THE IMPACT OF MUSICOLOGY IN ISLAM

CHAPTER 2 THE IMPACT OF MUSICOLOGY IN ISLAM

E. The Origin of Music

Before discussing the theory of Qur’anic chanting as part of the musical aspects in musicology of Islam, it would be useful to determine first whether in fact the Qur’anic chanting may be regarded as musicology in Islam. Therefore, the main idea of this chapter is to learn the historical background of Muslims contributors in music, to understand the development of this matter, knowing some other understanding of music according to Sufi and lastly, understanding the whole categories in musicology of Islam by using the theory of Handasah al Sawt which

uphigh the Qur’anic chant as the highest level of Muslims practice in the world. 47

No doubt that Islamic art and spirituality of Islam consider music as one of the great significance from a spiritual point of view. There are various stages of Islamic art to be studied in order to know the flows of the music as a tradition in Islamic world. 48 As what had been said by Fuat Sezgin , Islam's Golden Age of Science, is an extended from the 8th to the 16th centuries. The word musîqî derived from the Greek word which had been used in many theoretical works, an Arabic term, ghina (song), has been used also for music in secular contexts. Other than that, the terms are used for what a Westerner might call music in folk and sacred contexts. 49

47 Ismail Al Faruqi and Louis Lamya al Faruqi The Culltural Atlas of Islam, (New York: Mac Millan Publishing, 1986), p-443

48 Fuat Sezgin is one of the world's most prominent historians of science and technology in the Muslim world. The 80-year-old Turkish professor is the director of the Institute for the History of Arabic-

Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany, and a prodigiously productive writer. He has compiled a 13-volume history of Islam's Golden Age of Science, including three new books on the accomplishments of Arabic and Islamic cartographers. See one of his book, Fuat Sezgin, Geschicte, Des Arabischen Schrifttums, ( Leidin: E.J Brill, 1967) , band.1, p- 1-10

49 Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, ( USA: Thomson Gale),vol.2, p.492 Ghâlib, Mustafâ (ed.), Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safa wa Khullân al Wafa, (Beirut: Dâr al-Sâdir, 1957)

For the group of Ikhwan al-Safa, music itself is a spiritual art founded by wise men. It has a strong and varied effect on all souls. It is either soothing or exciting, gratifying or grieving. On this account, music is played to calm the sick and insane, to tranquillize a weeping child or to lull him to sleep. Even animals are subject to the effect of music. Music is also played in temples because of the touch of awe it

possesses. 50 According to Abdur Rahman al Baghdadi, music means the art of sound or

voice and together with the instruments 51 . Islamic music is Muslim religious music, as sung or played in public services or private devotions. Because Islam is a

multicultural religion, the musical expression of its adherents is diverse. The classic heartland of Islam is the Middle East, North Africa, Iran, South Asia and Central Asia. The indigenous musical styles of these areas have shaped the devotional music enjoyed by contemporary Muslims.

While, the term for musical expression, according to Lois Lamya al Fâruqi in The Cultural Atlas of Islam , known as the attitudes toward handasah al sawt as well as its use in Islamic societies around the world reveal many factors of homogeneity. The essential unity or homogeneity of handasah al sawt also has a historical dimension. Many of the characteristics which the careful observer finds in the musical examples of this century can be documented in the materials describing

handasah al sawt 52 performance of earlier centuries.

One of the scholars is Hazrat Inayah Khan, who determined the important of music in the life. In his book The Mysticism of Sound and Music, and especially in the section of music, Inayah Khan claimed that music is called the divine art, while all other arts are not so called. We may certainly see God in all arts and in all sciences, but in music alone we see God free from all forms and thoughts. Sound alone is free

50 Mustafâ Ghalib(ed.), Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safa wa Khullân al Wafa, (Beirut: Dâr al-Sâdir, 1957), pg-200-202,vol 4.

51 Abdurrahman al-Baghdadi, Seni Dalam Pandangan Islam: Seni Vokal, Musik dan Tari, (Jakarta: Gema Insani Press,1993),p.3, see also, Ainurrofiq Dawam, Wazîfatul Musîqî ‘ala Tarbiyâtul

Islamiah, Hermenia, Jurnal Kajian Islam Interdisipliner Vol 4, No.1, Januari-Juni, 2005:1-5 52 Ismail Al Fâruqi and Louis Lamya al Faruqi, The Culltural Atlas of Islam, (New York: Mac

Millan Publishing, 1986), p-443 Millan Publishing, 1986), p-443

creature, he stops play in symphony. He then, considered life as music. Parallel with the idea, in year 1980, Howard Gardner from Harvard written a

book entitled Frames of Mind. This famous book explained the theory in education. He stated that everybody has the ability in multiple intelligent including linguistic, logical-mathematics, spatial, kinesthetic and musical. From the research, he strengthened the idea of music, where at the beginning stage of a baby, he understand

and imitate the sound and melodies all around him. 54

B. Music Literature and Contributors in Islam Early in Islamic era music accompanied such events as pilgrimages,

weddings, and wars. The nature of such music is difficult to reconstruct because it was not written down. But the emphasis was on vocal music;indeed it seems likely that in the pre-Islamic times poetry was chanted or sung to a musical accompaniment. Music along with mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy was one of the main scientific fields studied by the early Islamic scholars and today it remains one of the most studied art forms in the musical scholars and today it remains one of the most studied art forms in the Islamic world.

Many of the outstanding Islamic men of learning, especially musician and philosophers, were well-versed in music and its theories such as al Fârâbi (m.339/950

55 ) 56 , Ibnu Sînâ ( m. 428/1037) and Urmâwi were notable authorities in musical theory.

53 Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music, (Boston: Shambala Publications, 1996),p-2-8

54 Don Campbell, Efek Mozart, ( Jakarta: Gramedia, 2002), p-219 55 Al Farabi or Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn al Farakh al Farabi was born in a small village Wasij, near Farab in Turkistan in 259 a.h.(870 a.d).His parents were originally of Persian descent, but this ancestors had migrated to Turkistan. Known as al-Pharabius in Europe, Farabi was the son of a general. He completed his earlier education at farab and Bukhara but, later on he went to Baghdad for higher studies,

Name

Date of Death

Major Location Main Field(s) of Life and of

Relevant

Work Nineth century 57

Work

Ibn Abû al Dunyâ, Abû 281/894

Lawfulness of Bakar

Baghdad

‘Abdullah Ibn sama’,musical Muhammad

instruments Al Kîndî, Abu Yûsuf Alter 256/870

Basrah,Baghdad Music theory Ya’qûb Ibn Ishaq 58

Tenth century Al Fârâbi, Abû Nasr 339/950

Music theory Muhammad Ibn Muhammad

Aleppo

Ibn Tarkhân 59

where he studied and work for a long time. Farabi contributed considerably to science, philosophy, logic, sociology, medicine, mathematics and music.He wrote plenty of books and one of them was Kitab al- Musîqa He was a great expert in the art and science of music and invented several musical instruments besides contributing to the knowledge of musical notes. See www.tripod.com/FARABI.html , p.1-3, see also www.swaramuslim.net/khasanah/more.php , p.1-2, read Louis Lamya al Fâruqi and Ismail Al Faruqi, The Culltural Atlas of Islam , p.327

56 Ibnu Sînâ’s reputation as a philosopher is well-accepted. Abû ‘Âlî al-Husayn b. “Abd Allâh b. Hasan b.’Âlî (980-1037) is considered the “most celebrated Muslim Philosopher.” He has even been called

the princes philosophorum (the great master) due to his magisterial synthesis of speculative thought. This may be seen in the current study of Etin Anwar, Ibnu Sînâ and Mysticism: A Reconsideration, ( Canada:Mc Gill University, 1998), p.1-4

57 The pre-Islamic song of Al-Yaman is mentioned as late as the ninth century, since Al-Mas'udi

quotes Ibn Khurdadhbih to the effect that the people of Al Yaman practised two kinds of music : the himyari and the hanafî.

58 Risâlâ fl Khabr ta'Kf al-Alhan of Al-Kindi (d. 874) is preserved in the British Museum. This

transcript was made in the year 1661, and the scribe informs us that it was copied from a " defective " and " unreliable " exemplar which had been written in the city of Damascus in the year 1224. In this treatise, Al- Kindi deals with the theory of music almost entirely as he had learned it from the Greek treatises, and his system of notation was probably influenced by these. See Henry George Farmer, History of Arabian Music,

( Great Britain: Burleigh Press, 1929), p-20

Al Isfahânî , Abû al Faraj 356/957 Bagdad, Aleppo Adab, ‘Alî Ibn al Husayn Ibn

biography, Muhammad

songs and song collections

Eleventh century Al Ghâzâlî, Majd al Dîn 505/1111

Lawfulness of Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al

Tus, Baghdad

samâ’ Tûsî

Thirteenh century Safî al Dîn ‘Abd al 61 693/1294 Baghdad Music theory

Mu’min Ibn Yûsuf Ibn

59 Al-Farabi (ca. 870-950), or in full Abu Nar Muhammad ibn Tarkhan, was of Turkish origin,

and was born at Farab in Transoxiana. Coming to Baghdad he studied philosophy under Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus, and later went to Harran to prosecute studies under Yuhanna ibn Khailan. Having mastered the sciences of the Greeks, he soon surpassed his contemporaries. We are informed that he was " a perfect and erudite musician," and " an excellent performer on the ud (lute)." His fame in music led Saif al-Daula the Hamdanid ruler to invite him to settle in Aleppo. Here, the great philosopher and music theorist attracted pupils from all parts, who thronged to his lectures, which were held in the delightful gardens on the outskirts of the city. He wrote on logic, ethics, politics, mathematics, alchemy, philosophy, and music. Many of these works were translated into Latin, and Alpharabius, as he was called in the West, had an immense influence on the culture of Mediaeval Europe. He has been called " the Second Master " (i.e., Second to Aristotle), and " the greatest philosopher the Arabs ever produced."

60 Abd al Mu’min Safi al Urmawi, formulated analytical framework for the system that was

followed for centuries, deploying musical characteristics in the identification of mode, such as initial and final pitch as well as, in some cases, melody types. See John L.Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Modern Islamic World , p-381, in addition, Safi al-Din 'Abd al-Mu'min (ibn Yusuf) ibn Fakhir al-Urmawi al-Baghdadi was probably born at Baghdad in the early years of the thirteenth century, although his father (or grandfather) evidently came from Urmia, a town in Adharbaijan. In Baghdad ,he gave service to the last 'Abbasid khalif Al-Musta'sim (1243-58) as his chief court instrel, boon companion, calligraphist, and librarian. He was on very intimate terms with the khalif, who allowed him a pension of 5,000 golden pieces

a year.

61 Kitab al-Adwar of Safi al-Din 'Abd al-Mu'min (d. 1294)is claimed in the British Museum.

The MS. was copied in the year 1390. This folio gives a phonetic notation of a song in the Nauruz melodic

Fhâkir al Urmawî 60 Ibn Jamâ’ah, Burhân al 790/1388

Lawfulness of Dîn Abû Isaac Ibrahîm

Dimashq

sama’ Ibnb ‘Abd al Rahîm

Ibn Taymiyyâh, Taqî al 728/1328

Lawfulness of Dîn Ahmad

Dimashq

sama’ Fifteenth century Ibn al Jazârî, Shams al Dîn 833/1429

Dimashq, Syiraz Tajwîd al Abû al Khayr Muhammad

Qur’an Ibn Muhammad Ibn ‘Alî Ibn Yûsûf

Sixteenth century Al Haythâmî, Abu al 974/1567

Lawfulness of ‘Abbas

Cairo, Makkah

sama’ Muhammad Ibn ‘Alî Ibn Hâjâr

Ahmad

Ibn

Eighteenth century Shîhab al Dîn, Muhammad 1238/1822

Music theory Ibn Isma’il al Hijazi

Cairo

mode (awdz) and the Ramal rhythmic mode (darb). This scheme of notation, which may be found as early as Ibn Zaila (d. 1048), was probably borrowed from Nikomachos. See Henry George Farmer, History of Arabian Music , p-20

In the wake of the Islamic conquests, Arabic music spread rapidly across Islamic lands, although ethnic and regional styles continued. Fortunately, much information about music and musicians of the early centuries of islam has been preserved in Kitab Al Aghâni. Poetry for instance, slowly being inseparable from music throughout Islamic history and art. In the early period of Islam, Kitâb al- Âghânî “Book of songs”,of Abu ‘l-Faraj al-Isfâhânî (d-356H) elucidate the attractiveness of Islamic poetry, music and art, dates to the fourth/tenth century and it is in this period that maqâm develop as a theory and a practice of art music by way of

a synthesis of Arabic and Persian forms. 62 Another famous contributer towards music was Al Mas’udi(d-345H), through

his book Murûj al-Zahab wa Ma’âdin al-Jawâhir. Both scholars, al-Isfâhânî and al- Mas’udi, were in the same century, writing music and its development especially in the world of Arab. Their writings included the history of music, types of music, books related to music, the religious perceptions towards music, and the beautifulness of

music and biography of musicians. 63 In the following listing, contributers have been assigned to the century in

which the major portion of their study. These were the types of literature that include materials on Hadassah al Sawt or the art of sound according to Lamya al- Faruqi. 64 Based on modern historical sources, she comes out with the lists of the

contributors in musical Islam. These contributors were actively found in the ninth century to the end of nineteenth century. It was also a great prove of the development

62 Music in the Muslim world is melodic and uses a greater and more subtle range of intervals than is normal in the west. Harmony as in the western understanding of the term unknown. In the days of Kitab

al Aghâni there were eight musical modes, but drawing on Iranian culture, this number was increased to eighteen or more. Music served various religious purposes. Read Francis Robinson, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World , ( Hong Kong: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p- 252, see also John L.Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Modern Islamic World, p-381,

63 Taufik Abdullah, Ensiklopedi Tematis Dunia Islam, Pemikiran dan Peradaban, (Jakarta:PT Ichtiar Baru, Van Hoeve, 2002), p. 26-28

64 This data was extracted from the list done by Lois Lamya al Faruqi. She puts all the related works of music and the art of sound in this list. However, some of them being extract in order to focus on

the music writing and Qur’anic musicology only. For further reading, see Ismail al Fâruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p.449-453 the music writing and Qur’anic musicology only. For further reading, see Ismail al Fâruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p.449-453

The Abbasids were influenced by the Qur’anic injunctions and hadith . The Islamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8 th century by the

ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded Baghdad.

Disciplines other than our own-anthropology, ethnomusicology, performance studies-have long known that music is at the heart of both religion and culture. Therefore, the field of this study is neither at the beginning of ninth century nor the eight century. The most famous and well known book at the beginning of the tenth

century is written by Abu Faraj al Isfahani (d. 356/967), entitled Books of Songs. 65 The book happened to be the primary source of other scholars in extracting

knowledge and information of music up to this era. The fact that music and sound were introduced into the study of religion, the

related components introduce the extra-cognitive, i.e, the body’s kinesthetic and aesthetic modes of learning, thus ushering plural modes of consciousness and plural

modes of knowing into our scholarly and pedagogical work. 66 As Regula Qureshi observes, this is particularly relevant to Islam because its sonoral domain is a central

location for “the fusing of emotion with cognition, and of the individual with shared experience”. 67

A remarkable system regulated cantillation (talhin) with respect to the law of phonetics and preferred diction of musical aspects in reciting /cantillation of Quran in musical melodies of the people from Nejd region of Arabia, as he preferred the pre- Islamic simple musical forms of huda and rakbani, with pauses which became a major trait of Quranic cantillation (tarannum). Holy Prophet had recourse to old

65 Anna M. Gade, Perfection Makes Practice, Learning, Emotion, and the Recited Qur’an in Indonesia , (Honolulu; University of Hawai’I Press, 2004) p- 379-381

66 Marilyn Gottschall, Introducing Islam Through Qur’anic Recitation, Summer 2004, Volume 8, Issue 2, p-4

67 Regula Qureshi Burchhardt, “Sounding the Word: Music in the Life of Islam.” Enchanting Powers: Music in the World’s Religions , (Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1997),p-263

Arabic tunes used in classical recitation / cantillation of poetry, together with classical poetic rules of prosody which was expressed by Ibn al-‘Arabi: “the Prophet Muhammad wanted Quran to be an exclusive passion to replace styles that all

chanters were accustomed to singing during that period in time. 68 Aside from chanting the Qur’an, reciting poetry, and listening to unaccompanied male voices sing militant

songs, there is scarcely any manifestation of art and creativity that they find religiously acceptable.

Further studies on the music theory were found in the eleventh and twelveth century. Even though there were plenty of studies in these subjects, the writer stated only several works related to Handasah al Sawt. This is because the other field of music which studied by various scholars in these centuries were too wide and far from this discussion. The following are the contributors of the lawfulness of sama’ and other closely related field.

Noticeably, the study of music was actively done by Muslim’s scholars and all over the Muslim’s world especially in the area of Baghdad and Dimashq. Most probably, the development of knowledge and information at that time spread widely in these areas especially in Abbasid period, where the Sasanid and Byzantine music being adopted into Abbasid’s culture.Besides all these forms of music, one must mention the major classical traditions of tradition s of music in the Islamic world such as the Persian, Andalusian, Arabic of the Near East, Turkish, and North Indian

traditions which have survived to this day. 69 According to Francis Robinson, in the medieval Islamic World, as elsewhere,

music was understood in the broader context of correspondences. In the work of the ninth-century Arab philosopher al-Kindi(c. 790-c.874), the four strings of the lute allowed associations to be made with the elements, humors, seasons, and points of the compass. Then, continue with Al Farabi (d.950) and Ibn Sina ( Avicenna, 980-1037),

68 Jonathan Bloom, The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World,(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001),p-46

69 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, p-3 69 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, p-3

Lawfulness of sama’ was considered as one of literary works besides music and songs. To understand music and songs specifically in musical of Islam, is much

easier by possessing the knowledge through the lawfulness of sama’. 70 Lawfulness of sama’ , is related to the concept of art of sound. According to Lamya al_Faruqi, in

her writings, she upgraded the concept as Handasah al Sawt or known also as “sound architecture”. In her findings, genres are placed on continua between nonmusic and music, and legitimate and illegitimate.

Lamya points out that, sensuous music associated with unacceptable contexts is considered illegitimate (harâm), and is labeled as music. Qur’anic chant (qira’a/ nagham/tarannum ), other religious chants, such as the adhan, chanted poetry with noble themes (syi’ir), family and celebration music(lullabies, women songs, wedding songs, etc.),” occupational” music(caravan chants, shepherd’s tunes, work songs, etc.) and military music are all considered legitimate (halal), and labeled as nonmusic.

On the other hand, the vocal and instrumental improvisations, serious metered songs, some instrumental music, non-Islamic origins or music related to pre-Islamic origins are considered music. However, it remains controversial, either forbidden or discouraged in Islamic law (al-Faruqi, 1985).

The spread of Islamic music could be seen throughout the Muslim’s world especially in the Arabian and Persian people. 71 Most of the writings, studies and

practices of Islamic music or lawfulness of sama’ were developed in Baghdad, Cairo, Dimashq, Makkah and Istanbul as early as ninth century. Baghdad was known as the centre of knowledge and the city of information and philosophy at that time.

70 Lois Ibsen al-Faruqi, “Music, Musicians and Muslim Law.”, Asian Music17, no.1(1985),pg 3, see also Ismail al Fâruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p.449-453

71 An International congress on Arab music held in Cairo in 1932 renewed attention to many theoretical issues within the Islamic world-including Turkish and Persian-and resulted in a number of

recordings by eminent musicians from the Middle East and a significant six-volume publication on music theory in French by Baron Rodolphe d’Erlanger, La musique arabe ( 1930-1959). See Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, p. 494

Consequently, the tradition of learning and researching the Islamic musical knowledge, actively found in that area. After several centuries, the data showed that there were some contributors appeared in other region or countries such as in Istanbul

and India. 72 In the early 16 th century, the Safavid dynasty took placed. Here, the

development of music in Islam also being continued. They assumed being controlled in Persia. Therefore, at this era, the music was being played even though in the small assemble through a single singer or several instrumentalists who alternate solo vocal and instrumental passages. These activities enhanced the development of music in Islam throughout the centuries.

According to Syed Muhammad Naquib al Attas, in his writing entitled: Islam, the Concept of Religion and the Foundation of Ethics and Morality, he argues that islam is the unique religion with the al-Dîn concept which is not the same as in other religion. Eventhough the meaning of al-Dîn is religion, Islam has its rules and regulation that differ to any other religion in the world.It is not as the same as the Western imagined about religion. Therefore, the religion itself must be the main basic

of human life. 73 Consequently, in the matter of music, they will not accept any music that leads to negative impact and out of the Islamic guidelines.

According to Mustafa al ‘Adâni, music is the way to close to the Almighty God, music also part of the secret way to create the feeling of ‘taubah’/ be repentant. There are plenty of music in the human feelings, secret music, heart music, iman and music, light of music and many more. All of these music are the real and unique music in everyone life. No doubt, the lyrics from music and songs are normally come from the syi’ir. Arabian people tend to express their feelings and love through syi’ir.

72 www.islamicity.com/education/ihame/ , surf on 6 October 2009

73 Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Aims an Objectives of Islamic Education, ( Jeddah: Abdul Aziz University, 1979), p-466

Thus, in showing love towards God, beliefs to the God, they also use music to deliver the feelings. 74

C. Muslim Devotional Recitation And Music According To Sufi There is an ocean of celestial music related to Sufism, music which varies

from other especially in Turkey and Indo-Pakistan sub-continent, primarily among the Malawis and Chistîs. 75 This type of of music overflows in the community of

believers on certain occasions such as the anniversary of the great saints. This is directly a practice and religious character of Sufi traditions. 76

Sufism engaged in ritualized dhikr 77 ceremonies. Each order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for group dhikr, the liturgy of which may include

recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, meditation and trance. The Sufis have used music not as an amusement, but to purify their heart towards God. They loved music and called this purification activities with ghiza-e-ruh means food of the soul. Why music? Because music is made of vibrations, and there are secret messages

spread in the vibrations. 78 In Pakistan, Sufi religious music is known as Qawwâli, derived from the word

qawwal 79 usually used in Pakistan and Azerbaijan. It is one of the popular activities as

74 Mustafa al Adâni , At Taswir al Fanni, fi Syi’ri Mahmûd Hassan Isma’il, ( Iskandariah : Dâr al Ma’arif, n.d), p-40-42, Compare to the Qur’an as ‘tarbiyyah’ in Abdur Rahman ‘Amîrah, Manhaj Al

Qur’an fi Tarbiyyah al Rijâl , (Iskandariah: Maktabatul ‘Ikaz, 1981) p- 43. 75 An aspects of Sufism , music, singing and chanting and measured recitation were employed to

encourage religious emotion and ecstasy. Early Sufi music tended to avoid secular tunes, and use only reed- pipes, flutes and drums, but it later became more elaborate. Indeed in Turkey music gained acceptance in the mosques through the influence of such sufi orders as the Mawlawi. Among Shi’ites music accompanied the tazkiya ( passion plays) about the life and death of husayn and his followers during the month of Muharram. See Francis Robinson, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World, p-252

76 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, p.152 77 Dhikr (rememberance ) is one of the most common forms performed by worshippers at Sufi

gatherings of different sects. It is performed through formulized repetitions of words or short phrases in highly rhythmic specific patterns-“Allah”(God) or “La ilaha illallah” (There is no God but Allah), for instance. Qur’anic recitation, hymns, and vocal improvisations with religious texts are often included into the ritual. See Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music, p.22

78 Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music, (Boston: Shambala Publications),p.55 79 Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, vol.2,p.492 78 Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music, (Boston: Shambala Publications),p.55 79 Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, vol.2,p.492

The Sufi’s world is full of mystery and extraordinary understanding. 80 Music for them has a multiple meanings in the life. For instance, Hazrat Inayah Khan, he

tend to admit that every single occupation such as gardening, farming, painting and poetry as a music. The exhaling and inhaling of the breath also like a rhythm in the daily life. 81 He claimed that Sufis know better in the art of sound and they know

about the past, present and future through the direction of sound. After all, Sufis have used music not as an amusement, but as purification, as prayer to God. 82

D. Handasah al Sawt or the Art of Sound All of this genre in Islamic musical tradition being simplified and

categorized by the famous author of music in Islam, Louis Lamya al Fâruqi as Handasah al Sawt. 83 Her theory defined that, the art of voices in Islam, is related to

the Handasah al Sawt. The term musiqa has never included those genres of sound art which were wholeheartedly approved and fostered by the culture, e.g., Qur'anic chant, the adhan, the pilgrimage chants, madhih or chanted poetry (shi’r). Therefore,she

80 Muhamâd Iqbal, Tatawwur al Fikr al Falsafî fi Iran, Ishâm fi Târîkhî al Falsafah al Islamiyah( beirut : Dar fikr, n.d),p.100

81 Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music, p.22 82 Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music, p.54 83 Handasah al sawt is a cultural phenomenon which can play an important role in the life of a

nation and a people. But this important role cannot be played by any sound art, regardless of its content and form. It must be one growing out of the cultural roots of its people and expressing the message of the cultural complex from which it arises. The fostering of such a sound art or musical tradition is crucial to any people at any period of history. But it is especially important to the Muslim peoples today as they face the drastic cultural changes of our contemporary world, extensive migratory displacement, and the unprecedented incidence of cultural interaction and alien influences on their life and culture.

advocated the use of a new expression, handasah al sawt. She came out with a model of the core characteristics of Handasah al Sawt in her book, entitled the cultural Atlas of Islam. The following is the model simplified to explain Handasah al Sawt from her point of view.

This designation would cover all the forms of sound art, and thus more truly equate with the term "music" and its cognates in other European languages. It is with that expression and an appreciation of the wide meaning which it implies that this presentation continues.

Al Qur’an Level 1

Other Religious

Level 2

Chant Vocal/Instrumental Improvisations

Level 3

Songs with Serious Themes

Level 4

Entertainment Music

Level 5

Diagram 2:Genre relevance to the core characteristics of Handasah al Sawt 84 The upper level of this diagram indicates the Quranic chanting. It is the

essence and the heart of the sawti tradition, showing that the chant of sacred text in Islam, is the main carrier and purest form of the core characteristics of handasah al sawt. The songs of Qur’anic chanting will always give a great impact towards the

84 Ismail al Fâruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p-457 84 Ismail al Fâruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p-457

required by law to improvise melodically. 85 The sensation, passion, enthusiasm and feeling will lead to improve individual spiritual, emotional, life to become piety to

Islam and Allah. Next, the level which designates the important of the chants associated to

adhan the call to prayer or for the pilgrimage and also included the pitched recitation of the Prophet Muhammad ( madih). One of the beautiful sung in Islam is the call to

prayer (al-adhân) 86 , it continuously become a symbol to call muslims and alert them to pray. The type of music that always been implemented by Muslims throughout the

world is of melodic strains with the sweet voice during a call to prayer, for every newly born baby boy this called as al-adhân while Iqamat is to be practiced when a baby girl is born. The melody and intone are different from one muazzîn to another.

Wherever there is a mosque, one may hear the adhân regularly five times a day from a minaret or a loudspeaker attached to the mainbuilding. People may experience differently the adhân in other contexts such as broadcast on radio or television, or from a recording on an alarm clock, or even in their handphone. The sound from adhân is also considered as song because of the beautiful melody.

However, not all scholars and people accepted al-adhân as a song. 87 These sawti representations reveal a level of correspondence to the main

characteristics in Islamic aesthetic creativity only slightly less consistent than qira’ah. These activities had been performed in the Muslim world since the time of Prophet and continue perform in the public gathering, in the mosque and the home, at

85 Anna M.Gade, Perfection Makes Practice, p- 182-184 86 Written originally in Persian, this essay was first translated by W.Chittick into English and later

revised by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, (New York: State University of New York Press, 1987),p.151

87 Each adhân is semi-improvised within a maqam (melodic mode) in a rather plain style. Unlike murattal style, certain syllables of the fixed text of adhân may incite a melodic melisma within a particular

maqam. Read, Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, p. 494 maqam. Read, Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, p. 494

names. 88 For the third level, it refers to the instrumental and vocal improvisations for

instance the taqâsim, layâli, and qâsidah of Turkey and the Mashriq, the avaz of Iran, the syakl of Afghanistan, the daîrah and istikhbar of the Maghrib, jinjin of the Hausa of West Africa, and sayil or bâqat vocal music in Southeast Asia. Here, the regional diversity tend to be more frequent and pronounced in both vocal and instrumental examples. Shi’ir also considered as the vocal improvisations of the Muslims people since many period. 89 Other than that, the beginning of the art in Islam, related to voice

is syi’ir. Syi’ir is a poem, sometimes combined with rhythm and rhyme. It was also the early Arab poet, and as the early poetical productions, therefore, is of peculiar important as source material for the study of pre-Islamic Arabian life and Bedouin character. Speaking about rhythm and rhyme automatically discuss about sound. Rhythm is the stress and non-stress of sound regularly. Rhyme is the similarity of

90 sound. 91 Famous singer of the Arabic world is the late Umm Kalthum . She had various attractive syi’ir and beautiful voice in singing the poem. 92

Qasîdah is another way of reciting poetry melodiously which contains praises to Prophet Muhammad and companions. It can be explained as the epic religious poetry accompanied by percussion and chanting. Another tradition practiced by the

88 Ismail al Faruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p-458 89 Mustafa as Sa’dini, At Tashwir al Fannî, Fi Syi’rî Mahmûd Hassan Ismâ’îl, ( Egypt : Dar al

Ma’arif, n.d), p-25-26 90 Danti Pudjiati, Al Turas, Women Should be Pedestal, Vol. 10, No.3, September 2004, p.214

91 Umm Kalthum is a great singer and reciter of Qur’anic chanting from Egypt. However, she became famous with the way she sung the poem or syi’ir She was born in 1906 in the village “Tomayi az

Zahayarah”, she got a beautiful voice and powerful too. She learned Qur’an and its way to chant from as Syaikh Abdul Aziz Hassan. After that, she learned from as Syaikh Abul A’ala, how to sing with burdah and also syi’ir. She started to sing in the haflah in Bait ‘Ali Hamzah. From that moment, she was known as a girl and later woman with the beautiful voice. See Majmu’ah al Aghâni al Kamîlah,Umm Kalthum al Hinjarah az Zahabiah, Hayatu wa Aghani Kaukabu Syarqi , ( Beirut: Dar al Maktabah), p.9-25

92 Majmu’ah al Aghâni al Kamîlah,Umm Kalthum al Hinjarah az Zahabiah, Hayatu wa Aghani Kaukabu Syarqi , p.9-25

Muslim societies is a performance of singing a regional praises to Muhammad the prophet during his birthday. It is especially dedicated to Rasulullah, and to show love towards the Prophet. It is called Mawlîd music.

Unexpectedly, qasidah was actually had been practiced as the poetry of the pre-Islamic age arose in connection with tribal wars and took the form of qasidah, or ode. At that time, there were some 120 odes composed by lesser lights and compiled by al Mufaddal al Dabbi (d. about 785) of Baghdad, whence its title al Mufaddaâliyât, at the instance of the Abbasîd caliph al Mansur for the instruction of his son and successor. A number of pre-Islamic anthologies and poetical fragments have been preserved in two other major works: Diwan al Hanâsah (Fortitude) edited by Abu Tammam, who flourished also in Baghdad, under the caliph of al-Ma’mun and died about 845; and in Kitab al Aghani (Book of Songs), a veritable thesaurus of Arabic literature, written by Isbahani, or al-Isfahâni (c.897-967), a Persian. 93

The scholars and Muslim thinkers and those who preserve and maintain the stretch of religion must be firmly blocked, and block anyone who tries to read the Qur'an accompanied by music, like singing the Qasîdah. So they have participated keeping scripture from destruction. "Verily, We it is Who sent down the Qur'an, and in fact we actually take care of". [Al Hijr:9] and, [Al-Hijr: 9]. And when recited to them Our verses are real, the people who do not expect the meeting with Us say: Bring a Quran other than this or change it ". Say: "It is not for me to replace the part myself. I do not follow except what is revealed to me. Verily I fear if disobey my

Lord, the torment of a Great Day (of Resurrection)". [Yunus: 15] 94 According to Jamal D. Rahman, for the state of Indonesia, there was one of

the famous qariah and practitioner of qasidah is Rofiqoh Darto Wahab. 95 She was one of the wonderful qariah as well as excellent in reciting qasidah, which relates to the

93 Majmu’ah al Aghâni al Kamîlah,Umm Kalthum al Hinjarah az Zahabiah, Hayatu wa Aghani Kaukabu Syarqi , p.11-20

94 Qur’an Syamil, ( Jakarta: Pustaka Mizan, 2009) 95 Rofiqoh Darto Wahab was born in 18 April 1945, in Keranji Kedungwuni, daughter of Kiyai

Haji Munawir and Hajah Munadzaroh. Being the first winner of Tilawah al Quran in Indonesia and recorded her voice in the studio in 1970. See the writing of Jamal D.Rahman, in Ulama’ Perempuan Indonesia , (Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama & PPIM IAIN Jakarta,2002) , p-272-275 Haji Munawir and Hajah Munadzaroh. Being the first winner of Tilawah al Quran in Indonesia and recorded her voice in the studio in 1970. See the writing of Jamal D.Rahman, in Ulama’ Perempuan Indonesia , (Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama & PPIM IAIN Jakarta,2002) , p-272-275

Another example is the qasidah in Banten,Indonesia, namely the group of qasidah Saraya (rhythm) which use to play together the tune and ketimpring or fly (a qasidah tool made of wood, leather and metal as kecrek) shaped drums had been practiced

since long ago. 97 Another famous musical recitation practice of Islam in Southeast Asia is

called “The Barzanji”. It became well-known in Southeast Asia (around the nineteenth century), as the most popular texts for non-Qur’anic Arabic recitation. Anne M.Gade written in her paper that the original Barzanji text, Al-‘Iqd al-Jawahir, was composed by Ja’far b. Hasan b. Abd al-Karim b. Muhammad al-Barzanji (1690- 1764), and it narrates events in the Prophet’s life (especially his birth); it also includes sections of praise. In contemporary Indonesia, four readings were often found bound together as a single “ Barzanji” text: Mawlid Diba’I, the Barzanji ( in several

variants), Sharif al-Anam, and the Burdah (or “Mantle Ode” of Al-Busiri[1213-96]). 98 Until the early 1990’s, it seemed too many that Barzanji recitation was dying

out across the archipelago. Recitation of the Mawlid has been heatedly contested at times in the muslim world as a Sufi “innovation”; the controversy led to conflict in Indonesia early in the twentieth century. By the mid-1990s,however, a Barzanji revival was underway (surprising even many Barzanji readers themselves).Cassettes were beginning to appear, to expressed amazement of some who have never associated the “traditional” context of Barzanji reading with a commodity like a cassette”. 99

96 Jajat Burhanuddin, ed. Ulama’ Perempuan Indonesia, (Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama & PPIM IAIN Jakarta,2002) , p-272-275

97 Halwany Michrob, Notes and History Ya Lail Qosidah, (Banten: Percetakakan Brother,1995),p- 5

98 Such bound volumes also include prayer texts, such as the tahlil for the deceased. One such compilation is Majmu’at Mawalid wâ Ad’ia ( Compilation of Mawlid texts and prayers). Read Anne M.

Gade, History of Religions: Taste,talent, and the problem of internalization: A Qur’anic study in religious musicality from southeast Asia, ( Chicago:May 2002), Vol 41, p. 328-368

99 Anna M. Gade, History of Religions: Taste,talent, and the problem of internalization: A Qur’anic study in religious musicality from southeast Asia, ( Chicago:May 2002), Vol 41, p. 10

At the fourth category, this refer to the songs with the religious themes such as the qasidah of Malaysia, the ghazal of Iran-Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the ilâhi, nefes and sugul of Turkey, the muwanshah dini of the Mashriq, nasyid of the Southeast Asia. These activites are performed nomarlly in groups of female or male or even the combination group of male and female. Sometimes, they use the instrument and sometimes no percussion is needed in performing it. The main idea of these groups is to convey message of the songs in a beautiful way of single melodic line simultaneously performed by all voices.

Meanwhile, the love lyric (ghazal, or gazel) was established as an independent art by ‘Umar ibn abi Rabiah(d. about 719) of Mecca, who specialized in making love to beautiful damsels pilgrimaging in the two holy cities of Arabia, and expressed his passion in language of exquisite felicity.The most famous ghazal at that time was the Platonic love which became the theme of several poetical romances by them. Majnun and Layla became the hero and heroine of a cycle of numberless Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other Islamic language tales extolling the power undying love.

Another part of music expressions found in Islam is nasyîd. Nasyîds are ethics, moral, religious songs sung in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments or with percussion instruments which allowed in Islam. The difference of nasyîd from other songs in the world is the way of singing it. The group of nasyîd performs in a polite manner, with a simple, moral, religious

lyrics and melodies. Most of the lyrics are not from the Qur’anic verses or Hadîth. 100 In the fifth level, it indicates the genres of the secular themes which

undoubtedly been influenced by the Qur’an and the musical carried by Muslim travelers, settlers, and pilgrims. Actually, the level distinguish more on the usual

100 Ahmad Nuruddin Mat Yunoh, Tesis Seni Lagu Qur’an:Kajian Terhadap Sumbangan Haji Nik Ja’afar Nik Ismail , (Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya, 2008),p.31 100 Ahmad Nuruddin Mat Yunoh, Tesis Seni Lagu Qur’an:Kajian Terhadap Sumbangan Haji Nik Ja’afar Nik Ismail , (Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya, 2008),p.31

To conclude the discussion in this chapter, the primary idea is to elaborate the frame of chanting in the world civilization. It is uneasy to discover the real picture of these chanting activities especially in differentiate between both sacred texts. However, above explanation should be taken into account in understanding the development and achievement of these sacred texts as well as to distinguish and clarify that there are differ to each other.

101 Ismail al Faruqi and Lois Lamya al Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p-457, see also Eva F.Amrullah, Transendensi al Qur’an dan Musik, Jurnal Studi Al-Qur’an, Vol.1,No.3, pg 591- 614.