Word formation on medical terms in new york time magazine’s articles
WORD FORMATION ON MEDICAL TERMS IN NEW YORK TIME
MAGAZINE’S ARTICLES
A Thesis
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Strata One
RANA MEISARA
1110026000028
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA
2014
ABSTRACT
Rana Meisara, Word Formation on Medical Terms in New York TIME magazine’s
articles. Thesis: English letters Department of Letters and Humanities Faculty,
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, December 2014.
It is a research of morphological phenomenon which focuses on the
process of word formation on medical terms in New York TIME magazine’s
articles. The writer took seven articles in seven montly different edition of New
York Time Magazine, namely, edition of January 13th 2014 entitle “The Doctor
Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine Apps aim to Replace Nonemergency Visits”;
edition of June 2nd, 2014 entitle “What You Need to Know About MERS: A
dangerous new disease has gone global”; edition of July 21st, 2014 entitle “The
Cancer Tests You Need: Cutting through confusion on what screenings to get—
and when”; September 1st, 2014 entitle “Mammograms Go 3-D: A High-Tech
imaging breakthrough could pick up more cancer”; edition of October 27th, 2014
entitle “Medical Momentum: Scientists make major moves in tackling five
challenging diseases”; edition of November 24th, 2014 entitle “Mindfulness for
Men: Yoga has some new fans—and science says that’s a very good thing”;
edition of Decemberijctjtyfacts are getting harder to ignore” for the corpus.
Conceptual morphology is used by the writer to analyze the words which
experience word formation process and classify the types of word formation on
the medical terms. The writer starts the analysis by reading the article, and then
classifies the medical terms which exist in the texts. After that, the data is outlined
in a description which includes morphological process, identifying morpheme,
analyze the word formation process, morphophonological process, and dictionary.
From the analysis of the seven monthly different editions of TIME magazine’s
articles, it can be said that there are 39 data found, 28 derivatives found on the
medical terms in this New York TIME Magazine’s articles. seven compound
words, three abbreviations, and only one acronym. Moreover, from the sample
chosen as represent the other data in the analysis, it is containing eight derivatives
which are class changing and there are three derivatives which are class
maintaining. Furthermore there is no truncation, blend, cretion de novo, and
eponym found in the development of medical term in this analysis.
Keywords: Word formation, Morphology, TIME Magazine.
i
ii
iii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Jakarta, November 28st 2014
Rana Meisara
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
Praise and Gratitude be to Allah SWT, the Lord of Universe, who has
given the writer guidance and strength, thus she could finish this thesis completely.
Peace and Salutation be upon the messenger of Allah, Prophet Muhammad SAW,
his family, his companions, and his adherents. May peace and blessing of Allah be
upon all of us.
On this occasion, first and foremost, the writer wants to express her
biggest sincere thanks and love, and also acknowledge her debt to her parents,
Mat. Rasin and Umi Hasanah. Thanks for all the non-stop support, financially and
spiritually, that has always motivated the writer to proudly finish this thesis.
Moreover, the writer also would like to convey her gratitude and also
acknowledge her debt to the following person:
1. Dr. H. Wahid Hasyim, M. Ag, the Dean of Adab and Humanities faculty
(2010-2014), for his motivation and advice to immediately complete the
writer’s study in English Letter and Literature Department.
2.
Prof. Dr. Oman Fathurahman, M. Hum, the Dean Adab and Humanities
faculty.
v
3. Drs. Saefudin, M.Pd, the Head of English Letters Department who is also
one of the writer’s advisor, for sacrificing his precious time to guide the
writer in completing her thesis.
4. Elve Octafiyani, M.Hum, the Secretary of the English Letters Department;
5. Dhuha Hadiyansyah, M.Hum, the writer’s advisor who always willing
spare his time to patiently guide and teach the writer in many ways to
complete her study and thesis.
6. All of the lecturers in English Letters Department for teaching and guiding
her very well during her study at State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta.
7. All of her family member for every support and pleased moments which
spent together with laugh and love even at the period of passing through
the hard times.
8. The writer friends in English Letters and Literature Department of 2010,
especially for Elbie and Linguistic A. Thanks for the friendship, help,
advice and support that will never found in any other Department. Some
crazy and silly folks, yet The writer’s happiness and spirit, Fithria
Luthfiyani, Thia Askayuli, Bagus Putra Ramadansyah, Muhamad Sazali,
Debi Novia Ningrum, Yuliana Kuslambang Ningrum, and Fahmi
Fahrurroji, for the caring, laugh, motivation, and all the precious moments
spent together in happy, fun, sad, bad or even in difficult situations the
writer has during her study;
vi
9. KKN Yellow (Youth Influential Fellowship), Muhammad Adi Rahman,
Muhammad Reza Hermanto, Ridho Alvin Harfian, Shakuntala Febrina,
Melina Hadera, Christie Adi Oktaviyana, Pranisa Syifadelima, Andriesta
Saputri, Nurali, Fatih Adzkia, Leiza Sixmansyah, Rian Lisandi,
Muhammad Semmy, Fithria Luthfiyani, Thia Askayuli and Bagus Putra
Ramadhansya, thanks for the good experiences and memories of being
together during the projects in Pasarean, Bogor, and for always being
some good and caring friends. Moreover, to GZB Ayunda Sabrina, Anita
Rahma, and Farizky Sharfina who always give the writer support even
from afar, yet it really motivates the writer during her study.
10. The employers of some University Libraries who have helped the writer in
finding some references for her thesis.
11. All the people and friends who have helped the writer in finishing her
study indirectly that cannot be mentioned one by one.
The writer cannot stop being thankful to God for this one complete
package of support that the writer receives to finish her study. May Allah SWT
bless them and their family. Moreover, this research is expected to be useful for
all the people who read it. Suggestion and criticism will be accepted for the
improvement of this thesis.
Jakarta, November 28st, 2014
The Writer
vii
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1 : Classification of Medical Terms from Data Card.............................. 39
Table 2 : Sample data that will be analyzed...................................................... 41
viii
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL SHEET ........................................................................................... ii
LEGALIZATION................................................................................................ iii
DECLARATION................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................. v
THE LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................... viii
THE LIST OF CONTENT ................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
A. Background of Study .................................................................................. 1
B. Focus of the Study ...................................................................................... 5
C. Research Questions ..................................................................................... 6
D. Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 6
E. Research Methodology ............................................................................... 6
1.
The Objective of Research ................................................................... 6
2.
The Method of Research ...................................................................... 6
3.
The Technique of Data Collection and Data Analysis ......................... 7
4.
Instrument of The Research ................................................................. 8
5.
Unit of Analysis ................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................... 10
A. Previous Research ..................................................................................... 10
B. Theoretical Description ............................................................................. 14
1. Morphology .......................................................................................... 14
ix
2. Word Formation ................................................................................... 16
3. Morpheme ............................................................................................ 18
4. Affixes .................................................................................................. 21
5. Concept of Derivation and Inflection ................................................... 23
6. Concept of Derivation Without Affix .................................................. 26
7. The transpositions which happen due to the process of derivation
according to Rozelin (2011) ................................................................. 28
8. Compound ........................................................................................... 32
9. Truncation ............................................................................................ 34
10. Blend .................................................................................................... 35
11. Abbreviation and Acronyms ................................................................ 35
12. Creation de novo (neologism) and Eponyms ....................................... 36
CHAPTER III. FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS .................................... 38
A. Data Description ....................................................................................... 38
B. Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 39
CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ................................... 73
A. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 73
B. Suggestion ................................................................................................. 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 76
APPENDIX .......................................................................................................... 79
x
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background of Study
In spoken and written language, we need a collection of words to build
a good sentence. However, according to Katamba (1993), there is an
assumption that words are taken for granted by most people in language. 1 In
fact, there are some difference views about what units are considered as
words. For instance, English speakers might not agree whether all right is
one word or two and as a result disputes may arise as to whether allright is
the correct way of writing all right.2
According to Crystal (1980) as quoted by Ba’dulu and Herman,
morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the internal structure
or form of words.3 Moreover, Bloomfield, in his book Language (1933) and
his essays magazine entitle A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language
(1920), showed that descriptive linguistics Americans was no longer pay
attention to the word, but rather to the morpheme as a unit of language in
language analysis, as Parera informed in his book Morfologi (1988).4 It is
important for people who want to master a particular language to understand
better about the morphology of the language. That is one of the reasons why
1
Francis Katamba, Morphology, (London: The Macmillan press, 1993), p. 17
ibid
3
Abdul Muis Ba’dulu and Herman, Morfosintaksis, (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2005)
4
Jos Daniel Parera, Morfologi, (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1988), p. 14
2
1
2
morphology becomes a compulsory subject for students of linguistics and
literature.5
Some words may sounds unfamiliar or not common in general society.
In certain fields, such as economics, politics, and medical field usually have
a certain or special words which are not common in society. Refers to
several media, public health becomes a crucial issue in today’s global
society. It can be seen from a number of reports around the world. Recently,
WHO (World Health Organization) lays out some headlines associated to
certain diseases which endemic and feared throughout the world, mainly,
Ebola in African Region.6
The other diseases are also reported frequently, such as MERS in Arab
Saudi, West Nile virus in Brazil, Plague in Madagascar, and the other health
issues.7 In some printed media also never fail to present news on health.
According to the facts above, it is necessary to acknowledge the developing
of medical terminology which rarely to be heard to gain the understanding
in the discussion of public health. The process of this word building is
related to the rule of part of language mechanics called linguistics.
Therefore, when a term is developed, some logical process is applied.
In English, there are some types of word formation process which has
different rules in build a word. For instance, the word olive oil may at first
be considered as two different words. But, it turns out that olive oil is a word
Quoted from Zaenal Arifin dan Junaiyah, “Morfologi: Bentuk, Makna, dan Fungsi‖,
http://zaenalarifin28.wordpress.com/2010/04/16/morfologi-bentuk-makna-dan-fungsi/ accessed on
28 November 2013.
6
World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/en/ accessed on December 18th 2014.
7
Ibid
5
3
which consist in two morphemes. If the word olive and oil is stand alone in
a sentence, it can be said as a word, but if these two words are combined
with an identity and a paradigm, then these two words are no longer called a
word, but morphemes that make up a new word which has a meaning of ‗a
kind of oil made from olives’. This formation process is called compound
word.
There is also the process of word formation which has more than one
morpheme known as morphemes. Either it is derivative or inflective. 8
Matthews (1974) in Edi Subroto (2012) divided the morphology into two
branches, namely, inflectional morphology and lexical morphology. 9 Two
things which include the lexical morphology are derivation and composition.
Lexical morphology is reviewing the rules of word formation that produces
new words which lexically have a new identity or in contrast to the word
base.
This was consistent with the Marchand’s formulation (1962) in Edi
Subroto (2012) that "word formation is the branch of the science of
language which studies the pattern on which a language form new lexical
units. i.e. word". For example, injection, one of the words in the article, is a
complex word which has more than one morpheme. When the suffix -ion is
attached to the word inject. Then at the same time, it changes the paradigm
of the word, from a verb that indicates an action of ‗to put a liquid such as a
8
Jos Daniel Parera, Loc.Cit., p. 18
Quoted from Edi Subroto, “Infleksi dan Derivasi: Kemungkinan Penerapannya dalam
Morfologi Bahasa Indonesia”, p. 53 http://edisubroto.staff.uns.ac.id/files/2012/02/DERIVASIDAN-INFLEKSI3.pdf accessed on November 28th, 2013
9
4
drug into a person's body’10 into a noun that has a meaning of ‗An instance
of injecting or being injected’11. And also, the other word formation types
like blends, truncation, abbreviation, acronyms, eponyms, and creation de
novo (nelologisms) will be discussed here.
This research took seven articles from a newsmagazine naming New
York Time; the major American weekly newsmagazine that is published in
New York City, as the corpus. The magazine is written in English as its
language in use. It was the creation of two young journalists Henry R. Luce
and Briton Hadden. They wanted to start a magazine that would inform busy
readers in a systematic, concise, and well-organized manner about current
events in the United States and the rest of the world. The magazine sought
to present the news in narrative form. TIME has the world’s largest
circulation as a weekly magazine. It attained a circulation of more than
175,000 by 1927, and it became the most influential newsmagazine in the
United States.12
Moreover, TIME magazine has a readership of 25 million, which 20
million of them are based in the United States.13 Those records are the main
reason for the writer to choose the magazine as the analysis unit of this
research. The health column has attracted the attention from all the rubrics
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Digital, 2008
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/injection?searchDictCode=all
12
Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596077/Time
accessed on march 10th, 2014
13
Time (Magazine), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 accessed on
December 13th, 2014
10
11
5
in the magazine. It is because there are some medical terms which seem
unfamiliar to understand.
Word classes are always said to be one of the discussions in the analysis
of language. This research will be very concerned about how adjectives can
be derived from nouns, nouns from verbs, verbs from adjectives and the
other transpositions. However, this is very important because the terms for a
class of words, such as adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverb must be
understood correctly.
Since medical terms continues to increase and being the important
issues to be understood by the public in concerning their health, it is decided
that to investigate this study in the first place. Forms a word by adding
affixes or without affixes can generate new lexemes. From the formation, a
word may have a different meaning from the previous word. It would be
great if some new words which we have never heard before may found.
This study will outline the word formation process, how that word
formation process occur in developing medical terminology and will also
classify the types of word formation on the terms contained in the articles.
B.
Focus of the Study
This study will be limited to the word formation process of medical
terms contained in the seven articles of TIME magazine. How the process
occurs and what type of word formation which occurs to each terms.
6
C.
Research Question
a.
How is the word formation process of medical terms which contains in
the articles?
b. What are the types of word formation that occur to the medical terms in
the articles?
D.
Significance of The Study
Theoretically, this research is expected to be useful in society, in the
field of health, and education field, especially in the study of morphology.
In addition, it practically provides more extensive information and
knowledge to the reader about medical term appeared frequently in this era
which is not that familiar for the public in general.
E.
Research Methodology
1.
The Objective of Research
This research aims to explain the word formation process of some
medical terms contains in the seven articles of TIME magazine and
classify the type of each term according to the concept of word
formation.
2.
The Method of research
This research uses qualitative case study as the method in analyzing.
According to Merriam (1988) as quoted by Nunan (1992), qualitative
7
case study can be defined as an intensive, holistic description and
analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unit.14
This research will be using Structural Morphology as the main
theory and the concept of word formation in analyzing. The analysis
will outline the process of word formation of medical terminologies in
seven different rubrics of health from seven different edition of TIME
magazine and classify the type of word formation which occurs in each
term.
3.
The Technique of Data Collection and Data Analysis
In this research, the data collected by using bibliography technique
(tehnik pustaka) where is the written sources used to obtain data.15 The
data will be gained by data card which focuses to the medical term in
the articles. There are several steps in collecting the data:
1. Adopts seven articles from TIME magazine in seven different
monthly editions.
2. Concerns to the articles related to medical issue, which is in
TIME magazine usually classified in Health rubric.
3. Reads the seven articles,
4. Marks all the medical terms in the articles and then writes down
on the data card.
14
David Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992), p. 77.
15
Edi Subroto, Pengantar Metoda Penelitian Linguistik Struktural, (Surakarta: Sebelas
Maret University Press, 1992), p. 42.
8
After the data has been collected, the data will be analyzed using
Structural Morphology for the word formation process, and will classify
the type of word formation on each term.
4.
Instrument of the Research
Data card16 is the instrument that is used in this research to identify
the data from the seven articles of TIME magazine based on each types
of word formation. Then, the data which focuses to medical term will
be analized with structural Morphology and word formation concept.
5.
Unit of Analysis
The unit analysis of this research is seven articles in seven different
edition of New York Time magazine. The title of the articles as follows:
1.
“The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps aim to
replace nonemergency visits” by Alexandra Sifferlin, TIME
magazine edition of January 13th, 2014;
2. “What You Need to Know About MERS: A dangerous new
disease has gone global” by Alice Park, TIME magazine
edition of June 2nd, 2014;
3. “The Cancer Tests You Need: Cutting through confusion on
what screenings to get—and when” by Alexandra Sifferlin,
TIME magazine edition of July 21st, 2014;
16
Ibid
9
4. “Mammograms Go 3-D: A High-Tech imaging breakthrough
could pick up more cancer” by Alice Park, TIME magazine
edition of September 1st, 2014;
5. “Medical Momentum: Scientists make major moves in tackling
five challenging diseases” by Alice Park and Mandy Oaklander,
TIME magazine edition of October 27th, 2014;
6. “Mindfulness for Men: Yoga has some new fans—and science
says that’s a very good thing” by Mandy Oaklander, TIME
magazine edition of November 24th, 2014;
7. “The Great American Calorie Crackdown: Why some nutrition
facts are getting harder to ignore” by Mandy Oaklander, TIME
magazine edition of December 15th, 2014.
10
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Previous Research
This research is not the only one which analyzes word formation
phenomena. There are some previous studies which have concerned related to
this topic. In this section, five previous studies will be reviewed to this
research. The first study came from State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta which was made by Putri Sari Romadhon (2013), the
second study also came from the same faculty at the same university which is
made by Mega Arisanty (2014), the third is from Journal of Educational and
Social Research written by Nereida Shqerra and Endri Shqerra (2014), the
forth is from Journal of Speech and Hearing Research written by Lewis DJ,
Windsor J (1996), and the last comes from scholarly journal of Cambridge
University press written by Kim Say Yong, Wang Min, and Ko In Yeong
(2011).
The first study made by Putri Sari Romadhon (2013) is entitle
“Morphological Analysis on The Article Vocational High School in Klaten
Produces Suv Cars of The Jakarta Post‖. 17 This study focuses to the
occurrence of derivational and inflectional affixes and the process of IC
(Immediate Constituent) in each derivational and inflectional word in one of
The Jakarta Post article edition of October 22nd 2011. For the main theories of
Putri Sari Romadhon, “Morphological Analysis on The Article Vocational High School
in Klaten Produces Suv Cars of The Jakarta Post”, unpublished bachelor thesis, (Jakarta: UIN
Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013)
17
10
11
this research she took Katamba and Norman’s definition of Affixation and
derivation. From her research she found about a hundred affixes words that
can be classified into derivational affixes and inflectional affixes.
Derivational prefixes with four prefixes contain seven words. Derivational
suffixes with sixteen suffixes contain fifty words. And inflectional suffixes
with six suffixes contain fifty- seven words.
The second study made by Mega Arisanty (2014) is entitle ―An Analysis
of Word Formation Processes in Instagram of Simple Plan, One Direction,
Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers Band‖.18 This study is focuses to the use
of word formation which is usually used on instagram photos and comments.
Especially the using of word formation style on the instagram account of
Simple Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers band. The
writer use the concept of word formation which taken from several scholars
and describe it in the theoretical framework of the study. From the analysis
—based on the concept which has made and Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary— the word formation process that most commonly
found is inflection with the total of 41 words. And then, it followed by
compounding with the total of 13 words. The third position is derivation with
the total of 11 words. The forth position is held by blending with the total of
four. The fifth is initialism and clipping with the total of each process is two
words. In the last position are acronym and creation de novo which each kind
Mega Arisanti, “An Analysis of Word Formation Processes in Instagram of Simple
Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers Band”, unpublished bachelor thesis,
(Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2014)
18
12
have only one word. While, the two others kinds, back-formation and
eponyms, were not found in the data.
The third research is from a journal of Educational and Social research
written by Nereida and Endri (2014). 19 The study is entitled “The Role of
Derivation and Compounding in the Process of English Language
Acquisition‖. The focus of this study has been given to the similarities and
differences between English and Albanian word-formation. The researcher
makes a concept of the rule of derivation and word formation in English by
attaching some notions of some experts. From the research, the writers found
that there are similarities and also dissimilarities in derivation and
compounding of the two languages. The dissimilarities between the two
word-formations more often than not belong to Albanian word-formation,
making thus easier for Albanian pupils to learn English word-formation. The
focus has to be given mainly on affixes. Here should be said that English
language has more affixes than Albanian language. This fact would call for
more efforts from Albanian pupils and Students to get used with them. What's
more, even though there are similarities between English and Albanian
affixes, English has different rules in their combinations compared to
Albanian language. Hence, Albanian pupils would require only some more
time spend on morpheme’s combination rules of word-formation, mostly on
prefixes.
Nereida Shqerra and Endri Sqherra, “The Role of Derivation and Compounding in the
Process of English Language Acquisition”, in Journal of Edicational and Social Research, 2014,
Vol 4, No.2. www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/jesr/article/view/2806 accessed on September 29th,
2014.
19
13
Another research was written by Lewis DJ. (1996) from Journal of
Speech and Hearing research in USA. 20 This research entitle “Children’s
Analysis of Derivational Suffix Meaning” focuses to the relation between
school age children’s production and comprehension of derivational suffixes
in nonsense words and their knowledge of suffix meaning in real derivatives.
The results found in the research were indicating that knowledge of
derivational suffixes was used often in defining low-frequency derivatives
and that it was significantly correlated with suffix production in the nonsense
task. In addition, suffix productivity was found to be an important factor
determining the comprehension as well as the production of particular
suffixes to convey a range of meanings.
The last research was written by Kim Say Yong, Wang Min and Ko In
Yeong from scholarly journal of Cambridge University Pres in Cambridge.21
The study entitle “The Processing of Derivational morphology in KoreanEnglish Bilingual Readers” focuses to the cross language activation occurs
via decomposition during the processing of derived words in Korean-English
bilingual readers. The author of this study used a priming lexical decision to
conducted three experiments. The results of those three experiments are
different: in experiment 1, when participants were given a real derived word
Lewis DJ, “Children’s Analysis of Derivational Suffix Meaning”, in Journal of Speech
And Hearing Research, 1996, Vol.39 (1), pp. 209-16. http://eresources.pnri.go.id:2138/ehost/detail/detail?sid=a0026dc7-aaba-4531-907057bf70938ce7%40sessionmgr4003&vid=0&hid=4112&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d
%3d#db=mnh&AN=8820712 accessed on November 11th, 2014
21
Kim Say Yong, at.al, “The Processing of Derivational Morphology in Korean-English
Bilingual Readers”, Cambridge, 2011, Vol.26, No.14, issue 4, pp. 473-488. http://eresources.pnri.go.id:2056/docview/1030093511?pq-origsite=summon accessed on November 11th,
2014.
20
14
and an interpretable derived pseudoword (i.e., illegal combination of a stem
and a suffix) in Korean as a prime, response times for the corresponding
English-translated stem were significantly faster than when they had received
an unrelated word. In Experiment 2, non-morphological ending pseudowords
(i.e., illegal combination of a stem and an orthographic ending) were included,
and this did not show a priming effect. In Experiment
3, non-interpretable derived pseudowords also yielded a significant
priming effect just as the interpretable ones.
From the five previous studies above, this research has a speciality in
medical terminology which has not found in the research conducted before.
B. Theoretical Description
1. Morphology
There are two types of morphology, namely, structural morphology
and generative morphology. Structural morphology refers to what a
speaker says. In other words, this theory tends to be applied to a language
which has been produced.
22
Different with structural morphology,
generative morphology only focuses to the competence theory. According
to Chomsky (1965) in Muis Ba’dulu and Herman (2005), assumptions or
principles constitute generative structure of transformational in general.23
This research will only use the structural morphology because the data has
22
23
Abdul Muis Ba’sulu and Herman, Mofosintaksis, Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2005, p. 14
Ibid, p. 25
15
already produced, not assumptions or principles. Structural morphology
has four principles for descriptive analysis. The principles as follows24:
a. Descriptive analysis has to be relied on what people say.
This principles has certain implications. First, this principle means
that written language form is secondary. Written language only
representing oral language by using alphabet letter. Second, the
important thing is what people speak, not what they think they should
be spoke. Moreover, the interesting matter is the type of the speaker
who represent education field, social, economy, and different racial.
Therefore, any kind of dialect has similar quality, and all the diversity
of languages are equally right in the case that language diversity
represents the dialect of speaker.
b. Form is primary and usage is secondary
Descriptive linguistic starts from shape and then change over to
describe the grammatical positions where the shape is emerged. In
describe the case in Greek, for example, linguist register five shapes
collection, and then describe how the shapes are used.
c. There is no part of a language which can be described adequately
without reference to all other parts.
This principle means that phonemics, morphology, and syntax of a
language can not be described without referring to one another.
24
Ibid, p. 14
16
Language is an overall which have function, and those parts can only
describe fully in its relation with entirety.
d.
Languages are in a process of continuous changing.
The presence of fluctuation in the form means that a certain
structures defeat the other. Because alternative forms have never been
in balance for a long time. Structural morphology has its organization
in analyzing. It has four components, namely, list of morpheme, word
formation process, morphophonology process, and dictionary. 25 The
first task is indentifying all morphemes, either free morpheme or
bound morpheme, from the data had been collected. Second task is
word formation, which explains how morphemes of a language
arranged in a group to form a word in a language. The third task is
morphophonologiy
process,
which
is
a
mechanism
of
morphophonology, namely, the changes which occur in the merger of
morpheme, such as assimilation, release, addition, replacement, and
permutation. And the last component is dictionary. Words which have
been through third component, which is morphophonology, form a
dictionary of the word in question.
2. Word Formation
First of all, what actually a word is? It could probably be said that a
word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank
25
Ibid, p.17
17
space and followed either by a blank space or a punctuation mark. As can
be seen in the sentence bellow26:
(1) Linguistics is a fascinating subject.
The sentence is considered that it has five words. Because, there are
five uninterrupted strings of letters, all of which are preceded by a blank
space, four of which are also followed by a blank space, one of which is
followed by a period. This example shows accordance to the first intuition
of words before.
But, how to define a sentence if it is written like an example bellow:
(2) Benjamin‘s girlfriend lives in a high-rise apartment building.27
If it is considered apostrophes to be punctuation marks, Benjamin's
constitutes two (orthographic) words. If not, Benjamin's is one word. If it
is considered a hyphen a punctuation mark, high-rise is two (orthographic)
words, otherwise it's one (orthographic) word. The last two strings,
apartment building, are easy to classify, they are two (orthographic) words,
whereas girlfriend must be considered one (orthographic) word.
The notion of what a word is, should, after all, not depend on the
fancies of individual writers or the arbitrariness of the English spelling
system. The second problem with the orthographically defined word is that
it may not always coincide with our intuitions. Thus, most of us would
probably agree that girlfriend is a word (i.e. one word) which consists of
26
Laurie Bauer, Laurie Bauer, English Word Formation,(UK: Cambridge University
Press, 1983), p.4
27
Ibid, p.5
18
two words (girl and friend), a so-called compound.28 If compounds are
one word, they should be spelled without a blank space separating the
elements that together make up the compound. Unfortunately, this is not
the case. Therefore, word formation is a concept of internal formation of a
word or complex word, with certain rules. According to Plag (2002), there
are some types of word formation. They are derivation, compound,
truncation, blends, abbreviations, and acronyms. Beside that, there are also
another types, namely, creation de novo (neologism) and eponyms.
3. Morpheme
Basically, bound morpheme serves to form words. A word referred to
derivative only if the word has plural morphemes distributed syntactically
and has the equivalent of the single word with single morpheme. 29 Before
we step to the main discussion of this research, it is important to
acknowledge an entity known as morpheme which is the subject of study
by the branch of linguistics known as morphology.30
“A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:
(1) it is a word or a part of a word that has meaning, (2) it cannot be
divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning
or without meaningless remainders, (3) it recurs in differing verbal
environment with a relatively stable meaning.”31
The criteria simply indicate that morpheme is the smallest part of a
word that has meaning and cannot be dividing into a smaller one because it
will violate the meaning of its morpheme. For example, word speaker can
28
Ibid, p.4
Jos Daniel Parera, Op.Cit p. 21
30
Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, English Words, history, and structure, (UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2009), p.65
31
Norman C. Stageberg. An Introductory English Grammar Third Adition, ((1977), p. 95
29
19
be divided into speak+er. Word speak and suffix –er are both morphemes.
There is at least one morpheme contained in a word.32 Word like out, just,
grace, person, ozone, London contain of one morpheme. A word may also
have more than one morpheme. Outing, justly, ungracious, personalize,
ozonation, Londoner, are the example of words which have more than one
morphemes.33
The word morpheme itself consists of two morphemes. Morph ‗form,
shape’ and –eme ‗linguistically distinctive unit’. Therefore, a morpheme is
a form associated with some distinctive meanings. 34 Since morpheme is
the smallest part of a word, it cannot be divided further into a smaller
meaningful form. This is a significant case to be concerned. If there is a
case when the morpheme morph divided into , , , (=),
those units cannot be called the units of meaning, because each unit do not
have meaning. Instead, they are called units of sound35
There are two types of morpheme, lexical and grammatical. Lexical
morpheme is a morpheme which already has a meaning by itself, whereas
grammatical morpheme is a morpheme which specifies a relationship
between other morphemes. For instance, noun, verb, adjective as in boy,
buy, big, are typical lexical morphemes, otherwise, prepositions, articles,
and conjunction as in of, the, but are typical grammatical morphemes.
32
Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Op.Cit., p.64
Ibid, p.64
34
Ibid
35
Ibid
33
20
Morpheme is divided into two, free and bound.36 The one which be able to
stand alone with meaning is called free morpheme. They may be lexical
which already has meaning by itself, such as Eat, word, mix, or
grammatical morpheme, like at, and, but. Unlike the free, a bound
morpheme cannot be used alone with as a word. It is always annexed to
one or more morphemes to form a word, in other word they are parts of a
word. They may be lexical as in preview, played, activity, supervise. The
italicized letters in those words—pre-, -ed, -ity, -vise—are bound
morphemes. And they may be grammatical such as plural form as in boys,
girls, and cats.37 Hence, it can be inferred that those morphemes which can
stand alone as words are called free morpheme (e.g., eat, word, mix) and
those morphemes which occur only in combination are called bound
morphemes (e.g., pre-, -s, -en, -ity).
The word bright ‗light’ with the word brighten ‗make light’ are
different. The distinction between the two words is marked by the different
form and different meaning. The different form is the added of /-ǝ n/ in
brighten, and the difference in meaning is the added sense of ‗make’ to the
word bright. This leads us to conclude that /-ǝ n/ means ‗make’. Thus we
see that /-ǝ n/ is a part of a word that has meaning.38 In other words, suffix
–ǝ n is a morpheme.
36
Ibid p.97
Handout for Psy 598-02, summer 2001, Morphology, p.3
[www.mathcs.duq.edu/~packer/Courses/Psy598/Ling-Morphology.pdf]
38
Norman C. Stageberg, Loc.Cit., p.96
37
21
Another classification of morphemes put them into two classes, bases
and affixes.39 A base morpheme is the part of a word that has the principle.
The italicized morphemes in these words are bases: denial, lovable,
annoyance, re-enter. Bases are very numerous, and most of them in
English are free morphemes. But, some are bond, like –sent in consent,
dissent, and assent. A word may contain one base and several affixes. In
the other hand, Grammatical bound morphemes are usually some affixes
form (-ness, -ly, -ion, -s, -er, -ing). Morpheme divided into two branches,
namely, derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme.40
4. Affixes
An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base.41 Affix
consists of two types, prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are those bound
morphemes that occur before the bases, as in important, prefix, reconsider.
Prefixes in English are a small class of morphemes, numbering about
seventy-five. Their meanings are often those of English prepositions and
adverbials.
Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base, like shrinkage,
failure, noisy, realize, nails, dreamed.42 Suffixes may pile up to the number
of three or four, whereas prefixes are commonly single, except for the
negative un- before another prefix.43 In normalizers we perhaps reach the
limit with four: the base norm plus the four suffixes –al, -ize, -er, -s. When
39
Ibid
Ibid
41
Ibid, p.101
42
Ibid, p. 102
43
Ibid
40
22
suffixes multiply like this, their order is fixed: there is one and only one
order in which they occur. Dogs, oxen, discussing, bolder, boldest, chewed,
chosen, are the some examples of inflectional affixes. The words to which
these affixes (mostly suffixes) are attached are called stems. The stem
includes the base or bases and all the derivational affixes. Thus the stem of
playboys is playboy and that of beautified is beautify.44
The class of derivational affixes is much larger than that of the
inflectional affixes, its members are less interdependent, and the new ones
emerge now and then.
45
Affixes like –ness forms abstract noun from
adjectives, or –er forms agent nouns from verbs, which are very
productive, are also markedly stable in meaning. 46 Many derivational
affixes, however, have more than one meaning and can be added to more
than one category of base words.
We can assume the root is a morpheme which is left over when all the
derivational and inflectional morphemes, in this case affixes, have been
removed. For example, the word immovability, im-, -abil, and -ity are all
derivational morphemes. When all the derivational morphemes were
removed, the word move is left, which cannot be further divided into the
smaller meaningful pieces. Therefore it must be the root of the word.
44
Ibid, p.103
Valerie Adams, An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation,(USA: Longman
Inc., New York, 1973), p.13
46
Ibid
45
23
5.
Concept of Derivation and Inflection
In every discussion about derivation, surely, inflection has a place to
be expostulated. Traditionally, there are equations and differences which
have been made between derivation and inflection. The equation between
derivation and inflection is in the relation of the members of a pair,
consisting of the 'unmarked' base form and the 'marked' affixed form.47
Bauer stated that derivation is morphemic process generate new
lexeme, while inflection is morphemic process generate different type of
word from in the same lexeme.48 Lexemes are the vocabulary items that
are listed in the dictionary. For example, the form pockling, pockle,
pockles, pockled are different representations of the lexeme pockle. They
all share a core meaning although they are spelled and pronounced
differently.49
Verhaar (1977) in Subroto (1985) also stated that derivation is all
change of affixation which oversteps the identity of words, while all
change maintaining word identity referred to inflection. 50 Moreover,
Katamba (1993) formulated that derivation is the process of word form
which change the meaning of the base to the new form, e.g kind to unkind (both are adjective, but have an opposite meaning); obey vs disobely
(both are verb, but have an opposite meaning), or is changing the word
class of the base to form a new word, e.g. the addition of –ly to the
47
Ibid., p.11-12
Edi subroto, Loc.Cit., p. 54
49
Francis Katamba, Loc.Cit., p. 18
50
Ibid
48
24
adjectives kind and simple produces the adverbs kind-ly and simp-ly.51
Meanwhile, inflection does not change referential or cognitive meaning.
Inflectional suffix will not change the word as derivational morpheme
change the word kind to unkind before and will not alter the word class of
the base to which it is attached. Inflectional morphemes are only able to
modify the form of a word, thus it can fit into a particular syntactic slot.52
Those notions of change and do not change the word class correlated
to the concept of class maintaining and class changing from Bauer (1983).
“A class maintaining process of derivation produces lexemes which
belong to the same form class as the base, while a class-changing process
of derivation produces lexemes which belong to a form class other than
the form class of the base”. For example, when suffix –ly distributed to
the word king (noun), it will generate an adjective kingly. The example
points the case of class-changing derivation. Another example, if the
suffix –dom is distributed to the word king (noun), it will generate a new
word kingdom which is also a noun, but different lexical meaning. And it
is the case of class-maintaining derivation.53
In conclusion, the different of the two paradigms, from the previous
discussion of derivation and inflection is derivation change the identity
and the meaning of a single word, therefore, it forms a new lexeme,
while inflection does not. Inflection happens grammatically and has a
different grammatical meaning which is predictable.
51
Ibid, p.47
Ibid, p.51
53
Laurie Bauer, Loc.Cit, p. 31
52
25
a. She works as a teacher in Indonesia
b. Mom is cooking at the kitchen
c. I have five books in my room
The italic words above show that the words are complex. The verb
work and the third person singular suffix –s in works, the verb cook and
participial suffix –ing in cooking, and the noun book with plural suffix –s
in books, all create new words. Those complex words are indeed new
words; however, they cannot be said as the new lexemes. In contrast,
suffixes like –er and –ee (both attached to verbs, as in kicker and
employee), or prefixes like re- or un- (as in rephrase or unconvincing) do
form new lexemes.54
Previously, this has been discussed by the author in chapter 1 about
division of morphology branches according to Matthews. It also discussed
in Plag (2002) and Bauer (1983). Morphology deals with the internal
structure of a word-form. In morphology, the analysts divided word-forms
into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing roots
or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of its formative.55
Morphology divided into two shares, namely, inflection and wordformation. Again, Word-formation divided into two, consisting of
derivation and compounding. 56 And derivation can be subdivided into
class changing and class maintaining.57
54
Ingo Plag, Word-Formation in English, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.18
Laurie Bauer, Op.Cit., p.33
56
Ingo Plag, Op.Cit., p.22
57
Laurie Bauer, Op.Cit., p.33
55
26
One of the factor a word can be said as a derivative is if the distribution
of affixes changes the identity of the word, with the result that it creates a
new lexeme. However, the derivational process is not always about the
addition of affixation. It can also occur without any of affixation in a word.
This type of derivation is usually mentioned as conversion by many
scholars.
6. Concept of Derivation Without Affix
So far, we have only encountered complex words that are created by
concatenation, i.e. by linking together bases and affixes as in a chain.
There are, however, also other, i.e. non-concatenative, ways to form
morphologically complex words.58
-
My account is overdrawn.
I can’t account for where the money went.
-
They wanted to green the neighborhood.
They were given a green light.
-
It’s no trouble at all.
Don’t trouble yourself.
In all these cases the verb or adjective and noun look alike and sound
alike. There is reason to believe that the verbs are derived from the nouns.
They are called denominal verb for that reason, and they are said to be
derived by a process of conversion —the noun is converted into a verb.59
58
59
Ingo Plag, Op.Cit., p.15
Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Op.Cit., p. 8
27
Conversion is the change in form class of a form without any
corresponding change of form. 60 The exact status of conversion within
word formation is unclear. For some scholars conversion
MAGAZINE’S ARTICLES
A Thesis
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Strata One
RANA MEISARA
1110026000028
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA
2014
ABSTRACT
Rana Meisara, Word Formation on Medical Terms in New York TIME magazine’s
articles. Thesis: English letters Department of Letters and Humanities Faculty,
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, December 2014.
It is a research of morphological phenomenon which focuses on the
process of word formation on medical terms in New York TIME magazine’s
articles. The writer took seven articles in seven montly different edition of New
York Time Magazine, namely, edition of January 13th 2014 entitle “The Doctor
Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine Apps aim to Replace Nonemergency Visits”;
edition of June 2nd, 2014 entitle “What You Need to Know About MERS: A
dangerous new disease has gone global”; edition of July 21st, 2014 entitle “The
Cancer Tests You Need: Cutting through confusion on what screenings to get—
and when”; September 1st, 2014 entitle “Mammograms Go 3-D: A High-Tech
imaging breakthrough could pick up more cancer”; edition of October 27th, 2014
entitle “Medical Momentum: Scientists make major moves in tackling five
challenging diseases”; edition of November 24th, 2014 entitle “Mindfulness for
Men: Yoga has some new fans—and science says that’s a very good thing”;
edition of Decemberijctjtyfacts are getting harder to ignore” for the corpus.
Conceptual morphology is used by the writer to analyze the words which
experience word formation process and classify the types of word formation on
the medical terms. The writer starts the analysis by reading the article, and then
classifies the medical terms which exist in the texts. After that, the data is outlined
in a description which includes morphological process, identifying morpheme,
analyze the word formation process, morphophonological process, and dictionary.
From the analysis of the seven monthly different editions of TIME magazine’s
articles, it can be said that there are 39 data found, 28 derivatives found on the
medical terms in this New York TIME Magazine’s articles. seven compound
words, three abbreviations, and only one acronym. Moreover, from the sample
chosen as represent the other data in the analysis, it is containing eight derivatives
which are class changing and there are three derivatives which are class
maintaining. Furthermore there is no truncation, blend, cretion de novo, and
eponym found in the development of medical term in this analysis.
Keywords: Word formation, Morphology, TIME Magazine.
i
ii
iii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Jakarta, November 28st 2014
Rana Meisara
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
Praise and Gratitude be to Allah SWT, the Lord of Universe, who has
given the writer guidance and strength, thus she could finish this thesis completely.
Peace and Salutation be upon the messenger of Allah, Prophet Muhammad SAW,
his family, his companions, and his adherents. May peace and blessing of Allah be
upon all of us.
On this occasion, first and foremost, the writer wants to express her
biggest sincere thanks and love, and also acknowledge her debt to her parents,
Mat. Rasin and Umi Hasanah. Thanks for all the non-stop support, financially and
spiritually, that has always motivated the writer to proudly finish this thesis.
Moreover, the writer also would like to convey her gratitude and also
acknowledge her debt to the following person:
1. Dr. H. Wahid Hasyim, M. Ag, the Dean of Adab and Humanities faculty
(2010-2014), for his motivation and advice to immediately complete the
writer’s study in English Letter and Literature Department.
2.
Prof. Dr. Oman Fathurahman, M. Hum, the Dean Adab and Humanities
faculty.
v
3. Drs. Saefudin, M.Pd, the Head of English Letters Department who is also
one of the writer’s advisor, for sacrificing his precious time to guide the
writer in completing her thesis.
4. Elve Octafiyani, M.Hum, the Secretary of the English Letters Department;
5. Dhuha Hadiyansyah, M.Hum, the writer’s advisor who always willing
spare his time to patiently guide and teach the writer in many ways to
complete her study and thesis.
6. All of the lecturers in English Letters Department for teaching and guiding
her very well during her study at State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta.
7. All of her family member for every support and pleased moments which
spent together with laugh and love even at the period of passing through
the hard times.
8. The writer friends in English Letters and Literature Department of 2010,
especially for Elbie and Linguistic A. Thanks for the friendship, help,
advice and support that will never found in any other Department. Some
crazy and silly folks, yet The writer’s happiness and spirit, Fithria
Luthfiyani, Thia Askayuli, Bagus Putra Ramadansyah, Muhamad Sazali,
Debi Novia Ningrum, Yuliana Kuslambang Ningrum, and Fahmi
Fahrurroji, for the caring, laugh, motivation, and all the precious moments
spent together in happy, fun, sad, bad or even in difficult situations the
writer has during her study;
vi
9. KKN Yellow (Youth Influential Fellowship), Muhammad Adi Rahman,
Muhammad Reza Hermanto, Ridho Alvin Harfian, Shakuntala Febrina,
Melina Hadera, Christie Adi Oktaviyana, Pranisa Syifadelima, Andriesta
Saputri, Nurali, Fatih Adzkia, Leiza Sixmansyah, Rian Lisandi,
Muhammad Semmy, Fithria Luthfiyani, Thia Askayuli and Bagus Putra
Ramadhansya, thanks for the good experiences and memories of being
together during the projects in Pasarean, Bogor, and for always being
some good and caring friends. Moreover, to GZB Ayunda Sabrina, Anita
Rahma, and Farizky Sharfina who always give the writer support even
from afar, yet it really motivates the writer during her study.
10. The employers of some University Libraries who have helped the writer in
finding some references for her thesis.
11. All the people and friends who have helped the writer in finishing her
study indirectly that cannot be mentioned one by one.
The writer cannot stop being thankful to God for this one complete
package of support that the writer receives to finish her study. May Allah SWT
bless them and their family. Moreover, this research is expected to be useful for
all the people who read it. Suggestion and criticism will be accepted for the
improvement of this thesis.
Jakarta, November 28st, 2014
The Writer
vii
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1 : Classification of Medical Terms from Data Card.............................. 39
Table 2 : Sample data that will be analyzed...................................................... 41
viii
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL SHEET ........................................................................................... ii
LEGALIZATION................................................................................................ iii
DECLARATION................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................. v
THE LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................... viii
THE LIST OF CONTENT ................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
A. Background of Study .................................................................................. 1
B. Focus of the Study ...................................................................................... 5
C. Research Questions ..................................................................................... 6
D. Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 6
E. Research Methodology ............................................................................... 6
1.
The Objective of Research ................................................................... 6
2.
The Method of Research ...................................................................... 6
3.
The Technique of Data Collection and Data Analysis ......................... 7
4.
Instrument of The Research ................................................................. 8
5.
Unit of Analysis ................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................... 10
A. Previous Research ..................................................................................... 10
B. Theoretical Description ............................................................................. 14
1. Morphology .......................................................................................... 14
ix
2. Word Formation ................................................................................... 16
3. Morpheme ............................................................................................ 18
4. Affixes .................................................................................................. 21
5. Concept of Derivation and Inflection ................................................... 23
6. Concept of Derivation Without Affix .................................................. 26
7. The transpositions which happen due to the process of derivation
according to Rozelin (2011) ................................................................. 28
8. Compound ........................................................................................... 32
9. Truncation ............................................................................................ 34
10. Blend .................................................................................................... 35
11. Abbreviation and Acronyms ................................................................ 35
12. Creation de novo (neologism) and Eponyms ....................................... 36
CHAPTER III. FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS .................................... 38
A. Data Description ....................................................................................... 38
B. Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 39
CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ................................... 73
A. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 73
B. Suggestion ................................................................................................. 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 76
APPENDIX .......................................................................................................... 79
x
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background of Study
In spoken and written language, we need a collection of words to build
a good sentence. However, according to Katamba (1993), there is an
assumption that words are taken for granted by most people in language. 1 In
fact, there are some difference views about what units are considered as
words. For instance, English speakers might not agree whether all right is
one word or two and as a result disputes may arise as to whether allright is
the correct way of writing all right.2
According to Crystal (1980) as quoted by Ba’dulu and Herman,
morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the internal structure
or form of words.3 Moreover, Bloomfield, in his book Language (1933) and
his essays magazine entitle A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language
(1920), showed that descriptive linguistics Americans was no longer pay
attention to the word, but rather to the morpheme as a unit of language in
language analysis, as Parera informed in his book Morfologi (1988).4 It is
important for people who want to master a particular language to understand
better about the morphology of the language. That is one of the reasons why
1
Francis Katamba, Morphology, (London: The Macmillan press, 1993), p. 17
ibid
3
Abdul Muis Ba’dulu and Herman, Morfosintaksis, (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2005)
4
Jos Daniel Parera, Morfologi, (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1988), p. 14
2
1
2
morphology becomes a compulsory subject for students of linguistics and
literature.5
Some words may sounds unfamiliar or not common in general society.
In certain fields, such as economics, politics, and medical field usually have
a certain or special words which are not common in society. Refers to
several media, public health becomes a crucial issue in today’s global
society. It can be seen from a number of reports around the world. Recently,
WHO (World Health Organization) lays out some headlines associated to
certain diseases which endemic and feared throughout the world, mainly,
Ebola in African Region.6
The other diseases are also reported frequently, such as MERS in Arab
Saudi, West Nile virus in Brazil, Plague in Madagascar, and the other health
issues.7 In some printed media also never fail to present news on health.
According to the facts above, it is necessary to acknowledge the developing
of medical terminology which rarely to be heard to gain the understanding
in the discussion of public health. The process of this word building is
related to the rule of part of language mechanics called linguistics.
Therefore, when a term is developed, some logical process is applied.
In English, there are some types of word formation process which has
different rules in build a word. For instance, the word olive oil may at first
be considered as two different words. But, it turns out that olive oil is a word
Quoted from Zaenal Arifin dan Junaiyah, “Morfologi: Bentuk, Makna, dan Fungsi‖,
http://zaenalarifin28.wordpress.com/2010/04/16/morfologi-bentuk-makna-dan-fungsi/ accessed on
28 November 2013.
6
World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/en/ accessed on December 18th 2014.
7
Ibid
5
3
which consist in two morphemes. If the word olive and oil is stand alone in
a sentence, it can be said as a word, but if these two words are combined
with an identity and a paradigm, then these two words are no longer called a
word, but morphemes that make up a new word which has a meaning of ‗a
kind of oil made from olives’. This formation process is called compound
word.
There is also the process of word formation which has more than one
morpheme known as morphemes. Either it is derivative or inflective. 8
Matthews (1974) in Edi Subroto (2012) divided the morphology into two
branches, namely, inflectional morphology and lexical morphology. 9 Two
things which include the lexical morphology are derivation and composition.
Lexical morphology is reviewing the rules of word formation that produces
new words which lexically have a new identity or in contrast to the word
base.
This was consistent with the Marchand’s formulation (1962) in Edi
Subroto (2012) that "word formation is the branch of the science of
language which studies the pattern on which a language form new lexical
units. i.e. word". For example, injection, one of the words in the article, is a
complex word which has more than one morpheme. When the suffix -ion is
attached to the word inject. Then at the same time, it changes the paradigm
of the word, from a verb that indicates an action of ‗to put a liquid such as a
8
Jos Daniel Parera, Loc.Cit., p. 18
Quoted from Edi Subroto, “Infleksi dan Derivasi: Kemungkinan Penerapannya dalam
Morfologi Bahasa Indonesia”, p. 53 http://edisubroto.staff.uns.ac.id/files/2012/02/DERIVASIDAN-INFLEKSI3.pdf accessed on November 28th, 2013
9
4
drug into a person's body’10 into a noun that has a meaning of ‗An instance
of injecting or being injected’11. And also, the other word formation types
like blends, truncation, abbreviation, acronyms, eponyms, and creation de
novo (nelologisms) will be discussed here.
This research took seven articles from a newsmagazine naming New
York Time; the major American weekly newsmagazine that is published in
New York City, as the corpus. The magazine is written in English as its
language in use. It was the creation of two young journalists Henry R. Luce
and Briton Hadden. They wanted to start a magazine that would inform busy
readers in a systematic, concise, and well-organized manner about current
events in the United States and the rest of the world. The magazine sought
to present the news in narrative form. TIME has the world’s largest
circulation as a weekly magazine. It attained a circulation of more than
175,000 by 1927, and it became the most influential newsmagazine in the
United States.12
Moreover, TIME magazine has a readership of 25 million, which 20
million of them are based in the United States.13 Those records are the main
reason for the writer to choose the magazine as the analysis unit of this
research. The health column has attracted the attention from all the rubrics
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Digital, 2008
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/injection?searchDictCode=all
12
Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596077/Time
accessed on march 10th, 2014
13
Time (Magazine), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 accessed on
December 13th, 2014
10
11
5
in the magazine. It is because there are some medical terms which seem
unfamiliar to understand.
Word classes are always said to be one of the discussions in the analysis
of language. This research will be very concerned about how adjectives can
be derived from nouns, nouns from verbs, verbs from adjectives and the
other transpositions. However, this is very important because the terms for a
class of words, such as adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverb must be
understood correctly.
Since medical terms continues to increase and being the important
issues to be understood by the public in concerning their health, it is decided
that to investigate this study in the first place. Forms a word by adding
affixes or without affixes can generate new lexemes. From the formation, a
word may have a different meaning from the previous word. It would be
great if some new words which we have never heard before may found.
This study will outline the word formation process, how that word
formation process occur in developing medical terminology and will also
classify the types of word formation on the terms contained in the articles.
B.
Focus of the Study
This study will be limited to the word formation process of medical
terms contained in the seven articles of TIME magazine. How the process
occurs and what type of word formation which occurs to each terms.
6
C.
Research Question
a.
How is the word formation process of medical terms which contains in
the articles?
b. What are the types of word formation that occur to the medical terms in
the articles?
D.
Significance of The Study
Theoretically, this research is expected to be useful in society, in the
field of health, and education field, especially in the study of morphology.
In addition, it practically provides more extensive information and
knowledge to the reader about medical term appeared frequently in this era
which is not that familiar for the public in general.
E.
Research Methodology
1.
The Objective of Research
This research aims to explain the word formation process of some
medical terms contains in the seven articles of TIME magazine and
classify the type of each term according to the concept of word
formation.
2.
The Method of research
This research uses qualitative case study as the method in analyzing.
According to Merriam (1988) as quoted by Nunan (1992), qualitative
7
case study can be defined as an intensive, holistic description and
analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unit.14
This research will be using Structural Morphology as the main
theory and the concept of word formation in analyzing. The analysis
will outline the process of word formation of medical terminologies in
seven different rubrics of health from seven different edition of TIME
magazine and classify the type of word formation which occurs in each
term.
3.
The Technique of Data Collection and Data Analysis
In this research, the data collected by using bibliography technique
(tehnik pustaka) where is the written sources used to obtain data.15 The
data will be gained by data card which focuses to the medical term in
the articles. There are several steps in collecting the data:
1. Adopts seven articles from TIME magazine in seven different
monthly editions.
2. Concerns to the articles related to medical issue, which is in
TIME magazine usually classified in Health rubric.
3. Reads the seven articles,
4. Marks all the medical terms in the articles and then writes down
on the data card.
14
David Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992), p. 77.
15
Edi Subroto, Pengantar Metoda Penelitian Linguistik Struktural, (Surakarta: Sebelas
Maret University Press, 1992), p. 42.
8
After the data has been collected, the data will be analyzed using
Structural Morphology for the word formation process, and will classify
the type of word formation on each term.
4.
Instrument of the Research
Data card16 is the instrument that is used in this research to identify
the data from the seven articles of TIME magazine based on each types
of word formation. Then, the data which focuses to medical term will
be analized with structural Morphology and word formation concept.
5.
Unit of Analysis
The unit analysis of this research is seven articles in seven different
edition of New York Time magazine. The title of the articles as follows:
1.
“The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps aim to
replace nonemergency visits” by Alexandra Sifferlin, TIME
magazine edition of January 13th, 2014;
2. “What You Need to Know About MERS: A dangerous new
disease has gone global” by Alice Park, TIME magazine
edition of June 2nd, 2014;
3. “The Cancer Tests You Need: Cutting through confusion on
what screenings to get—and when” by Alexandra Sifferlin,
TIME magazine edition of July 21st, 2014;
16
Ibid
9
4. “Mammograms Go 3-D: A High-Tech imaging breakthrough
could pick up more cancer” by Alice Park, TIME magazine
edition of September 1st, 2014;
5. “Medical Momentum: Scientists make major moves in tackling
five challenging diseases” by Alice Park and Mandy Oaklander,
TIME magazine edition of October 27th, 2014;
6. “Mindfulness for Men: Yoga has some new fans—and science
says that’s a very good thing” by Mandy Oaklander, TIME
magazine edition of November 24th, 2014;
7. “The Great American Calorie Crackdown: Why some nutrition
facts are getting harder to ignore” by Mandy Oaklander, TIME
magazine edition of December 15th, 2014.
10
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Previous Research
This research is not the only one which analyzes word formation
phenomena. There are some previous studies which have concerned related to
this topic. In this section, five previous studies will be reviewed to this
research. The first study came from State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta which was made by Putri Sari Romadhon (2013), the
second study also came from the same faculty at the same university which is
made by Mega Arisanty (2014), the third is from Journal of Educational and
Social Research written by Nereida Shqerra and Endri Shqerra (2014), the
forth is from Journal of Speech and Hearing Research written by Lewis DJ,
Windsor J (1996), and the last comes from scholarly journal of Cambridge
University press written by Kim Say Yong, Wang Min, and Ko In Yeong
(2011).
The first study made by Putri Sari Romadhon (2013) is entitle
“Morphological Analysis on The Article Vocational High School in Klaten
Produces Suv Cars of The Jakarta Post‖. 17 This study focuses to the
occurrence of derivational and inflectional affixes and the process of IC
(Immediate Constituent) in each derivational and inflectional word in one of
The Jakarta Post article edition of October 22nd 2011. For the main theories of
Putri Sari Romadhon, “Morphological Analysis on The Article Vocational High School
in Klaten Produces Suv Cars of The Jakarta Post”, unpublished bachelor thesis, (Jakarta: UIN
Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013)
17
10
11
this research she took Katamba and Norman’s definition of Affixation and
derivation. From her research she found about a hundred affixes words that
can be classified into derivational affixes and inflectional affixes.
Derivational prefixes with four prefixes contain seven words. Derivational
suffixes with sixteen suffixes contain fifty words. And inflectional suffixes
with six suffixes contain fifty- seven words.
The second study made by Mega Arisanty (2014) is entitle ―An Analysis
of Word Formation Processes in Instagram of Simple Plan, One Direction,
Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers Band‖.18 This study is focuses to the use
of word formation which is usually used on instagram photos and comments.
Especially the using of word formation style on the instagram account of
Simple Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers band. The
writer use the concept of word formation which taken from several scholars
and describe it in the theoretical framework of the study. From the analysis
—based on the concept which has made and Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary— the word formation process that most commonly
found is inflection with the total of 41 words. And then, it followed by
compounding with the total of 13 words. The third position is derivation with
the total of 11 words. The forth position is held by blending with the total of
four. The fifth is initialism and clipping with the total of each process is two
words. In the last position are acronym and creation de novo which each kind
Mega Arisanti, “An Analysis of Word Formation Processes in Instagram of Simple
Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers Band”, unpublished bachelor thesis,
(Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2014)
18
12
have only one word. While, the two others kinds, back-formation and
eponyms, were not found in the data.
The third research is from a journal of Educational and Social research
written by Nereida and Endri (2014). 19 The study is entitled “The Role of
Derivation and Compounding in the Process of English Language
Acquisition‖. The focus of this study has been given to the similarities and
differences between English and Albanian word-formation. The researcher
makes a concept of the rule of derivation and word formation in English by
attaching some notions of some experts. From the research, the writers found
that there are similarities and also dissimilarities in derivation and
compounding of the two languages. The dissimilarities between the two
word-formations more often than not belong to Albanian word-formation,
making thus easier for Albanian pupils to learn English word-formation. The
focus has to be given mainly on affixes. Here should be said that English
language has more affixes than Albanian language. This fact would call for
more efforts from Albanian pupils and Students to get used with them. What's
more, even though there are similarities between English and Albanian
affixes, English has different rules in their combinations compared to
Albanian language. Hence, Albanian pupils would require only some more
time spend on morpheme’s combination rules of word-formation, mostly on
prefixes.
Nereida Shqerra and Endri Sqherra, “The Role of Derivation and Compounding in the
Process of English Language Acquisition”, in Journal of Edicational and Social Research, 2014,
Vol 4, No.2. www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/jesr/article/view/2806 accessed on September 29th,
2014.
19
13
Another research was written by Lewis DJ. (1996) from Journal of
Speech and Hearing research in USA. 20 This research entitle “Children’s
Analysis of Derivational Suffix Meaning” focuses to the relation between
school age children’s production and comprehension of derivational suffixes
in nonsense words and their knowledge of suffix meaning in real derivatives.
The results found in the research were indicating that knowledge of
derivational suffixes was used often in defining low-frequency derivatives
and that it was significantly correlated with suffix production in the nonsense
task. In addition, suffix productivity was found to be an important factor
determining the comprehension as well as the production of particular
suffixes to convey a range of meanings.
The last research was written by Kim Say Yong, Wang Min and Ko In
Yeong from scholarly journal of Cambridge University Pres in Cambridge.21
The study entitle “The Processing of Derivational morphology in KoreanEnglish Bilingual Readers” focuses to the cross language activation occurs
via decomposition during the processing of derived words in Korean-English
bilingual readers. The author of this study used a priming lexical decision to
conducted three experiments. The results of those three experiments are
different: in experiment 1, when participants were given a real derived word
Lewis DJ, “Children’s Analysis of Derivational Suffix Meaning”, in Journal of Speech
And Hearing Research, 1996, Vol.39 (1), pp. 209-16. http://eresources.pnri.go.id:2138/ehost/detail/detail?sid=a0026dc7-aaba-4531-907057bf70938ce7%40sessionmgr4003&vid=0&hid=4112&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d
%3d#db=mnh&AN=8820712 accessed on November 11th, 2014
21
Kim Say Yong, at.al, “The Processing of Derivational Morphology in Korean-English
Bilingual Readers”, Cambridge, 2011, Vol.26, No.14, issue 4, pp. 473-488. http://eresources.pnri.go.id:2056/docview/1030093511?pq-origsite=summon accessed on November 11th,
2014.
20
14
and an interpretable derived pseudoword (i.e., illegal combination of a stem
and a suffix) in Korean as a prime, response times for the corresponding
English-translated stem were significantly faster than when they had received
an unrelated word. In Experiment 2, non-morphological ending pseudowords
(i.e., illegal combination of a stem and an orthographic ending) were included,
and this did not show a priming effect. In Experiment
3, non-interpretable derived pseudowords also yielded a significant
priming effect just as the interpretable ones.
From the five previous studies above, this research has a speciality in
medical terminology which has not found in the research conducted before.
B. Theoretical Description
1. Morphology
There are two types of morphology, namely, structural morphology
and generative morphology. Structural morphology refers to what a
speaker says. In other words, this theory tends to be applied to a language
which has been produced.
22
Different with structural morphology,
generative morphology only focuses to the competence theory. According
to Chomsky (1965) in Muis Ba’dulu and Herman (2005), assumptions or
principles constitute generative structure of transformational in general.23
This research will only use the structural morphology because the data has
22
23
Abdul Muis Ba’sulu and Herman, Mofosintaksis, Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2005, p. 14
Ibid, p. 25
15
already produced, not assumptions or principles. Structural morphology
has four principles for descriptive analysis. The principles as follows24:
a. Descriptive analysis has to be relied on what people say.
This principles has certain implications. First, this principle means
that written language form is secondary. Written language only
representing oral language by using alphabet letter. Second, the
important thing is what people speak, not what they think they should
be spoke. Moreover, the interesting matter is the type of the speaker
who represent education field, social, economy, and different racial.
Therefore, any kind of dialect has similar quality, and all the diversity
of languages are equally right in the case that language diversity
represents the dialect of speaker.
b. Form is primary and usage is secondary
Descriptive linguistic starts from shape and then change over to
describe the grammatical positions where the shape is emerged. In
describe the case in Greek, for example, linguist register five shapes
collection, and then describe how the shapes are used.
c. There is no part of a language which can be described adequately
without reference to all other parts.
This principle means that phonemics, morphology, and syntax of a
language can not be described without referring to one another.
24
Ibid, p. 14
16
Language is an overall which have function, and those parts can only
describe fully in its relation with entirety.
d.
Languages are in a process of continuous changing.
The presence of fluctuation in the form means that a certain
structures defeat the other. Because alternative forms have never been
in balance for a long time. Structural morphology has its organization
in analyzing. It has four components, namely, list of morpheme, word
formation process, morphophonology process, and dictionary. 25 The
first task is indentifying all morphemes, either free morpheme or
bound morpheme, from the data had been collected. Second task is
word formation, which explains how morphemes of a language
arranged in a group to form a word in a language. The third task is
morphophonologiy
process,
which
is
a
mechanism
of
morphophonology, namely, the changes which occur in the merger of
morpheme, such as assimilation, release, addition, replacement, and
permutation. And the last component is dictionary. Words which have
been through third component, which is morphophonology, form a
dictionary of the word in question.
2. Word Formation
First of all, what actually a word is? It could probably be said that a
word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank
25
Ibid, p.17
17
space and followed either by a blank space or a punctuation mark. As can
be seen in the sentence bellow26:
(1) Linguistics is a fascinating subject.
The sentence is considered that it has five words. Because, there are
five uninterrupted strings of letters, all of which are preceded by a blank
space, four of which are also followed by a blank space, one of which is
followed by a period. This example shows accordance to the first intuition
of words before.
But, how to define a sentence if it is written like an example bellow:
(2) Benjamin‘s girlfriend lives in a high-rise apartment building.27
If it is considered apostrophes to be punctuation marks, Benjamin's
constitutes two (orthographic) words. If not, Benjamin's is one word. If it
is considered a hyphen a punctuation mark, high-rise is two (orthographic)
words, otherwise it's one (orthographic) word. The last two strings,
apartment building, are easy to classify, they are two (orthographic) words,
whereas girlfriend must be considered one (orthographic) word.
The notion of what a word is, should, after all, not depend on the
fancies of individual writers or the arbitrariness of the English spelling
system. The second problem with the orthographically defined word is that
it may not always coincide with our intuitions. Thus, most of us would
probably agree that girlfriend is a word (i.e. one word) which consists of
26
Laurie Bauer, Laurie Bauer, English Word Formation,(UK: Cambridge University
Press, 1983), p.4
27
Ibid, p.5
18
two words (girl and friend), a so-called compound.28 If compounds are
one word, they should be spelled without a blank space separating the
elements that together make up the compound. Unfortunately, this is not
the case. Therefore, word formation is a concept of internal formation of a
word or complex word, with certain rules. According to Plag (2002), there
are some types of word formation. They are derivation, compound,
truncation, blends, abbreviations, and acronyms. Beside that, there are also
another types, namely, creation de novo (neologism) and eponyms.
3. Morpheme
Basically, bound morpheme serves to form words. A word referred to
derivative only if the word has plural morphemes distributed syntactically
and has the equivalent of the single word with single morpheme. 29 Before
we step to the main discussion of this research, it is important to
acknowledge an entity known as morpheme which is the subject of study
by the branch of linguistics known as morphology.30
“A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:
(1) it is a word or a part of a word that has meaning, (2) it cannot be
divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning
or without meaningless remainders, (3) it recurs in differing verbal
environment with a relatively stable meaning.”31
The criteria simply indicate that morpheme is the smallest part of a
word that has meaning and cannot be dividing into a smaller one because it
will violate the meaning of its morpheme. For example, word speaker can
28
Ibid, p.4
Jos Daniel Parera, Op.Cit p. 21
30
Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, English Words, history, and structure, (UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2009), p.65
31
Norman C. Stageberg. An Introductory English Grammar Third Adition, ((1977), p. 95
29
19
be divided into speak+er. Word speak and suffix –er are both morphemes.
There is at least one morpheme contained in a word.32 Word like out, just,
grace, person, ozone, London contain of one morpheme. A word may also
have more than one morpheme. Outing, justly, ungracious, personalize,
ozonation, Londoner, are the example of words which have more than one
morphemes.33
The word morpheme itself consists of two morphemes. Morph ‗form,
shape’ and –eme ‗linguistically distinctive unit’. Therefore, a morpheme is
a form associated with some distinctive meanings. 34 Since morpheme is
the smallest part of a word, it cannot be divided further into a smaller
meaningful form. This is a significant case to be concerned. If there is a
case when the morpheme morph divided into , , , (=),
those units cannot be called the units of meaning, because each unit do not
have meaning. Instead, they are called units of sound35
There are two types of morpheme, lexical and grammatical. Lexical
morpheme is a morpheme which already has a meaning by itself, whereas
grammatical morpheme is a morpheme which specifies a relationship
between other morphemes. For instance, noun, verb, adjective as in boy,
buy, big, are typical lexical morphemes, otherwise, prepositions, articles,
and conjunction as in of, the, but are typical grammatical morphemes.
32
Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Op.Cit., p.64
Ibid, p.64
34
Ibid
35
Ibid
33
20
Morpheme is divided into two, free and bound.36 The one which be able to
stand alone with meaning is called free morpheme. They may be lexical
which already has meaning by itself, such as Eat, word, mix, or
grammatical morpheme, like at, and, but. Unlike the free, a bound
morpheme cannot be used alone with as a word. It is always annexed to
one or more morphemes to form a word, in other word they are parts of a
word. They may be lexical as in preview, played, activity, supervise. The
italicized letters in those words—pre-, -ed, -ity, -vise—are bound
morphemes. And they may be grammatical such as plural form as in boys,
girls, and cats.37 Hence, it can be inferred that those morphemes which can
stand alone as words are called free morpheme (e.g., eat, word, mix) and
those morphemes which occur only in combination are called bound
morphemes (e.g., pre-, -s, -en, -ity).
The word bright ‗light’ with the word brighten ‗make light’ are
different. The distinction between the two words is marked by the different
form and different meaning. The different form is the added of /-ǝ n/ in
brighten, and the difference in meaning is the added sense of ‗make’ to the
word bright. This leads us to conclude that /-ǝ n/ means ‗make’. Thus we
see that /-ǝ n/ is a part of a word that has meaning.38 In other words, suffix
–ǝ n is a morpheme.
36
Ibid p.97
Handout for Psy 598-02, summer 2001, Morphology, p.3
[www.mathcs.duq.edu/~packer/Courses/Psy598/Ling-Morphology.pdf]
38
Norman C. Stageberg, Loc.Cit., p.96
37
21
Another classification of morphemes put them into two classes, bases
and affixes.39 A base morpheme is the part of a word that has the principle.
The italicized morphemes in these words are bases: denial, lovable,
annoyance, re-enter. Bases are very numerous, and most of them in
English are free morphemes. But, some are bond, like –sent in consent,
dissent, and assent. A word may contain one base and several affixes. In
the other hand, Grammatical bound morphemes are usually some affixes
form (-ness, -ly, -ion, -s, -er, -ing). Morpheme divided into two branches,
namely, derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme.40
4. Affixes
An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base.41 Affix
consists of two types, prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are those bound
morphemes that occur before the bases, as in important, prefix, reconsider.
Prefixes in English are a small class of morphemes, numbering about
seventy-five. Their meanings are often those of English prepositions and
adverbials.
Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base, like shrinkage,
failure, noisy, realize, nails, dreamed.42 Suffixes may pile up to the number
of three or four, whereas prefixes are commonly single, except for the
negative un- before another prefix.43 In normalizers we perhaps reach the
limit with four: the base norm plus the four suffixes –al, -ize, -er, -s. When
39
Ibid
Ibid
41
Ibid, p.101
42
Ibid, p. 102
43
Ibid
40
22
suffixes multiply like this, their order is fixed: there is one and only one
order in which they occur. Dogs, oxen, discussing, bolder, boldest, chewed,
chosen, are the some examples of inflectional affixes. The words to which
these affixes (mostly suffixes) are attached are called stems. The stem
includes the base or bases and all the derivational affixes. Thus the stem of
playboys is playboy and that of beautified is beautify.44
The class of derivational affixes is much larger than that of the
inflectional affixes, its members are less interdependent, and the new ones
emerge now and then.
45
Affixes like –ness forms abstract noun from
adjectives, or –er forms agent nouns from verbs, which are very
productive, are also markedly stable in meaning. 46 Many derivational
affixes, however, have more than one meaning and can be added to more
than one category of base words.
We can assume the root is a morpheme which is left over when all the
derivational and inflectional morphemes, in this case affixes, have been
removed. For example, the word immovability, im-, -abil, and -ity are all
derivational morphemes. When all the derivational morphemes were
removed, the word move is left, which cannot be further divided into the
smaller meaningful pieces. Therefore it must be the root of the word.
44
Ibid, p.103
Valerie Adams, An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation,(USA: Longman
Inc., New York, 1973), p.13
46
Ibid
45
23
5.
Concept of Derivation and Inflection
In every discussion about derivation, surely, inflection has a place to
be expostulated. Traditionally, there are equations and differences which
have been made between derivation and inflection. The equation between
derivation and inflection is in the relation of the members of a pair,
consisting of the 'unmarked' base form and the 'marked' affixed form.47
Bauer stated that derivation is morphemic process generate new
lexeme, while inflection is morphemic process generate different type of
word from in the same lexeme.48 Lexemes are the vocabulary items that
are listed in the dictionary. For example, the form pockling, pockle,
pockles, pockled are different representations of the lexeme pockle. They
all share a core meaning although they are spelled and pronounced
differently.49
Verhaar (1977) in Subroto (1985) also stated that derivation is all
change of affixation which oversteps the identity of words, while all
change maintaining word identity referred to inflection. 50 Moreover,
Katamba (1993) formulated that derivation is the process of word form
which change the meaning of the base to the new form, e.g kind to unkind (both are adjective, but have an opposite meaning); obey vs disobely
(both are verb, but have an opposite meaning), or is changing the word
class of the base to form a new word, e.g. the addition of –ly to the
47
Ibid., p.11-12
Edi subroto, Loc.Cit., p. 54
49
Francis Katamba, Loc.Cit., p. 18
50
Ibid
48
24
adjectives kind and simple produces the adverbs kind-ly and simp-ly.51
Meanwhile, inflection does not change referential or cognitive meaning.
Inflectional suffix will not change the word as derivational morpheme
change the word kind to unkind before and will not alter the word class of
the base to which it is attached. Inflectional morphemes are only able to
modify the form of a word, thus it can fit into a particular syntactic slot.52
Those notions of change and do not change the word class correlated
to the concept of class maintaining and class changing from Bauer (1983).
“A class maintaining process of derivation produces lexemes which
belong to the same form class as the base, while a class-changing process
of derivation produces lexemes which belong to a form class other than
the form class of the base”. For example, when suffix –ly distributed to
the word king (noun), it will generate an adjective kingly. The example
points the case of class-changing derivation. Another example, if the
suffix –dom is distributed to the word king (noun), it will generate a new
word kingdom which is also a noun, but different lexical meaning. And it
is the case of class-maintaining derivation.53
In conclusion, the different of the two paradigms, from the previous
discussion of derivation and inflection is derivation change the identity
and the meaning of a single word, therefore, it forms a new lexeme,
while inflection does not. Inflection happens grammatically and has a
different grammatical meaning which is predictable.
51
Ibid, p.47
Ibid, p.51
53
Laurie Bauer, Loc.Cit, p. 31
52
25
a. She works as a teacher in Indonesia
b. Mom is cooking at the kitchen
c. I have five books in my room
The italic words above show that the words are complex. The verb
work and the third person singular suffix –s in works, the verb cook and
participial suffix –ing in cooking, and the noun book with plural suffix –s
in books, all create new words. Those complex words are indeed new
words; however, they cannot be said as the new lexemes. In contrast,
suffixes like –er and –ee (both attached to verbs, as in kicker and
employee), or prefixes like re- or un- (as in rephrase or unconvincing) do
form new lexemes.54
Previously, this has been discussed by the author in chapter 1 about
division of morphology branches according to Matthews. It also discussed
in Plag (2002) and Bauer (1983). Morphology deals with the internal
structure of a word-form. In morphology, the analysts divided word-forms
into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing roots
or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of its formative.55
Morphology divided into two shares, namely, inflection and wordformation. Again, Word-formation divided into two, consisting of
derivation and compounding. 56 And derivation can be subdivided into
class changing and class maintaining.57
54
Ingo Plag, Word-Formation in English, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.18
Laurie Bauer, Op.Cit., p.33
56
Ingo Plag, Op.Cit., p.22
57
Laurie Bauer, Op.Cit., p.33
55
26
One of the factor a word can be said as a derivative is if the distribution
of affixes changes the identity of the word, with the result that it creates a
new lexeme. However, the derivational process is not always about the
addition of affixation. It can also occur without any of affixation in a word.
This type of derivation is usually mentioned as conversion by many
scholars.
6. Concept of Derivation Without Affix
So far, we have only encountered complex words that are created by
concatenation, i.e. by linking together bases and affixes as in a chain.
There are, however, also other, i.e. non-concatenative, ways to form
morphologically complex words.58
-
My account is overdrawn.
I can’t account for where the money went.
-
They wanted to green the neighborhood.
They were given a green light.
-
It’s no trouble at all.
Don’t trouble yourself.
In all these cases the verb or adjective and noun look alike and sound
alike. There is reason to believe that the verbs are derived from the nouns.
They are called denominal verb for that reason, and they are said to be
derived by a process of conversion —the noun is converted into a verb.59
58
59
Ingo Plag, Op.Cit., p.15
Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Op.Cit., p. 8
27
Conversion is the change in form class of a form without any
corresponding change of form. 60 The exact status of conversion within
word formation is unclear. For some scholars conversion