Subordinations In “To Kill A Mockingbird” By Harper Lee

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SUBORDINATIONS IN “TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD” BY

HARPER LEE

A PAPER

RUT SRI NOVITAWATY SIREGAR REG. NO: 062202011

DIPLOMA III ENGLISH STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF LETTERS

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA MEDAN

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Approved by

Supervisor,

Dra. Masdiana Lubis, M.Hum NIP. 131284311

Submitted to Faculty of Letters University of Sumatera Utara

In partial fulfillment of requirements for DIPLOMA (D-III) in English.

Approved by

Head of English Study Program,

Dra. Syahyar Hanum NIP. 130702287

Approved by the DIPLOMA III of English Study Program

Faculty of Letters, University of Sumatera Utara As a paper for the DIPLOMA (D-III) Examination

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Accepted by:

The Board of examiners in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the DIPLOMA (DIII) of English Study Program

Faculty of Letters, University of Sumatera Utara

The examination is held on………...

Faculty of Letters University of Sumatera Utara

Dean,

Drs. Syaifuddin, M.A., Ph.D. NIP. 132098531

Board of Examiner and Reader:

Examiner : Dra. Masdiana Lubis, M.Hum Reader : Dra. Syahyar Hanum

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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I am, RUT SRI NOVITAWATY SIREGAR, declare that I am the sole author of this paper. Except where reference is made in the text of this paper, this paper contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a paper by which I have qualified for or awarded another degree.

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the paper. This paper has not been submitted for the award of another degree in any tertiary education.

Signed : ……… Date :……….

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COPYRIGHT DECLARATION

Name : RUT SRI NOVITAWATY SIREGAR

Title of Paper : SUBORDINATIONS IN “TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD” BY HARPER LEE

Qualification : D-III/ Ahli Madya Study Program : English

I am willing that my paper should be available for reproduction at the discretion of the Librarian of the Diploma III English Study Program Faculty of Letters USU on the understanding that users are made aware of their obligation under law of the Republic of Indonesia.

Signed :…………..

Date :…………..

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ABSTRAK

Salah satu yang dipelajari mahasiswa adalah tulis menulis. Secara ilmiah tulis menulis adalah penyampaian informasi dalam bentuk tulisan serta bagaimana informasi itu disampaikan. Judul kertas karya ini adalah Kalimat Subordinat yang ditemukan dalam novel To Kill a Mockingbird karya Harper Lee: SUBORDINATION IN TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD BY HARPER LEE. Penulis mengangkat hal ini karena penulis tertarik dengan bentuk–bentuk serta fungsi-fungsi kalimat subordinat yang terdapat dalam tulisan-tulisan novel ini. Selain itu bentuk dan fungsi kalimat subordinat juga sangat perlu diketahui dan dipahami oleh mahasiswa, khususnya mahasiswa D3 Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Sastra USU. Yang merupakan hasil penelitian dari kertas karya ini adalah ditemukannya beberapa kalimat dalam bentuk kalimat subordinat dan dari “subordinators” yang ada, dapat diketahui apa yang menjadi fungsi kalimat subordinat tersebut ; apakah berfungsi sebagai subjek, objek, ataukah komplemen.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Time has been passing so fast that it seems like yesterday when I for the first time came to this Faculty as a new student in English Department. Now, in my last grade in English Department, I have a responsibility to make a paper on the requirement on Diploma III (D3). First of all, I would like to sincere gratitude to Jesus Christ, for the blessing and mercy, so that I can live with the people that I love and give me a precious knowledge, especially from the time I started to study in English Diploma, Faculty of Letters, University of North Sumatra until I complete this paper.

Futher, I would like to be grateful to the Dean of Faculty of Letters, University of North Sumatera, Dr. Syaifuddin, M.A Ph.D and the Head of English Department, Dra. Syahyar Hanum.

I owe a debt gratitude to my supervisor, Dra. Masdiana Lubis, M.Hum who is generous with her valuable advice, guidance, and time in correcting this paper. My gratitude is also dedicated to my reader Dra. Syahyar Hanum and for all my lecturers who have taught me in my study for their knowledge and guidance.

By this chance, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the people who are living around me and give me things which support me daily live and completing this paper, as follows:

My heartiest and deepest gratitude is due to my beloved parents Arnorld Siregar and Esra Br. Pasaribu, who have given me support, care and great love in my life.

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I do love you mom and dad, promise to be your best daughter. Also for my younger sister Lidya Siregar, my younger brother Yusuf Siregar, and for all my relatives, Kak Naomi, Kak Friska, Daniel, Bang Uya, and others.

Thanks for my beloved friends in my cell group: Kak Refhy, Kak Elga, kak Dince, kak Mety, Yulis, and Mayda, who always support, help to complete my paper, and always pray for me. I also would like to give thanks for my younger brothers and sisters in my cell group, Atta, Aris, Andi, Efni, Fredi, Martha, and Rico. I love you all.

Thanks a lot for my friends in Economy, Anaz who helped me to find the novel, Ira, Benget, Kristiana, Hotlan, Rival, and others. Thanks also for my friends in English Department, who always care and support me in completing this paper, Christina Marbun, Liza, Mediana, David Gultom, Endah, Nelly, and others.

Finally, I realize that this paper is still far for being perfect. Therefore, the advice, constructive, criticism and suggestion aimed at this paper will be warmly welcomed and highly appreciated. Last but not at least, all the mistakes in this paper are mine.

Medan, May , 2009 The Writer

Rut Sri Novitawaty Siregar Reg. No: 062202011

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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION... i

COPYRIGHT DECLARATION ... ii

ABSTRACT ... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vi

1. INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 Background of Study ... 1

1.2 .. Scope of Study ... 3

1.3 Objective of Study ... 3

1.4 Significance of Study ... 3

1.5 Method of Study ... 4

2. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SUBORDINATION IN SENTENCE 5 2.1 What is a Subordination? ... 5

2.2 Adverb Clause ... 7

2.3 Noun Clause ... 19

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3. SUBORDINATION FOUND IN “TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD” .... 27

3.1 Adverb Clause ... 27

3.1.1 Forms ... 27

3.1.2 Kinds ... 28

3.1.2.1 Adverb Clause of Time ... 28

3.1.2.2 Adverb Clause of Place ... 30

3.1.2.3 Adverb Clause of Reason ... 31

3.1.2.4 Adverb Clause of Condition ... 32

3.1.2.5 Adverb Clause of Result ... 32

3.1.2.6 Adverb Clause of Concession ... 33

3.1.2.7 Adverb Clause of Comparison ... 33

3.1.3 Functions ... 35

3.2 Noun Clause ... 37

3.2.1 Forms... 38

3.2.1.1 Question Words (Wh-Question)... 38

3.2.1.2 Question Words + Word “ever” ... 41

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3.2.2 Functions ... 44

3.2.2.1 Direct Object of a Transitive Verb ... 45

3.2.2.2 Indirect Object of a Transitive Verb ... 45

3.2.2.3 Object of a Preposition ... 46

3.2.2.4 Subjective Complement ... 46

3.2.2.5 Objective Complement ... 46

3.3 Adjective Clause ... 46

3.3.1 Forms... 47

3.3.2 Relative Pronouns ... 47

3.3.3 Relative Adverbs ... 49

3.3.4 Functions ... 49

4. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 51

4.1 Conclusions ... 51

4.2 Suggestions ... 52

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ABSTRAK

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1Background of Study

Subordination is a way of combining sentences that makes one sentence more important than the other. “Subordinators are perhaps the most important formal device of subordination. Like propositions, which they resemble in having a relating connecting function,” (Randolph. et. al. 1972:155). Collins (1995: 92) states “subordinate conjunction that joins a clause to another on which in depends for its full meaning. Subordinating conjunction is used when we are adding a clause in order to develop some aspect of what we are saying”.

A subordinator introduces a clause that depends on a main or an independent clause, (Frank. 1972: 115). The subordinator grammatically constitutes part of the dependent clause. And it usually more at the beginning of the dependent clause (usually followed by comma) or an between the clauses connected.

Subordination in a sentence makes your main idea stand out. By putting the less important information in subordinate phrases the writer alerts the reader to the main idea that is most important. Carrol (1982: 91) states “The method of subordination allows the speaker or writer to ‘express a larger variety of relationships between ideas’ and ‘show the relationships between facts or ideas more clearly and specifically”.

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Sentences with subordinate phrases are more sophisticated than simple sentences, and they are referred to as complex sentence. Sophistication in writing means being able to deal with complex thoughts or the interrelationships of things in one thought, that is why you need subordination. Subordination displays the relationship between the ideas and details in a sentence.

Good writing requires a mixture of all four kinds of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. A composition with only short simple sentences is boring and ineffective same as writing that uses too many compound sentences. Writing with complex sentences and participial phrases, structure that use subordination, is generally considered more mature, interesting, and effective in style.

The using of subordination in To Kill a Mockingbird novel is too many, so that the paragraph looks boring and ineffective. That is why this topic is chosen. So subordination is a very significant topic as the application of the linguistic aspect will imply the maturity and perfect mastery of the language. The other reason why this topic was chosen because I am interested in a paper entitled “Subordination in The Sittaford Mystery by Agatha Christie” written by T. Rika Zulaika. (2007)

Relating to the descriptions above, Subordination in To Kill A Mockingbird is taken as the title for this paper in which the forms as and the functions of subordination in To Kill a Mockingbird are the main problems to

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analyzed. The forms and the functions of subordination were found in To Kill a Mockingbird novel at random.

1.2Scope of the Study

This study is focused on the descriptions related to the forms and the functions of subordinations in To Kill a Mockingbird novel, especially noun clause, adjective clause, and adverb clause.

1.3Objective of Study

The objectives of this study are:

1. To describe the forms of subordination in To Kill a Mockingbird novel, especially noun clause, adjective clause, and adverb clause.

2. To describe the functions of subordination in To Kill a Mockingbird novel.

1.4Significance of the Study

1. To improve my English skill and to profound my comprehension more about the grammatical properties, especially subordinating conjunctions and some related elements.

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2. To give some contributions to the study of linguistic for grammar reader through this paper.

1.5Method of the Study

In completing this paper, I collect the data by applying library research, novel research (randomly), and online research. By applying library research, I collect several books which are relevant to the topic. In making this paper, I focus to Alice Oshima, Hancock, and Manser theories. And by online research, I collect the data on internet by browsing and searching some information, projects of the internet analysts on the sites (available online) and some information which is relevant to the topic.

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2. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SUBORDINATION IN

SENTENCE

2.1 What is a Subordination?

Subordination is way of combining sentences that makes one sentence more important than the other, (Patricia K. Warner. 2007: 141). Subordination in a sentence makes your main idea stand out. By putting the less important information in subordinate phrases the writer alerts the reader to the main idea that is most important. Sentences that use subordination have a main clause or independent clause and one (or more) subordinate clauses or dependent clauses.

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and you use it to communicate your ideas, (Alice Oshima. 1990: 155). Every sentence is formed from one or more clauses. A sentence must contain a subject and a finite verb. A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark.

There are basically four kinds of sentences in English:

1. Simple sentence

2. Compound sentence 3. Complex sentence

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In this paper the write just wants to describe about complex sentence that is usually called sentence that use subordination in many grammar books. The kind of sentence is determined by the kind of clauses used to form it.

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A clause is a group of words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, where, if, while, that, or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itself.

Three groups of words are used to connect clauses (called clause connectors) in order to form different kinds of sentences, (Alice Oshima. 1990: 154). They are :

1. Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions), like:

what while as how unless

when who as if if until

whenever whom as soon as since etc.

where whose because so that

wherever after before that

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2. Coordinators (coordinating conjunction), like:

for nor or so

and but yet

3. Conjunctive Adverbs, like:

accordingly furthermore in contrast meanwhile

besides besides indeed moreover

consequently however instead nevertheless

for example in addition likewise nonetheless

The connectors mentioned above are usually used in connecting complex sentence. Complex sentence, usually called subordinate sentence, contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other one. The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea is placed in the dependent clause. According to Oshima (1990: 160), there are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb clause, adjective clause, and noun clause.

2.2 Adverb Clause

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause which modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb in the main clause, or an entire main clause. In an adverb clause, a special introductory word is added to a full subject-predicate structure.

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A dependent adverb clause begins with an adverbial subordinators such as when, while, after, since, until, as, although, though, because, now that, if, providing, seeing that, as…as, more(er)…that, whether (or not), as much as, where, no matter if, so…that, and same as.

Example:

1. When we tripped on the ice, he dropped all his books and lost his homework. (with comma)

2. People were eating a lot of protein while they were living on farms. (no comma)

3. After he had explained the accident, the teacher had mercy. (with comma)

There are two possible positions for an adverb clause: before or after the independent clause. Commas are used when the sentence starts with the dependent clause, means before the independent clause (sentence 1 and 3). No commas are necessary when the dependent clause comes in the middle or end of the sentence, means after the dependent clause (sentence 2).

Forms

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An adverb clause can be composed by the following pattern:

or:

Adverb clause can be grouped according to the type of relationship they express. They are clause of time, clause of place, clause of reason, clause of condition, clause of result, clause of concession, and clause of comparison.

Clause of Time

Time clause may be used to relate actions or situations that will occur at the same time or in a sequence in the future. In general, the focus of these sentences will be on the main clause. Most adverb clauses and phrases that express the time, come either before or after the main clause in a sentence.

Adverbial clause of time is introduced by such subordinators as after, as, once, since, until, when, while, like the examples below:

4. After the baby finishes eating, we’ll put her to bed. 5. As I was walking to the store, it began to snow again.

In both of sentences above, the sentences referring to the future, the verb in the dependent clause can be in the simple. Subordinators as and while usually emphasize an action in progress.

Subject + Verb + Noun + Subordinator + Subject + Verb + Noun

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6. Once she goes to bed, we may be able to relax a little.

7. She has been a good skier since she was a child. 8. You shouldn’t put her to bed until her hair has dried.

9. When people had to hunt for food, they had continues moderate exercise.

10. People were eating a lot of protein while they were living on farms.

Clause of Place

Adverbial clause of place is introduced mainly by where or wherever. Where is specific and wherever is nonspecific. The clause may indicate position or direction, like the examples below:

11. Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins (indicate position).

12. They went wherever they could find work. (indicate direction)

Several temporal subordinators may have primarily a place meaning in description of scenes, when the scenes are described dynamically in terms of movement from one place to another.

13. Take the right fork when the road splits into two.

14. The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake. 15. The building becomes narrower as it rises higher.

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17. Once the mountains rise above the snow line, vegetation is sparse.

Clause of Reason

In general, clause of reason conveys a direct relationship with the matrix clause. The relationship may be that of cause and effect (the perception of an inherent objective connection), reason and consequence (the speaker’s inference of connection), motivation and result (the intention of an animate being that has a subsequent result), or circumstance and consequence (a combination of reason with a condition) that is assumed to be filled, like examples below:

18. He’s thin because he hasn’t eaten enough. (relationship of cause and effect)

19. She watered the flowers because they were dry. (relationship of reason and consequence)

20. You’ll help me because you’re my friend. (relationship of motivation and result)

21. Since the weather has improved, the game will be held as planned. (relationship of circumstance and consequence)

Clause of reason is most commonly introduced by the subordinators because and since. Other subordinators include as, for, seeing that, and now that.

Examples:

22. It will not be necessary to study that chapter because you have already read it.

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23. I didn’t set my alarm on Friday night since I didn’t want to get up early on Saturday morning.

24. As Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others.

25. Much has been written about psychic phenomena, for they pose fascinating problems that have yet to be resolved.

26. Seeing that it is about the rain, we had better leave now.

27. Now that I was compelled to think about it, reading was something that just came to me.

Clause of Condition

In general, clause of condition conveys a direct condition in that the situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the conditional clause, as illustrated in the example below:

28. If you put the baby down, she’ll scream.

From the sentence above, the speaker intends the hearer to understand that the truth of the prediction ‘she’ll scream’ depends on the fulfillment of the condition of ‘your putting the baby down’.

The most common subordinators for conditional clause are if and unless, which are also used with nonfinite and verbless clause. Other conditional subordinators are restricted to finite clause, for example: given that, on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that), whether or not, no matter if / whether.

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Clause of Result

Adverb clause of result is used to indicate the result of something that is stated in the independent clause. Result clause is introduced by the subordinators so that and so, like the examples below:

29. We paid him immediately, so (that) he left contented. 30. I took no notice of him, so (that) he flew into a rage.

The subordinators are used for purpose clause. But, because they are putative rather than factual, purpose clauses require a modal auxiliary:

31. We paid him immediately, so that he would leave contented.

The subordinator so is indistinguishable from the conjunct so in asyndetic coordination, but if and is inserted so is unambiguously the conjunct:

32. We paid him immediately, and so he left contented.

Clause of Concession

Adverbial clause of concession is used to express ideas or actions that are not expected. The information in the independent clause indicates the concession which is introduced by the subordinator although, though, or even though, like these examples:

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34. Though my father likes mountains and snow, I’m sure he will learn to like beaches and sand.

35. He’ll probably enjoy water skiing, even though he prefers to ski in snow.

A comma normally follows introductory clause and phrase. Commas are also used occasionally with although, even though, and though when they appear in the middle of a sentence.

Clause of Comparison

In a comparative construction, a proposition expressed in the matrix clause is compared with a proposition expressed in the subordinate clause. Words that are repeated in both clauses may be omitted in the subordinate clause, like these examples:

36. Jane is as healthy as her sister. 37. Jane is healthier than her sister.

Clause of comparison can be formed with comparative adjectives or adverbs and than. In speaking and sometimes in writing, the verb in the dependent clause is often changed to the corresponding auxiliary verb.

38. Susan runs fast, but Marina runs faster than Susan runs. 39. Marina runs faster than Susan does.

In speaking and sometimes in writing, the verb or the dependent clause itself is omitted entirely. The comparison is not stated; rather, it is implied.

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40. Marina runs faster.

41. Susan is slower.

Positive adjectives and adverbs are used with as…as. In speaking and sometimes in writing, the verb in the dependent clause is often changed to the corresponding auxiliary verb.

42. We cannot run as fast as many animals can run.

43. We cannot run as fast as many animals can.

Nouns are often used with the same…as. In the speaking and sometimes in writing, the verb in the dependent clause is often changed to the corresponding auxiliary verb.

44. Amazingly, that lion ran the same distance as the cheetah did in the same time.

In speaking and sometimes in writing, the verb or the dependent clause itself is omitted entirely. The comparison is not stated; rather, it is implied.

45. We cannot run as fast as many animals.

According to Hancock (2005: 54), adverb clause of comparison may be divided into two types: adverb clause of comparison of degree and adverb clause of comparison of manner.

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Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree

This kind of adverb refers to compare between equal or unequal things in a sentence. The subordinators used in this kind of adverb clause are given with their respective examples follows:

As…as

45. Gorillas, as well as people, walk on their hind legs.

More(er)…than

46. She is richer than she looks.

So…as

47. I’ve already invented a premonition and a big parcel, but so far as I can see one has to invent something something if one doesn’t want to sound suspicious.

Same…as

48. Elephant has the same weight as the baby whale does.

Adverb Clause of comparison of Manner

This kind adverb clause talks about someone’s behavior or the way something is done. The subordinators used in this kind of adverb clause are given with their respective examples as follows:

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49. He looked inquiringly at the inspector as the later advanced.

As if

50. I don’t feel as if had a friend in the world.

Functions

Like adverbial prepositional phrases, adverbial subordinate clauses can convey a number of adverbial meanings. There are some functions of adverbial clause (Hancock. 2005: 2005) :

1. Time Clause has two functions, there are:

- Depending in large part on the subordinator, the time of the matrix clause may be previous to that of the adverbial clause (with subordinator until), simultaneous with it or establish two events as happening simultaneously (with subordinator while), or subsequent to it (subordinator after).

Examples:

51. I didn’t start my meal until Adam arrived.

52. While I work, I play music.

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- The time relationship may also convey duration (subordinatos as long as), recurrence (subordinator whenever), and relattive proximity (subordinator just after).

Examples:

54. I will stay as long as my money holds out.

55. My heart leaps whenever I see you.

2. Clause of place has function to indicate position and direction.

Examples:

56. He fished where the river deepens out. (indicates position)

57. They went wherever they could find work. (indicates direction)

3. Clause of reason has function to convey a direct relationship with the matrix clause .

Example: Since the weather has improved, the game will be held as planned.

4. Clause of condition convey a direct condition in that the situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the conditional clause.

Example: I will go if I am needed.

5. Clause of result are used for purposes clauses. But, because the subordinators (so that and so) are putative rather than factual, purpose clauses require a modal auxiliary.

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Example: We paid him immediately, so (that) he would leave contented)

6. Clause of concession has function to indicate the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to what one might expect in view of the situation in the concessive clause.

Example: No goals were scored, although it was an exciting game.

7. Clause of comparison with subordinators as, as if, and as though can introduce nonfinite and verbless clauses.

Examples:

58. Fill in the application form as instructed.

59. You should discuss the company with him as though unaware that you were being considered for a job.

2.3 Noun Clause

Noun clause is a dependent clause (subordinate clause) used as a noun. It can be a subject, object, or subject complement. When a subordinate clause assumes the grammatical function of a noun in a sentence, it is said to be a nominal clause. Like noun phrase, nominal clause can function as subject and complement as in 53 to 55:

60. What I had for breakfast gave me heartburn. (subject)

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62. The wonderful thing about English teacher is that all get along so well.

(complement)

Forms

Subordinators which introduce noun clause can be interrogative words, like what, when, where, why, how, etc, question word “ever”, such as: whatever, whenever, whomever, however, etc, and also subordinator whether / if.

Subordinators question word (“wh-question”) is used to connect dependent clause and independent clause.

63. We know how wrote the letter. (direct object)

64. Where is going is a secret. (subject)

65. This is what I think. (subject complement)

Sometimes the subordinator is used as the subject of the verb in the noun clause. Only who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever, can be used as the subject of the verb in the noun clause.

whoever and whomever → mean any person

wherever → means any place

however → means any way (manner)

whichever and whatever → mean anything

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Examples:

66. Whenever you want to leave is fine with me. (subject)

67. She will name him whatever she wants to. (objective complement)

68. They will welcome whoever is there. (subject)

Whether / if – clauses are dependent noun clauses that are formed from yes/no questions and are introduced by the subordinator whether or if. An whether/if – clauses is composed of:

Whether / if + subject + verb + complement

Whether is usually preferred in formal English. It implies choice among alternatives rather than a strict yes / no decision:

69. I would like to know whether (or not) I need an appointment.

If is usually in conversational English and in formal English. It often implies there is a yes / no answer:

70. I asked if they had any job openings.

Functions

Like noun phrase, Noun Clause (Nominal Clauses) may function as subject, object, complement, appositive, and prepositional complement. But the occurrence of noun clauses is more limited than that of noun phrases, because

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semantically the clauses are normally abstract; they refer to such abstractions as events, facts, and ideas. The one exception is the nominal relative clause, which may refer to persons and things and may in fact be alternatively analyzed as noun phrase. Since indirect objects normally refer to persons, we can see why only the nominal relative clause can function as indirect object.

There are six (6) function of noun clause, such as: direct object of transitive verb, indirect object of a transitive verb, object of position, subjective complement, objective complement, apposition to a noun or pronoun, (George E. Wishon. 1980 : 174)

2.4 Adjective Clause

Adjective clause is one of the three kinds of dependent clauses in English. It is also called “Relative Clause”. Adjective clause connects idea by using pronoun that is related to something previously mentioned. Manser (1980:3) explains that Adjective is a word that has function to modify noun or pronoun, and clause is a group of words that contain a marker or subject and verb.

So, from the definition above, adjective clause is a dependent clause that functions as adjective; it modifies noun. Adjective clause is usually introduced by relative pronoun and subordinate conjunction also known as marker such as who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, and why.

The information in the adjective clause itself serves to modify the noun. The function of the objective clause is the same as that of the adjective and that is why this clause is called Adjective Clause. The real point here is that adjective in

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a noun phrase precede the noun whereas adjective clause follows the noun. Adjective clause describes or provides information about something or someone that we have usually already specified.

Sometimes we used adjective clause to identify thing (or human being) to distinguish them from the other similar things (or human being). Adjective clause usually follows whatever it qualifies. So it comes immediately after the subject or the object of the sentences. Adjective clause instead of being called relative clause is also known as Attribute Clause. Therefore, we can recognize adjective clause by looking at the signal word or the marker after the noun (subject or object).

Forms

The formula of pattern of adjective clause that is also called Relative Clause:

Subordinators

subject

+ + subject + verb

Object

Who

Whom Which Whose When

Where

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Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns have a different function. It may be a subject or an object in its own clause, or it may replace a possessive word.

Relative Pronouns as Subjects

The pattern of relative clauses as subjects can be formed as:

Who

Which + verb + complement that

Relative pronouns as subject for humans as reflected in the following sentence:

71. He was a man who was inordinately fond the money.

Relative Pronouns as subject for things / nonhumans are:

72. Certain facts have come to light which are bound to show him up in a most unfavorable light.

Relative Adverbs

Adjective clause (relative clause) may also be introduced by the relative adverbs when and where. Relative adverbs refer to a time or a place, and they replace entire prepositional phrases like on Sunday and in the city.

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When

+ Subject + verb + complement where

The relative adverbs which may introduce adjective clause are:

73. Accordingly she came to Exhampton and first to the three Crown, where Mrs Belling received her with great enthusiasm.

Functions

There are two functions of adjective clause according to the meaning namely: restrictive relative clause and non-restrictive relative clause.

1. Restrictive relative clause

Restrictive relative clause is a clause that cannot be omitted from a sentence if the sentence is to keep its original meaning. Retrictive means ncessary. Therefore, the restrictive relative clause has no commas around it. The subordinator is optionally used in creating restrictive relative clause and it is often omitted if it functions as an object as illustrated in thi example :

74. All the little man on the witness stand had that made him any better than his nearest neighbors was, ….

2. Non-restrictive relative clause

Non-restrictive relative clause is a clause that contains additional information which is not required to give the meaning of the sentence.

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Non-restrictive means unnecessary. Therefore, a non-Non-restrictive relative clause is set off from the other clause by commas. The subordinator is obligatory used in forming non-restrictive relative clause when the subordinator functions as the subject of the clauses as reflected in the following sentence:

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3. SUBORDINATION FOUND IN “TO KILL A

MOCKINGBIRD”

It has already been mentioned in the previous chapter that the subordinate sentences are found in “To Kill a Mockingbird” novel. The sentences were recorded randomly. In this chapter the subordinate sentences consist of three clauses, there are adverb clause, noun clause, and adjective clause:

3.1 Adverb Clause

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause which modifies a verb, an adjective, another in the main clause, or an entire main clause. In an adverb clause, a special introductory word is added to a full subject – predicate structure. This subordinator requires the clause that should be attached to another full predication.

3.1.1 Forms

An adverb clause can be composed by the following patterns:

or:

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3.1.2 Kinds

Every adverb clause is introduced by a subordinator, they are: when, while, after, since, until, as, although, though, because, now that, if, providing, seeing that, as…as, more(er)…that, whether (or not), as much as, where, no matter if, so…that, such (a)…that, same as.

Kinds of adverb clauses are determined by the subordinators used in the clause, usually based on the meaning of the subordinators.

3.1.2.1 Adverb Clause of Time

Adverb clause of time is used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. An adverbial time clause also tells when the action described by the independent clause verb took place. The action or situation in a time clause can occur at the same time or at a different time.

A time clause is introduced by the subordinators when(ever), while, as soon as, after, since, as, before, and until.

While

1. While Walter piled food on his plate, he and Atticus talked together like two men, to the wonderment of Jem and me. (page 24)

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After

3. ….,old Adolf Hitler has been after the Jews and he’s puttin’ ‘em in prisons…(page 244)

Until

4. Until I feared I would lose it, I never loved to read. (page 18)

As soon as

5. …he needed to get married so they ran to the beauty parlor every Saturday afternoon as soon as the sun goes down. (page 237)

6. Please tell him to come over here as soon as he comes in. (page 263)

Since

7. You’ll learn that the Jews have been persecuted since the beginning of history, even driven out of their own country. (page 245)

8. The second change in Maycomb since last year was not one of national significance. (page 251)

Before

9. Before the first morning was over, Miss Caroline Fisher, our teacher, hauled me up to front of the room and patted the palm of my hand with a ruler, then made me stand in the corner until noon. (page 16)

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10. As I was the last to leave, I saw her sink down into her chair and bury her head in her arms. (page 22)

3.1.2.2 Adverb Clause of Place

When it talks about the location or position of something, adverb clause of place is used. Adverb clause of place is introduced by subordinators as given below:

Where means a definite place

11. The judge decided to send the boys to the state industrial school, where boys were sometimes sent for no other reason than to provide them with food and decent shelter. (page 10)

12. He said he couldn’t see my costume much from where he was sitting. (page 259)

Wherever means any place

13. …,the right crawlers and flying insects that beat against the screen the summer long had not gone wherever they go when autumn comes. (page 238)

Anywhere means any place

14. Miss Frutti said she’d know a Maycomb voice anywhere, and there were no Maycomb voices in that parlor last night…… (page 252)

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15. …; he said he wouldn’t be caught anywhere near the high school at something like that. (page 252)

3.1.2.3 Adverb Clause of Reason

An adverbial reason clause answer the question “why?”. The subordinator used in the adverb clause of reason is given along with some examples:

Because

16. …, and that he must do his best not to lose hope because Atticus was doing his best to get him free. (page 234)

17. I suppose she chose me because she knew my name; as I read the alphabet a faint line appeared between her eyebrows, … (page 17)

18. …and I saw her head go up as she went through the door. (page 237)

Now that

19. Now that I was compelled to think about it, reading was something that just came to me, as learning to fasten the seat of my union suit without looking around, or achieving that two boys from a snarl of shoelaces. (page 17)

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3.1.2.4 Adverb Clause of Condition

Adverb clause of condition tells about a possible situation and its consequence. The subordinators which can be used is found in the following:

20. Jem threw open the gate and sped to the side of the house, slapped it with his palm and ran back past us, not waiting to see if his foray was successful. (page 15)

No matter if / no matter whether

21. After that, it didn’t matter whether they went or not. (page 254)

Whether (or not)

22. I didn’t know whether to go into the dining room or stay out. (page 228)

3.1.2.5 Adverb Clause of Result

Adverb clause of result is used to indicate the result of something. The most common subordinators used in this case can be seen in the following:

So…that

23. Jem stood in thought so long that Dill made a mild concession:...(page 14)

24. They had so little sense of family that the whole tribes was one big family. (page 251)

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3.1.2.5 Adverb Clause of Concession

When making two contrastive statement in a sentence, adverb clause of concession is used. The subordinators used in the adverb clause of concession are found in the following:

Though

25. And so they went, down the row of laughing women, around the dining room, refilling coffee cups, dishing out goodies as though their only regret was the temporary domestic disaster of losing Calpurnia. (page 237)

26. There was one odd thing, though, that I never understood:…..(page 243)

3.1.2.6Adverb Clause of Comparison

This kind adverb clause may be divided into two types:

1. Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree 2. Adverb Clause of Comparison of Manner

1. Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree

This kind of adverb refers to compare between equal or unequal things in a sentence. Here is a list of the most common subordinators used in adverb clause of comparison of degree which are provided with some examples:

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As…as

27. When in tranquility, her grammar was as good as anybody’s in Maycomb. (page 24)

28. He was as tall as Atticus, but thinner. (page 94)

The verb or the dependent clause above is omitted. The comparison is not stated; rather, it is implied.

More(er)…than

29. Nothing is more deadly than a deserted, waiting street. (page 94)

So…as

30. We had slowed to a cautious gait, and were feeling our way forward so as not to bump into the tree. (page 255)

31. he’s got a bad break, so far as I can tell now it’s in the elbow. (page 264)

2. Adverb Clause of Comparison of Manner

This kind of adverb clause talks about someone’s behavior or the way something is done. The subordinators used in this kind of adverb clause are given with their respective examples as follows:

32. The old house was the same, droopy and sick, but as we stared down the street we thought we saw an inside shutter move. (page 15)

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As if

33. His fists were half cocked, as if expecting an onslaught from both of us. (page 23)

34. He walked erratically, as if his right legs were shorter than his left legs. (page 93)

3.1.3 Functions

Like adverbial prepositional phrases, adverbial subordinate clauses can convey a number of adverbial meanings. There are some functions of adverbial clause (Hancock. 2005: 2005) :

1. Time Clause has function depending in large part on the subordinator, the time of the matrix clause may be previous to that of the adverbial clause (with subordinator until), simultaneous with it or establish two events as happening simultaneously (with subordinator while), or subsequent to it (subordinator after).

Examples:

35. Until I feared I would lose it, I never loved to read. (page 18)

36. While Walter piled food on his plate, he and Atticus talked together like two men, to the wonderment of Jem and me. (page 24)

37. ….,old Adolf Hitler has been after the Jews and he’s puttin’ ‘em in prisons…(page 244)

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2. Clause of place has function to indicate position and direction.

Examples:

38. The judge decided to send the boys to the state industrial school, where boys were sometimes sent for no other reason than to provide them with food and decent shelter. (page 10)

39. …,the right crawlers and flying insects that beat against the screen the summer long had not gone wherever they go when autumn comes. (page 238)

3. Clause of reason has function to convey a direct relationship with the matrix clause.

Example:

40. …, and that he must do his best not to lose hope because Atticus was doing his best to get him free. (page 234)

4. Clause of condition conveys a direct condition in that the situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the conditional clause.

Example:

41. Jem threw open the gate and sped to the side of the house, slapped it with his palm and ran back past us, not waiting to see if his foray was successful. (page 15)

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5. Clause of result are used for purposes clauses. But, because the subordinators (so that and so) are putative rather than factual, purpose clauses require a modal auxiliary.

6. Clause of concession has function to indicate the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to what one might expect in view of the situation in the concessive clause.

Example:

42. And so they went, down the row of laughing women, around the dining room, refilling coffee cups, dishing out goodies as though their only regret was the temporary domestic disaster of losing Calpurnia. (page 237)

7. Clause of comparison with subordinators as, as if, and as though can introduce nonfinite and verbless clauses.

Example:

43. When in tranquility, her grammar was as good as anybody’s in Maycomb. (page 24)

3.2 Noun Clause

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nominal clause, like noun phrase, nominal clause can function as subject and complement as in 44 to 46:

44. What Jem called the Dewey Decimal system was school wide by the end of my first year, so I had no chance to compare it with other teaching techniques. (page 32)

The position of the nominal clause of the sentence above is to show subject.

45. This was news, news that put a different light on things: Atticus had to, whether he wanted to or not. (page 163)

The position of the nominal clause of the sentence above is to show object.

46. I moved faster when I saw Jem far ahead beckoning in the moonlight. (page 52)

The position of the nominal clause of the sentence above is to show complement.

3.2.1 Forms

Subordinators which introduce noun clause can be interrogative words (plus word “ever” and particles or connectors as : what, when, where, whom, why, that, and whether).

3.2.1.1 Question Words (‘Wh-Questions”)

Subordinators in form question word are used to connect dependent clause and independent clause. Noun clause that is question words could be seen from To Kill a Mockingbird novel, such as:

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When

47. When enough years had gone by to enable us to look back on them, we sometimes discussed the events leading to his accident. (page 3)

The position of noun clause of sentence above is to show object of a participle.

48. That spring when we found a crokersack full of turnip greens, Atticus said Mr. Cunningham had more than paid him. (page 21)

The position of noun clause of sentence above is to show appositives.

49. I moved faster when I saw Jem far ahead beckoning in the moonlight. (page 52)

The position of noun clause of sentence above is to show object of an infinitive.

Where

50. …Atticus had said Jem would be delighted to show me where my room was. (page 15)

The position of noun clause of sentence above is to show object of a preposition.

51. My first impulse was to get it into my mouth as quickly as possible, but I remembered where I was. (page 33)

52. I walked beyond Jem and stood where I could see around the curve. (page 48)

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What

53. They never took anything off of anybody, they get along on what they have. (page 20)

54. What Jem called the Dewey Decimal system was school wide by the end of my first year, so I had no chance to compare it with other teaching techniques. (page 32)

55. I don’t care what you do, so long as you do something. (page 67)

56. ….They were what we had asked for. (page 79)

Who

57. He was one of the few men of science who never terrified me. (page 78)

58. Jem showed it to Atticus, who said it was a spelling medal, that before we were born the Maycomb County schools had spelling contests and awarded medals to the winners. (page 60)

59. Aunty and uncle Jimmy produced a son named Henry, who left home as soon as was humanly possible, married, and produced Francis. (page 77)

60. I went so far as to pay a nickel for the privilege of rubbing my head against the head of Miss Rachel’s cook’s son, who was afflicted with a tremendous ringworm. (page 75)

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Whom

Whom is used if the verb in the noun clause already has a subject.

61. Miss Caroline seemed unaware that the ragged, denim-shirted and floursack-skirted first grade, most of whom had chopped cotton and fed hogs from the time they were able to walk, were immune to imaginative literature. (page 145)

Why

62. Why reasonable people go stark raving mad when anything involving a Negro comes up, is something I don’t pretend to understand. (page 88)

How

63. But I never figured out how Atticus knew I was listening, and it was not until many years later that I realized he wanted me to hear every word he said. (page 89)

3.2.1.2 Question Words + Word “ever”

Sometimes the subordinator is used as the subject of the verb in the noun clause. Only who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever, can be used as the subject of the verb in the noun clause.

whoever and whomever → mean any person

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however → means any way (manner)

whichever and whatever → mean anything

whenever → means any time

Question words + “ever” can also be subordinators that introduce noun clause as In the following:

Whoever

64. “…, Miss Eula May, can you call Miss Rachel and Miss Stephanie Crawford and whoever’s got a phone on this street and tell ‘em a mad dog’s comin’? Please ma’am!” (page 93)

65. Whoever it was wore thick cotton pants; what I thought were trees rustling was the soft swish of cotton on cotton, wheek, wheek, with every step. (page 261)

However

However used to introduce a noun clause is not the same as the conjunctive adverb. Compare the following sentences that found in To Kill a Mockingbird novel.

66. At the time, however, I thought the only explanation for what he did was that for a few minutes he simply went mad. (page 102)

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67. We could tell, however, when debate became more acrimonious than professional, but this was from watching lawyers other than our father. (page 171)

The subordinator “however” in the sentence above means “although”.

Whichever

68. ….but he managed to tell everything he knew to aunt Alexandra, who in turn unburdened herself to Atticus, who either forgot it or gave me hell, whichever struck his fancy. (page 81)

Whatever

69. Whatever she says to you, it’s your job not to let her make you mad. (page 100)

70. Don’t get in a row of collards whatever you do, they’ll wake the dead.” (page 52)

71. Whatever I had stepped on was gone. (page 139)

Whenever

72. Whenever he wanted to see something well, he turned his head and looked from his right eye. (page 89)

73. Whenever he performed a minor service for Jem and me, as removing a splinter from a foot, he would tell us exactly what he was going to do. (page 78)

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74. Miss Maudie’s benevolence extended to Jem and Dill, whenever they paused in their pursuits: we reaped the benefits of a talent Miss Maudie had hitherto kept hidden from us. (page 43)

3.2.1.3 Whether / If

Whether / if – clause is dependent noun clause that is formed from yes/no questions and introduced by the subordinator whether or if. An whether/if – clause is composed of:

Whether / if + subject + verb + complement

75. …and I wondered if this explanation would be as unsuccessful as my attempt. (page 27)

76. Safely in the yard, Dill asked Jim if we could play anymore. (page 41)

77. This was news, news that put a different light on things: Atticus had to, whether he wanted to or not. (page 163)

78. I didn’t know whether to go into the dining room or stay out. (page 228)

3.2.2 Functions

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events, facts, and ideas. The one exception is the nominal relative clause, which may refer to persons and things and may in fact be alternatively analyzed as noun phrase. Since indirect objects normally refer to persons, we can see why only the nominal relative clause can function as indirect object.

The functions of noun clause that found in To Kill a Mockingbird novel are:

3.2.2.1 Direct Object of Transitive Verb

A noun clause can be used a direct object of transitive verb as the next sentences mentioned:

79. …and I wondered if this explanation would be as unsuccessful as my attempt. (page 27)

80. “I know what we are going to play,” he announced. (page 38)

81. I said if they did I didn’t see how they got anything done. (page 59)

82. I decided that she had been swapped at birth, that my grandparents had perhaps received a Crawford instead of a Finch. (page 77)

3.2.2.2 Indirect Object of a Transitive Verb

Noun clause also can perform as the indirect object of a transitive verb as illustrated the following example:

83. But the only time I ever heard Atticus speak sharply to anyone was when I once heard him say. (page 81)

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3.2.2.3 Object of a Preposition

Besides being an object of a transitive verb, a noun clause can also function as the object of a preposition. The sentence can be found below:

84. A pronouncement that made me suspect they had been fussing again. (page 147)

3.2.2.4 Subjective Complement

A noun clause can function as the complement of a verb of incomplete predication. It is commonly called subjective complement as reflected in the following sentences:

85. I decided that she had been swapped at birth, that my grandparents had perhaps received a Crawford instead of a Finch. (page 77)

3.2.2.5 Objective Complement

A noun clause may serve a function as the complement of an object. It is commonly called objective complement as illustrated in the next example:

86. We leaped over the low wall that separated Miss Rachel’s yard from our driveway. (page 50)

3.3 Adjective Clause

Adjective clause is one of the three kinds of dependent clauses in English. It is also called “Relative Clause”. Adjective clause connects idea by using pronoun that is related to something previously mentioned. Manser (1980:3)

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explains that Adjective is a word that has function to modify noun or pronoun, and clause is a group of words that contain a marker or subject and verb.

So, from the definition above, adjective clause is a dependent clause function as adjective; it modifies noun. Adjective clauses usually introduced by relative pronoun and subordinate conjunction also known as marker such as who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, and why.

3.3.1 Forms

The formula of pattern of adjective clause that is also called Relative Clause:

Subordinators

subject

+ + subject + verb

Object

3.3.1 Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns have a different function. It may be a subject or an object in its own clause, or it may replace a possessive word.

Who

Whom Which Whose When

Where

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Relative Pronouns as Subjects

The pattern of relative clauses as subjects can be formed as:

Who

Which + verb + complement that

Relative pronouns as subject for human as reflected in the following sentence in To Kill a Mockingbird novel are:

87. but Aunt Alexandra, who was sitting in a corner quitely sewing, put down her embroidery and stared at us. (p.135)

88. We left the corner, crossed the side street than ran in front of Radley house, and stopped at the gate. (p.15)

Relative Pronouns as subject for things / nonhumans are:

89. Aticus’s remarks were still rankling, which made me miss the request in Jem’s question. (p.137)

90. He wore an ordinary business suit, which made him look somehow like every other man. (p.166)

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3.3.1.2 Relative Adverbs

Relative adverbs are composed of:

When

+ Subject + verb + complement where

The relative adverbs which may introduce adjective clause are:

Where

91. ….he rowed across to a foggy island where all these babies were; … (p.144)

92. …and concluded that the only way I could retire with a shred of dignity was to go to the bathroom, where I stayed long enough to make them think I had to go. (p.136)

When

93. Why reasonable people go stark raving mad when anything involving a Negro comes up, is something I don’t pretend to understand. (p.88)

3.3.4 Functions

There are two functions of adjective clause according to the meaning namely: restrictive relative clause and non - restrictive relatiive clause.

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1. Restrictive Relative Clause

Restrictive relative clause is a clause that cannot be omitted from a sentence if the sentence I to keep its original meaning. Retrictive means necessary. Therefore, the restrictive relative clause has no commas around it. The subordinator is optionally used in creating restrictive relative clause and it is often omitted if it functions as an object as illustrated in this example:

94. All the little man on the witness stand had that made him any better than his nearest neighbors was,…. (p.171)

2. Non-restrictive Relative Clause

Non-restrictive relative claue is a clause that contains additional information which is not required to give the meaning of the sentence. Non-retrictive relative clause means unnecessary. Therefore, a non-Non-retrictive relative clause is set off from the other clauses by commas. The subordinator is obligatory used in forming non-restrictive relative clause when the subordinator functions as the subject of the clauses as reflected in the following sentence:

95. Atticus and my uncle, who went to school at home, knew everything. (p.32)

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4.CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

4.1Conclusions

Subordination introduces a main clauses and a subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses always begin with subordinators. Subordinator is a process of joining two clauses into a complex sentence with a subordinator. The subordinators may be classified into two main categories. They are based on their forms and functions.

There are three forms of subordinators, they are: adverbial clause, noun clause, and adjective clause. Adverb clause is introduced by adverbial subordinators while, after, until, since, as, although, though, because, now that, if, providing, seeing that, as…as, more(er)…that, whether (or not), as much as, where, no matter if, so…that, and same as. Adverb clause has function to show a timing (when something happens), a definite place or any place, a reason for the question “why?”, to tells about a possible situation and its consequence, to indicate the result of something, and to compare between equal or unequal things in a sentence.

The form of noun clause can be introduced by the interogative words, question word + word “ever”, and also by subordinator whether / if. Noun Clause has six (6) functions: direct object of transitive verb, indirect object of a transitive verb, object of position, subjective complement, objective complement, and apposition to a noun or pronoun.

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The form of adjective clause is introduced by subordinators who, whom, which, whose, when, where, and that. Adjective clause has function as restrictive relative clause and non-restrictive relative clause..

Subordinators produce subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone because it depends on the main clause and does not have a complete thought. The using of subordination in To Kill a Mockingbird novel uses too many compound sentences, so that the paragraph looks boring and ineffective. But some sentences that its subordinators omitted, makes this novel is interested.

4.2Suggestions

Having analyzed the topic of this study, the writer suggests that the readers should not regard the topic concerning subordination as a difficult thing. It can be easy if the readers would analyze it in a simple way. The first basic step is to master the part of speech well, especially conjunction, and second to comprehend simple sentence well.

Finally the writer suggests that the readers especially the student of Faculty of Letters, USU, Medan should master how to apply subordinators in various usage to make the writing flow more smoothly and to clarify the relationships between the main clause and the subordinate clause.

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REFERENCES

Biber, Douglas, dkk. 2004. Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. England: Pearson Education Limited.

E, George Wishon and Julia M. Burks. 1980. Let’s Write English Revised Edition. USA: Litton Education Publishing, Inc.

Greenbaun, Sidney and Randolph Quirk. 2003. A Student’s Grammar of The English Language. England: Longman Group Ltd.

Halliday, M.A.K. (edited by Jonathan J.Webster). 2002. On Grammar. China: Peking University Press.

Hancock, Craig. 2005. Meaning – Centered Grammar An Introductory text. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd.

K, Werner Patricia, dkk. 1990. Interactions II A communicative Grammar. Singapore: Mc Graw – Hill.

Lee, Harper. 1960. To Kill a Mockingbird. America: A time Warner Company. Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 1999. Writing Academic English. England:

Longman Group Ltd.

Rika, T. Zulaika. 2007. Subordination in The Sittaford Mystery By Agatha Christie.

Rozakis, Laurie. 2003. English Grammar for the Utterly Confused. United States America: The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Washington, Carroll Pollock. 1982. Communicate What You Mean. USA: Prentice Hall.

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Relative Pronouns as Subjects

The pattern of relative clauses as subjects can be formed as:

Who

Which + verb + complement that

Relative pronouns as subject for human as reflected in the following sentence in To Kill a Mockingbird novel are:

87. but Aunt Alexandra, who was sitting in a corner quitely sewing, put down her embroidery and stared at us. (p.135)

88. We left the corner, crossed the side street than ran in front of Radley house, and stopped at the gate. (p.15)

Relative Pronouns as subject for things / nonhumans are:

89. Aticus’s remarks were still rankling, which made me miss the request in Jem’s question. (p.137)

90. He wore an ordinary business suit, which made him look somehow like every other man. (p.166)

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3.3.1.2 Relative Adverbs

Relative adverbs are composed of:

When

+ Subject + verb + complement where

The relative adverbs which may introduce adjective clause are:

Where

91.….he rowed across to a foggy island where all these babies were; … (p.144)

92.…and concluded that the only way I could retire with a shred of dignity was to go to the bathroom, where I stayed long enough to make them think I had to go. (p.136)

When

93.Why reasonable people go stark raving mad when anything involving a Negro comes up, is something I don’t pretend to understand. (p.88)

3.3.4 Functions

There are two functions of adjective clause according to the meaning namely: restrictive relative clause and non - restrictive relatiive clause.

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1. Restrictive Relative Clause

94. All the little man on the witness stand had that made him any better than his nearest neighbors was,…. (p.171)

2. Non-restrictive Relative Clause

95. Atticus and my uncle, who went to school at home, knew everything. (p.32)

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4.CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

4.1Conclusions

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4.2Suggestions

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REFERENCES

Biber, Douglas, dkk. 2004. Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. England: Pearson Education Limited.

E, George Wishon and Julia M. Burks. 1980. Let’s Write English Revised Edition. USA: Litton Education Publishing, Inc.

Greenbaun, Sidney and Randolph Quirk. 2003. A Student’s Grammar of The English Language. England: Longman Group Ltd.

Halliday, M.A.K. (edited by Jonathan J.Webster). 2002. On Grammar. China: Peking University Press.

Hancock, Craig. 2005. Meaning – Centered Grammar An Introductory text. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd.

K, Werner Patricia, dkk. 1990. Interactions II A communicative Grammar. Singapore: Mc Graw – Hill.

Lee, Harper. 1960. To Kill a Mockingbird. America: A time Warner Company. Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 1999. Writing Academic English. England:

Longman Group Ltd.

Rika, T. Zulaika. 2007. Subordination in The Sittaford Mystery By Agatha Christie.

Rozakis, Laurie. 2003. English Grammar for the Utterly Confused. United States America: The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Washington, Carroll Pollock. 1982. Communicate What You Mean. USA: Prentice Hall.

Subordinations In “To Kill A Mockingbird” By Harper Lee