oxisols can be quite productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers (McDaniel,
2009).
Sources of Nutrients
Most of the nutrients required by green plants are available in abundant
quantity from the air, water, and soil (Havlin et al., 1999). Organic fertilizers are
natural materials of either plant or animal origin, including livestock manure,
green manures, crop residues, household waste, compost, and woodland litter.
Inorganic (or mineral) fertilizers are fertilizers mined from mineral deposits with
little processing (e.g., lime, potassium, or phosphate rock), or industrially
manufactured through chemical processes (e.g., urea). Inorganic fertilizers vary in
appearance depending on the process of manufacture. The particles can be of
many different sizes, and shapes (crystals, pellets, granules, or dust), and the
fertilizer grades can include straight fertilizers (containing one nutrient element
7
only), compound fertilizers (containing two or more nutrients usually combined in
a homogeneous mixture by chemical interaction), and fertilizer blends (formed by
physically blending mineral fertilizers to obtain desired nutrient ratios) (Tine and
Verlinden, 2003).
Soil - Plant Relationships
Nutrient supply to plant root is a very dynamic process. Plants absorb
nutrients (cations and anions) from the soil solution and release small quantities of
ions such as H+, OH-, and HCO3- (Figure 1, interaction 1 and 2). Changes in ion
concentrations in soil solution are “buffered” by ions adsorbed on the surfaces of
soil minerals (Figure 1, interactions 3 and 4). Ion removal from solution causes
partial desorption of the same ions from these surfaces. Soils contain mineral that
can dissolve to resupply soil solution with many ions (Figure 1, interactions 5 and
6). Likewise, increasing in ion concentration in soil solution resulting from
fertilization or other inputs can cause some minerals to precipitate (Havlin et al.,
1999).
Soil microorganisms remove ions from soil solution and incorporate them
into microbial tissues (Figure 1, interaction 7). When microbes or other organisms
die, they release nutrients to the soil solution (Figure 1, interaction 8). Microbial
activity produces and decomposes organic matter or humus in soil. These dynamic
processes are very dependent on adequate energy supply from organic carbon, C
(i.e., crop residues), inorganic ion availability, and numerous environmental
conditions. Plant roots and soil organisms utilize O2 and respired CO2 through
metabolic activity (Figure 1, interactions 9 and 10). As a result CO2 concentration
in soil air is greater than in the atmosphere. Diffusion of gases in soil decreases
dramatically with increasing soil water content (Havlin et al., 1999).
Numerous environmental factors and human activities can influence ion
concentration in soil solution, which interacts with the mineral and biological
processes in soil (Figure 1, interactions 11 and 12). For example, adding P
fertilizer to soil initially increases the H2PO4- concentration in solution. With time,
the H2PO4- concentration will decrease with plant uptake, H2PO4- adsorption on
mineral surfaces, and P mineral precipitation (Havlin et al., 1999).
8
Figure 1 Relationship between the Various Components of the Dynamic Soil
System (Lindsay, 1979).
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
Nitrogen in plant and animal residues, and N derived from the atmosphere
through electrical, combustion, and industrial processes (N2 is combined with H2
or O2) is added to the soil (Figure 2, step 1). Organic N in residues is mineralized
to NH4+ by soil organisms (Figure 2, step 2). Plant root absorb a portion of the
NH4+. Much of NH4+ is converted to NO3- by nitrifying bacteria in process called
nitrification (Figure 2, step 3). NO3- and NH4+ are taken up by plant roots and used
to produce the protein in crops that are eaten by humans or fed to livestock
(Figure 2, step 4). Some of NO3- is lost to groundwater or drainage systems as a
result of downward movement through the soil in percolating water (Figure 2, step
5). Some of NO3- is converted by denitrifying bacteria into N2 and nitrogen oxides
(N2O and NO) that escapes into the atmosphere, completing the cycle (Figure 2,
step 6). Some of NH4+ can be converted to NH3 through a process called
volatilization (Figure 2, step 7).
9
Figure 2 The Nitrogen Cycle (Havlin et al., 1999).
The Phosphorus (P) Cycle
Figure 3 illustrates the interrelationships between the various forms of P in
soils. The decrease in soil solution P concentration with absorption by plant roots
is buffered by both inorganic and organic P fraction in soils. Primary and
secondary P minerals dissolve to resupply H2PO4-/ HPO42- (labile inorganic P) to
buffer decreases in solution P. Numerous soil microorganisms digest plant
residues containing P and produce many organic P compounds in soil that are
mineralized through microbial activity to supply solution P.
Water-soluble fertilizer P applied to soil readily dissolves and increases
the concentration of soil solution P. Again inorganic and organic P fractions can
buffer the increase in solution P. In addition to P uptake by roots, solution P can
be adsorbed on mineral surfaces and precipitated as secondary P minerals. Soil
10
microbes immobilize solution P as microbial P, eventually producing readily
mineralize-able P compounds (labile organic P) and organic P compounds more
resistant to microbial degradation. Maintenance of solution P concentration
(intensity) for adequate P nutrition in the plant depends on the ability of labile P
(quantity) to replace soil solution P taken up by the plant. The ratio of quantity to
intensity factor is called the buffer capacity, which expresses the relative ability of
the soil to buffer changes in soil solution P. The larger the buffer capacity, the
greater the ability to buffer solution P
The P cycle can be simplified to the following relationship:
Soil solution ↔ labile P ↔ nonlabile P,
where labile and nonlabile P represent both inorganic and organic fractions
(Figure 3). Labile P is the readily available portion of the quantity faction that
exhibits a high dissociation rate and rapidly replenishes solution P. Depletion of
labile P cause some nonlabile P to become labile, but at a slow rate. Thus, the
quantity factor comprises both labile and nonlabile P fractions.
Figure 3 Schematic Representation of the P Cycle in the Soil (Havlin et al., 1999).
11
The Potassium (K) Cycle
Listed in increasing order of plant availability, soil K exists in four forms:
Mineral (5 000 to 25 000 ppm), nonexchangeable (50 to 750 ppm), exchangeable
(40 to 600 ppm) and solution (1 to 10 ppm). The unavailable form accounts for 90
to 98% of total soil K; the slowly available form, 1 to 10%; and the readily
available form, 0.1 to 2%. The relationships and transformations among the
various forms of K in soils are depicted in Figure 4. K cycle or transformations
among the K forms in soils are dynamic. Because of the continuous removal of K
by crop uptake and leaching, there is a continuous but slow transfer of K in the
primary minerals to the exchangeable and slowly available forms. Under some
soil conditions, including applications of large amounts of fertilizer K, some
reversion to the slowly available form will occur.
Exchangeable and solution K equilibrate rapidly, whereas fixed K
equilibrates very slowly with the exchangeable and solution forms. Transfer of K
from the mineral fraction to any of the other three forms is extremely slow in most
soils, and this K is considered essentially unavailable to crops during a single
growing season.
Figure 4 K Equilibrium and Cycling in Soil (Havlin et al., 1999).
12
Soil Fertility and Sources of Plant Nutrients
Nitrogen is needed for the development of dark, green color in plants. It is
essential for rapid and continuous vegetative growth. Phosphorus aids plants in
getting off to a rapid, vigorous start, promotes early root formation, stimulates
blooming, seed production, and hastens maturity. Potassium or potash is needed
for plant health and disease resistance. It is important in ripening of fruit, helps to
develop full and plump seeds.
Where needed and applied in required amounts, commercial fertilizers do
not injure the soil. They do not poison vegetables or other plant growth. They do
not destroy animal life, earthworms or bacteria in the soil. On the contrary, the
addition of fertilizer provides both plant and animal life in the soil with nutrients
essential to their welfare (Hillock, 1990).
Fertile soils are capable of storing nutrients that are added to them and
releasing the nutrients again whenever they are necessary for plant growth. Plants
can uptake these nutrients from the soil through their roots out of two different
sources: mineral components (mainly clay) and organic matter.
Clay particles can carry positive or negative electrical charge. When
negatively charged the clay particles bond with cation (positive charged) in the
soil and when positively charged they bond with anions (negatively charged) in
the soil. The soils ability to store the positively charged cations is called Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC), while Anion Storage Capacity (ASC) is a measure of
the soil ability to hold on to the negatively charged anions. Soil cation and anion
exchange capacity reduce leaching by holding and storing nutrients (Leer, 2006).
The other source that plants can extract nutrients from is organic matter,
often used by plants when present in the form of humus. Humus has similar work
as clay, concerning CEC, with the difference that clay releases nutrient when the
plants require them while organic matter releases nutrients whenever the situation
allows mineralization to take place, independent of plant needs (Leer, 2006).
Nutrient Availability
Nutrients from most organic sources are slowly available over time.
Therefore, it is wise to apply organic fertilizers well before planting so that
13
adequate amounts of nutrients will be released before plants need them. When a
deficiency does occur, it is not easy to get quick corrective action from organic
sources. Soil moisture, temperature, and pH all affect nutrient availability. Very
wet, dry, or cool soil can prevent nutrient release. Phosphate availability is limited
in soils with pH values below 6.0 (Leer, 2006).
Influences of Soil pH
It is important to manage the pH of the soil since it can affect the plant‟s
ability to take up nutrients and the microbial activity in the soil that affects the
processes needed for plant nutrition. When adjusting the pH, it is important to
know the crop‟s pH requirement since different crops grow best at different pH
levels. For most crops, optimum pH levels are between 6.0 and 7.0 (Leer, 2006)
and lime requirements of various soil type is show in Table 2.
Table 2 Lime requirements of various soil types (Hillock, 1990)
Pounds of agricultural Limestone Needed per 100 sq. ft. to Raise:
Existing
Sandy Loam Soil
Silt Loam Soil
Silty-Clay Loam Soil
pH of Soil
to pH 6.0
to pH 6.5
to pH 6.0
to pH 6.5
to pH 6.0
to pH 6.5
6.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
4.0
0.0
5.0
5.5
2.0
4.0
4.0
7.0
5.0
10.0
5.0
4.0
6.0
7.0
11.0
10.0
15.0
4.8
4.5
7.0
8.0
12.0
12.0
17.0
Characteristics of Organic Fertilizer
The requirement for an organic manure to supply inorganic N
synchronously with crop demand is in conflict with the requirement for a soil
conditioner to provide persistent, stable organic matter. It is important to quantify
the effect of compost on (1) the nutritional and (2) the conditioning value of
organic materials, to enable one function to be maximized over the other, or a
balance to be found between the two functions, according to the requirements of
the situation (Robertson and Morgan, 1995).
14
Composting is a biochemical process converting various components in
organic wastes into relatively stable humus-like substances that can be used as a
soil amendment or organic fertilizer (Jeong and Kim, 2001). It helps improve the
physical and chemical properties of the waste and reduce its phytotoxicity
(Marchain et al., 1991). Composting is also considered one of the most suitable
ways of disposing of unpleasant wastes and of increasing the amount of organic
matter that can be used to restore and preserve the environment (Stentiford, 1987).
The finished compost was rated as “stable” with minimum impact on soil C and N
dynamics. Good compost should be tolerated readily by growing crops and should
not interfere with root growth and development in the way which fresh manure
can do. Composted organic materials, therefore, can act as slow-release sources of
plant-available N. Therefore, mature compost is the first choice. Nutrient contents
can vary widely according to manure type or compost materials (Titiloye et al.,
1985).
Organic matters added to soils contain a wide range of C compounds that
vary in rates of decomposition. The biological breakdown of the added organic
matter depends on the rate of degradation on each of the C-containing materials
present in the sample (Reddy et al., 1980). Ajwa and Tabataba (1994) showed that
the amount of CO2-C releases increased rapidly initially, but the pattern differed
among the organic materials used. Gilbertson et al. (1979) showed that the annual
mineralization rate of organic N in animal manure was positively correlated with
the N content of waste. Variation in environmental factors, however, may cause a
change in the decomposition rates of organic materials in soils. Most of the N
found in a composting mixture is organic, principally as part of the structure of
proteins, and simple peptides. The proportion of added organic matter that is
mineralized after compost application ranks from several up to a hundred percent,
depending on experimental conditions, and compost types.
Hadas and Pornoy (1994) reported that the mineralization constant for
composted manure was commonly 5% to 10% per year. Bitzer and Sims (1988)
found that an average of 66% of the organic N in poultry manure was mineralized
in the first year. Cabrera et al. (1994) confirmed this rapid mineralization from
poultry manure, estimating that 35% to 50% of organic N could be mineralized
15
within 14 days of incorporation into soil. Griffin et al. (2000) reported that the
amount of N in manure mineralized in a cropping season varied with the different
manures: cattle manure 25%; dairy manure 35%; poultry manure 60%; and swine
manure 50%. Traditionally, manure has been applied to farmlands to increase soil
fertility on the basis of crop N requirement. Organic matter applied, therefore,
should be calculated based on its mineralization rate. For example, the application
of cattle manure is 20 000 kg/ha at a rate of 100 kg N/ha. Compost is a source of
fertilizer N in varying degrees. Thus, understanding the factors that control
mineralization will make compost more valuable for agricultural and horticultural
uses (Sikora and Szmide, 2001). The nutrients composition of plant material and
animal dung are show in Table 3, 4, and 5.
Table 3 Chemical Composition of Raw Plant Materials for Compost (g/kg)
(Titiloye et al., 1985)
Source
Straw
Husk
C
540-560
390-520
N
6.4-6.9
3.6-7.0
C/N ratio
78-88
74-108
P
0.2-0.5
0.3-2.0
K
16.6-17.4
2.3-10.8
Ca
3.0-8.6
1.1-2.4
Mg
1.8-3.1
0.3-2.4
Table 4 Chemical Composition of Animal Dung for Compost (g/kg) (Titiloye et
al., 1985)
Source
C
N
Cattle dung
(dry)
Swine dung
(dry)
Chicken
dung (dry)
Goat dung
(dry)
250-400
18.9-23.5
C/N
ratio
15-28
40-450
16.0-47.8
250-470
360-480
P
K
Ca
Mg
2.1-2.4
6.1-29.0
1.4-14.3
3.6-12.6
14-31
4.4-51.1
1.3-16.0
5.7-10.4
0.9-10.2
6.0-41.0
8-28
6.1-30.5
6.4-35.0
11.2-90.0
3.0-12.1
16.0-24.0
18-23
6.5-23.0
15.8-33.2
9.3-38.6
4.2-8.4
16
Table 5 Chemical Composition of Compost Derived from Different Materials
(g/kg) (Titiloye et al., 1985)
Compost
C
N
Cattle dung
104-370
10.2-31.9
C/N
ratio
10-20
Swine dung-saw dust
360-385
20.9-70.5
Chicken dung
170-500
4.0-57.0
P
K
Ca
Mg
3.5-10.6
9.9-143
1.6-2.3
5.3-8.9
10-16
4.7-7.6
4.9-181
26.1-39.7
4.5-6.1
6-94
0.9-91.7
2.5-54.8
13.6-235.7
1.8-30
Table 6 List of Major Microorganisms Present in Compost
Actinomycetes
Actinobifida ahromogena
Microbispora bispora
Micorpolyspora faeni
Nocardia sp.
Pseudocardia thermophilia
Streptomyces rectus
S. thermofuscus
S. theromviolaceus
S. thermovulgaris
S. violaceus-ruber
Thermoactinomyces sacchari
T. vulgaris
Thermomonospora curvata
T. viridis
Fungi
Aspergillus fumigates
Humicola grisea
H. insolens
H. lanuginose
Malbranchea pulchella
Myriococcum thermophilum
Paecilomyces variotti
Papulospora thermophilia
Scytalidium thermophilim
Sporotrichum thermophile
Bacteria
Alcaligenes faecalis
Bacillus brevis
B. circulans complex
B. coagulans type A
B. coagulans type B
B. licheniformis
B. megaterium
B. pumilus
B. sphaericus
B. stearothermphilus
B. subtillis
Clostridium thermocellum
Escherichia coli
Flavobacterium sp.
Pseudomonas sp.
Serratia sp.
Thermus sp.
Source: Palmisano and Bartaz (1996)
Fundamentals of Organic Fertilizer Application
Just like chemical fertilizers, adequate organic fertilization programs
supply the amount of plant nutrients needed to maximize crop production and net
return. Essentially, fertilization management makes certain that soil fertility is not
a limiting factor in crop production. The major factors that affect the selection of
the kind, rate, and placement of organic fertilizers are fertilizer characteristics,
crop characteristics, soil characteristics, and management, fertilizer placement,
and carryover effects. Manure application in excess of crop needs can cause a
significant buildup of P, N, other ions, and salts in the soil. Dormar and Chang
17
(1995) showed that cattle feedlot manure application for 20 years resulted in a
significant increase in soil P levels (from 9 mg/kg to 1,200 mg/kg). Th