English Word Formation AnalysisIn The Jakarta Post's Sci-Tech Articles 2014

A Thesis

Submitted to Faculty of Literature and Humanities In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Bachelor of Literature

NOVIA FAJRIANI

1110026000147

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

FACULTY OF LITERATURE AND HUMANITIES

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

JAKARTA

2015

iii

knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institutes of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in this text.

Jakarta, March 2015

iv

and Humanities Faculty, State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2015.

The research analyzes the process of word formation to the selected words which are found in The Jakarta Post‘s articles. It also classifies the types of word formation. Moreover, it is aimed to make people understand word formation and know how to guess a meaning of new words without look up into dictionary. This research is analyzed by qualitative descriptive method. The research is focused and limited to word formation in e-news The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech articles in January - March 2014. The data are analyzed using Structural Morphology Processes by Eugene A. Nida. The analysis in this research has four steps based on the structural morphology processes. They are, Morpheme, Word Formation, Morphophonological Processes, and Dictionary. Then, the data are also classified to the types of word formation, they are inflection, derivation, compounding, blending, clipping, creation de novo, back-formation, acronyms, initialisms, and eponyms. The result finds that almost all of word formation occurs in the analysis. There are 27 words that is analyzed. The 25 words pass the four steps of structural morphology processes. There are two words that do not pass the four structural morphology processes; WhatsApp and DSLR. Also there are two types of word formation that do not occur; creation de novo and back-formation.

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May peace and blessing of Allah be upon all of us

All praises be to Allah SWT, the Lord of the Universe, on the overflow of graces and mercies to mankind, who remarkably guides me in the process of writing the thesis. Peace and Salutation be upon the greatest prophet Muhammad SAW, his family, companions and adherents, who had civilized the world from the darkness to the lightness.

In this occasion, I would like to express my gratitude to my family, especially my beloved parents, H. Ahadul Basyari and Hj. Munifah, my family, and my aunt Hj. Jamilah Hosen for all the support. They have never forced me to do anything in order to give me the liberation of choosing, yet they have never forgotten to guide me to be positive person.

I also would like to convey my deepest gratitude to the following amazing people:

1. Prof. Dr. Sukron Kamil, M.Ag., the Dean of Letters and Humanities Faculty.

2. Drs. Asep Saefudin, M.Pd., the Head of English Letters Department, who is also one of the writer‘s advisor, for sacrificing his precious time to guide me in completing my thesis.

vi thesis.

5. All lecturers in English Letters Department who have taught and inspired me during my study.

6. My beloved family, brothers, sisters, aunties, who have given so much moral and material support to me during the time until the final of the study, may Allah always protect and bless them.

7. My friends in English Letters Department 2010 especially Sazali Muhamad, S.S., Siti Fauziah, S.S,, Sarah Lizara Sevida S.S., Fakhri Fauzi, S.S., Putri Rosdiana for their help and experience.

8. Rumah Kardus Foundation (RKF), a bestfriend, a family who support me. 9. My college friends Rana Meisara, S.S, Ilham Putra, S.S, and Fahmi

Fahrurroji, S.S who helped my thesis.

10.The lovely one Meirin Setianti, Muhamad Ryan Fauzi, and Fathya Maulidya for support and prayer.

11.My A class of 2010 and Linguistics A class 2013 classmates and seniors and juniors for the support.

12. Everyone I met and spent time together in sharing their insights, knowledge, spirit, experiences, reasons of life and motivations which have motivated me to be beneficial person.

Jakarta, March 2015

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LEGALIZATION ... ii

DECLARATION ... iii

ABSTRACT ... iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Focus of the Study ... 5

C. Research Question ... 5

D. Objective of the Study ... 5

E. Significance of the Study ... 5

F. Research Methodology ... 6

1. Method of The Research ... 6

2. The Technique of Collecting and Data Analysis ... 6

3. Instrument of the Research ... 6

4. Unit of Analysis ... 7

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 8

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2. Types of English Word Formation ... 18

a. Inflection and Derivation ... 19

b. Compounding ... 22

c. Creation de novo ... 24

d. Blending ... 25

e. Clipping ... 26

f. Back-formation ... 27

g. Abbreviations: acronyms and initialisms ... 27

h. Eponyms ... 29

3. Structural Morphology ... 30

4. Technology ... 32

CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS ... 34

A. Data Description ... 34

B. Data Analysis ... 36

CHAPTER IV CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 80

A. Conclusions ... 80

B. Suggestions ... 81

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Morphology generally focuses on the study of word formation. Word formation is all about how a word builds or changes by adding or omitting some morphemes or affixes, also how a new word created from combining some old words into new words that listed on dictionary. There are three things that word formation can do. It can change the part of speech of a word for example amuse as a verb and amusement as a noun, the other rules of word formation cannot change the part of speech, but they do add substantial new meaning for example happy and unhappy, and another rules of word formation both change the part of speech and add substantial new meaning for example wash and washable.1

Word formation has several types. The linguists have a various number of word formation. Word formation is divided into seven types such as Derivations, Compounds, Acronyms, Back-Formations, Abbreviations, Eponyms, and Blends.2 On the other hand, The Linguistics Encyclopedia distinguishes word formation into six, there are Derivation, Composition (Compounding), Back-formation, Clipping, Acronyms, and Word Manufacture.3 Others book also describing about

1

Rochelle Lieber, Introducing Morphology, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 6 2

Victoria Fromkin et. al., An Introduction to Language Seventh Edition, (Heinle, Thomson, 2003),pp. 83-98

3

Kirsten Malmkajaer, The Linguistics Encyclopedia, (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 359-361

types of word formation which is similar. The examples of types of word formation are the words NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

and CPU (Central Processing Unit). People who do not know about word

formation may think that they are similar because they take the first sound of group of words, but in fact they are typically different. NASA is an acronym word formation and CPU is an abbreviation word formation.

Word formation does not always discuss about a new word that is newly invented. From the types of word formation, there are some new words which are created by combine the old words into a one word and become a new word with a new meaning. For example, heliport is a new word which is combined from the old words helicopter and airport. The definition of heliport itself is an airport or landing place for helicopters.4 The type of heliport is a blending word formation. This kind of word formation is important because people will see that language evolve continuously. Besides inventing a new word by people‘s own letter and idea, they can also create new words with a new meaning by the words that have been existed.

Word is not the only basic part of language which can be analyzed. Morpheme which is the smallest part in language becomes an interesting part to be discussed. This research can discuss about word deeper by describing the process of how morphemes can be a new word. For example, the word unhappy is formed by the morphemes un- + happy which has base happy and added a prefix

4

Oxford Dictionaries Online,

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/heliport accessed on May 17,

un- which has a meaning ‗not‘. As we can see, only by adding prefix which consists of two letters, it can change the meaning of the word. Another example is a word with technology term from a sentence in The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech article; I wasn’t familiar with the iPhone when people went crazy about smartphones, from the first version to the iPhone 4.5 The word smartphones is compounding word formation which is a noun and has a meaning a mobile phone that has software like the software on a small computer, and that connects to the internet.6 It is formed by the morphemes smart + phone + -s. Smart from the base

smart (adj), phone which is clipped from the word telephone (n), and –s as a

suffix. By describing the morpheme in detail, people can be easily know the process of word formation and also can guess the meaning by discovering of each morpheme.

In describing the process of word formation in the last paragraph, the Structural Morphology Theory is used to explain it step by step. The structural morphology theory discusses about the process of the morphemes which create a word and the changes of each morpheme when they merge into a word. This theory also has the featured step which is dictionary step. Dictionary step is to explain the meaning of a word. In addition, it also uses to prove a word is a real word or not because if it is a real word that has been agreed by world then it will registered in the dictionary.

5

The Jakarta Post,

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/03/01/my-gadget-nonita-respati-capturing-great-and-inspiring-things.html accessed on April 30, 2014

6

Cambridge Dictionaries Online,

Related to word formation, if people want to find a new word or term which frequently uses today, online media is the right option to choose. Online media is the easiest way to know what happen today worldwide. Online media is the easiest way to get update because there are so many things that we can find in it such as from electronic newspaper. Same as printed newspaper, electronic newspaper or e-news also containing news on current events that is accessed via the internet.7

Nowadays, there are so many e-news that can be accessed worldwide easily, for example Time, The Jakarta Post, CNBC, and The Hindu. An e-news usually has a category for the articles such as sport, entertainment, technology, science, and politics and economy. Technology article is one of the most interesting categories because the researcher can find new words or terms to express new things related to technology such as the word smartphones. Smartphones is a new word that currently appears and becomes a trending word in recently 2013s. Technology term is more interesting to analyze the process of word formation because it is mostly formed by more than one morpheme and sometimes it clips off the other part of the old words to create a new term. So, this research will use Sci-Tech articles from The Jakarta Post as the data in hope that the researcher can find many terms related to technology that can be analyzed.

Therefore, the research will discuss about word formation in electronic newspaper The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech articles by applying the Structural Morphology Theory to analyze the process.

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B. Focus of the Study

The research focuses on words related to technology term in e-news The

Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech articles in January - March 2014. This research also

focuses on finding the types of English word formation and describing the process of word formation using the Structural Morphology Theory.

C. Research Question

Based on the background of study, the research questions are formulated as follows:

1. What types of word formation appears in The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech articles?

2. How are such words formed?

D. Objective of the Study

Based on the research question above, the research has several objectives of the study:

1. To identify and classify the types of word formation that appears in The

Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech articles.

2. To analyze how words that related to technology in The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech article formed.

E. Significance of the Study

It is hoped that this research can give more benefits for the readers who are interested in study linguistics. Then, this research can offer a contribution

especially concerning English word formation, also can be a good reference to other researchers especially for English students.

F. Research Methodology 1. Method of the Research

The research uses qualitative descriptive method. Qualitative descriptive method aim to reveal the facts, circumstances, phenomena, variables and conditions that occurred while working on the research and presenting what it is. Qualitative descriptive study interpreting the current situation, attitude and outlook that occur in society, the relation between variables and the difference between facts.8 This method is suitable to analyze the content of the research. The researcher will describe the phenomena of how each word is formed.

2. The Technique of Data Analysis

This research will be examined by reading the articles, identifying the words related to technology term and contains word formation, classifying the types of word formation, and the last is describing and analyzing the data using Structural Morphology Theory.

3. Instrument of the Research

The instrument of this research is the researcher herself who classifying the words from the articles, writing down the words into the data card, describing and analyzing the data found in the Sci-Tech articles.

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Penelitian Deskriptif Kualitatif,

http://www.informasi-pendidikan.com/2013/08/penelitian-deskriptif-kualitatif.html?m=1 accessed on August 1,

4. Unit of Analysis

Unit of this research is online newspaper The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech article in January - March 2014.

Article 1 (MY GADGET: Arifin Putra looks to high performance) January 13, 2014.

Article 2 (mygadgets: Sacha Stevenson uses gadgets till their last blip) January 20, 2014.

Article 3 (ZTE‘s Nubia Z5S ‗selfie‘ lovers) January 27, 2014.

Article 4 (MY GADGET: Tanta Ginting: Cannot stay away from his iPhone) February 03, 2014.

Article 5 (Daniel Mananta: only use gadgets when necessary) February 15, 2014.

Article 6 (MY GADGET: Nonita Respati: Capturing great and inspiring things) March 01, 2014.

Article 7 (Google redesigns Android to power smart watches) March 19, 2014.

Article 8 (A heads-on look at Sony's virtual reality goggles) March 20, 2014.

Article 9 (Facebook launches lab to bring Internet everywhere) March 28, 2014.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Previous Study

This section describes few studies that have been done about word formation in order to avoid the same discussion. The first research was done by Mursyid Kasmir Naserly (2010) entitled An Analysis on the Word Formation of

the Advertisements Lexicon. The research focuses on the process of

word-formation in advertisements which have 8 kinds of word word-formation based on Matthew (1997) and Rodman & Fromkin (1998) they are word coinage, back

formation, reduplication, acronym, abbreviation, clipping, compounding, and

blending.17

The researcher used 15 advertisements as his data analysis. All the data analysis has a word which contained word formation process. The researcher identified the word by making a table to classify what word formation that he found based on the definition and the characteristic of each word formation. This research have found 13 blending and 2 compounding words such as Magnifisound from Magnificent and Sound (blending), and Sureprice from Sure and Price (compounding).

The next research was done by Mega Arisanty (2014) entitled An Analysis Processes In Instagram Simple Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5 and The Jonas Brothers Band. The research was focused to analyze the types and the process of

17

Mursyid Kasmir Naserly, ―An Analysis on the Word Formation of the Advertisements Lexicon‖, (Jakarta: State Islamic University, 2010)

word formation which applied on Instagram. The researcher used American group singer‘s Instagram account as the data analysis and has selected 75 words to be analyzed. The data are analyzed using the theory of morphology that contained the types and the process of word formation. The types of word formation that the writer used in the theory are derivation, compounding, creation de novo, blending,

clipping, back-formation, acronyms, initialisms, eponyms, and inflections. The

researcher made a tree diagram by classified the word classes then categorized it into the type of word formation which suitable. The research have found 8 word formation which are derivation, compounding, creation de novo, blending,

clipping, acronyms, initialisms, and inflection.18

The third research which has been done earlier is Proses Morfologis Dalam

Bahasa Indonesia: Analisis Bahasa Karya Samsuri by Tatang Suparman (2008).

This research‘s purpose is to get a clear description about morphology processes in Samsuri‘s works. The main study in this research is word formation processes. In his theoretical framework he stated five word formation components, they are, affixation, reduplication, internal changes, and zero modification. He found that only two components of word formation which can analyze Bahasa Indonesia, they are affixation ad reduplication.19

The fourth research entitled Pembentukan Kata Benda Istilah Sepak Bola

Dalam Reader Total Football Rusia 2012 by Eko Bawono (2012). This paper

discussed about the formation of the noun terms football in Russian language. The

18

Mega Arisanty, ―An Analysis Processes In Instagram Simple Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5 and The Jonas Brothers Band‖, (Jakarta: State Islamic University, 2014)

19_{Tatang Suparman, ―Proses Morfologis Dalam Bahasa Indonesia: An}

alisis Bahasa

analysis in this paper used the method of exposition which describe and analyze the formation of noun. The theory that he used to analyze is the theory of word formation by Popov and Kalinina (writers of Russian books about word formation). The writer describes the process of affixation that forms a new word with a new meaning. As for affixes that discussed in his paper are suffix, prefix, flexion, interfix, and postfix. He also mentioned abbreviation in his theory but only focused on affixation processes.20

The previous researches mainly were done by graduate and post-graduate students on behalf of their theses. In UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, specifically in English Language and Literature department, this is the third research discussing about English Word Formation. Based on the previous researches above, this research uses a different theory which makes it different from those four previous researches. So, it can be said that this research is something new especially in English Language and Literature Department, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

B. Concept

1. English Word Formation

Morphology can be described as a grammatical study about words which also contain the structure of word, the change of word, the grammatical meaning and word formation. By learning morphology, the learners can know about how a word is formed and changed, also what is the meaning of the word. Originally

20

Eko Bawono, ―Pembentukan Kata Benda Istilah Sepak Bola Dalam Reader Total Football Rusia 2012‖, (University of Indonesia, 2012)

morphology meant the study of biological forms. But 19th century students of language borrowed the term and applied it to the study of word-structure.21

Morphology is an area of grammar concerned with the structure of words and with relationships between words that involve the morphemes that compose them.22 _{Morphology is one of the main subjects in linguistics besides phonology} and syntax. So, that is why there are some definitions of morphology that we can find in linguistics introduction books easily. Based on Spencer & Zwicky (2007) Morphology is at the conceptual center of linguistics. This is not because it is the dominant sub discipline, but because morphology is the study of word structure, and words is at the interface between phonology, syntax, and semantics.23 Although morphology not only mention about the formation of word, but also includes the formation of a group of words or phrases.24

From the definition of morphology above, word formation is the main topic of morphology. Word formation is a traditional label, and one which is useful, but it does not generally cover all possible ways of forming everything that can be called a word.25 Word formation rules is the one whose functions to specify how the morphemes are to be arranged in sequence to form actual words.26 Word

21

Francis Katamba, English Words, (Routledge, 2005), p19 22

Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure, (Edinburgh University Press Ltd, 2002a), p. 144

23

Andrew Spencer & Arnold M. Zwicky, The Handbook of Morphology, (Blackwell Reference Online, 2007), p. 1

24

Djoko Kentjono, Dasar-dasar Linguistik Umum, (Fakultas Sastra Universitas Indonesia, 1984), p. 39

25

Laurie Bauer, English Word-Formation, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 9

26

formation‘s task is to characterize the kinds of things that speakers need to know about the structure of the words of their language in order to be able to use them to produce and to understand speech. Word formation is dealing with the formation of words, the process of how a word builds and the structure of the words. A simple example of word formation, the word frogs is not just a simple word. It separates into smaller parts. Frogs contains of frog + -s for plural. Another example is nutcracker that it is made up of two words, namely the noun nut and the noun cracker. Cracker is divisible into the verb crack + -er.

From the examples above, word formation have some types which categorize them in groups. Such as for the word frogs is an inflection word formation. The writer will not explain deeply about the inflection word formation because it will discuss in the types of word formation subtopic. But, before the writer give explanation of types of word formation; take a look back to the examples. Word frogs can separate into smaller parts frog and -s. Those smaller parts are called morphemes. From the first chapter of this research, the writer have mentioned about morphemes. Morpheme and word cannot be separated. So, the writer will discuss about morpheme and word deeply in the next subtopic.

a. Morpheme and Word

Word is the main thing in morphology discussion. As the definition of morphology that have described before, morphology is a study about word. So, the research will also explain and describe about word. But, before the researcher start to discuss about word, the researcher will give an explanation about

morpheme first. As we used to know, word is the smallest part in language. But there is a new name for the smallest part in language which is called morpheme. The traditional grammar does not recognize the concept and the term of morpheme. The concept of morpheme was introduced by the structuralists in the early 20th century.27

The complex words consist of some components that build it into a one word. The example is the word unsafe which has component un- and safe. The component un- is an entity that consists of the content or meaning on the one hand, and the sounds or letters which express this meaning on the other hand.28 So, un- means ―not X‖, unsafe = ―not safe‖. The meaning of the new complex sign unsafe can be predicted from the meanings of its parts.29 It can divide into smaller unit of meanings or grammatical function. The term morpheme is used to refer to the smallest unit that has meaning or serves a grammatical function in language.30 Morpheme described as the minimal linguistic sign which means that the morpheme is the smallest component of a word which contributes to its meaning.31

Every single morpheme has a meaning. Morphemes tend to have a fairly stable meaning which they bring to any word in which they appear. If we take un-, for example, they mean ‗not‘ respectively—not just in the word that have listed in

27

Abdul Chaer, Linguistik Umum 4rd edition, (Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta, 2012), p. 147 28

Ingo Plag, Word-formation in English, (Cambridge University Press, 2002), p25 29

Ibid, p. 27 30

Francis Katamba, op.cit., p. 20 31

Andrew Radford et. al., Linguistics An Introduction 2nd edition, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 140

the example before, but also in thousands of other words. Usually morphemes are used again and again to form different words.32

The linguists have divided morpheme into two basic parts, free morpheme and bound morpheme. A morpheme which can also stand as a word is called a free morpheme.33 Some morphemes can occur only if attached to some other morpheme. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.34 Bound morpheme unable to function as a free-standing words, it cannot stand alone. There is also a book which has two types of morphemes they are roots and affixes.

1) Roots

Any sound identified as a word by a speaker has at least one root. Roots are the center of word-derivational processes. They carry the basic meaning from which the rest of the sense of the word can be derived.35 Morpheme such as fair is root; its meaning carry over into unfair. Root like fair also happens to be free form with identifiable word-class properties or called free root morphemes (the one that are also independent words); the one that cannot stand alone as words are called bound root morphemes.36

2) Affixes

All morphemes which are not roots are affixes. Mainly affixes have the effect of slightly modifying the meaning of the base – a base is a root or a root plus an affix, or more than one root with or without affixes – to which more

32

Francis Katamba, loc.cit.

33

Andrew Radford et. al., op.cit.,p. 140 34

Ingo Plag, op.cit., p. 13 35

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, English Words History and Structure, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 69

36

affixes be attached.37 In English, affixes which attached at the end of the base called suffixes, or at the front of the base called prefixes.38 The examples of prefixes are re+turn means ‗turn back‘, or un+filled means ‗not filled‘, and the examples of suffixes act+or means ‗person who acts‘, and another example child+ish means ‗like a child‘.

Affixes have two quite different functions. The first is derivational affixes and the second is inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes are to participate in the formation of new words, to change the word-class, the part of speech.39 Inflectional affixes do not participate in word-formation at all. Here are the examples of derivational and inflectional affixes:

Figure 2.1 Derivational and Inflectional Affixes40

37

Ibid, p. 71 38_Ibid

, p. 72 39_Ibid

, p. 71 40

Ibid, p. 73

Affixes Derivational Prefixes an- mis- trans- un- Suffixes -ity -less -ment -ous Inflectional -s -ed -er -ing

For example of a word in derivational affixes such as treat+ment which have changed the word classes by added the suffix –ment from treat V(verb) into treatment N(noun), and for inflectional affixes such as play+ed which describe the tense without change the word class.

The next discussion is about word. As we can see in the beginning paragraph of this subtopic, word is the main thing in this discussion. As we all think that words are a basic unit of language and also the important one. We cannot imagine how a language without words. We all know thousands of word that we always use while speaking or making interaction with others. But people sometimes hard to describe the meaning of the term word. Leonard Bloomfield, one of the greatest linguists of the twentieth century, in 1926 has stated that ‗a minimum free form is a word‘.41

By this he meant that the word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its own. It is a form that cannot be divided into any smaller units that can be used independently to convey meaning.42

As the definition above, however, it seems that Bloomfield‘s statement have been disputed by the structuralists with the term morpheme. Therefore, the linguists try to fix the definition of the term word by explaining it into several types of word to avoid the ambiguity. First, a word-form (i.e. a particular physical manifestation of one or more lexemes in speech or writing); second, a vocabulary

41

Francis Katamba, op.cit., p. 6 42

item (i.e. lexeme); third, a unit of grammatical structure that has certain morphological and syntactic properties.43

We can also simply conclude the definition of word from the previous subtopic ‗Morpheme‘ that word can build by adding a root and affixes, or only a root, or two/three roots which will be a one word with meaning or new meaning with grammatical function or word class. That also can be said words are a fundamental unit out of which phrases and sentences are composed.44 For example, help consist of one root. Then, helpful consist of two roots help as the free root morpheme and –ful is the bound root morpheme or suffix. Another example is the word helpfulness which consist of three roots help, -ful, and –ness.

Help as the free root morpheme or free morpheme, -ful and –ness as the bound

root morpheme/bound morpheme/suffix.

It is sometimes not easy to decide whether a given string of sounds (or letters) should be regarded as a word or not. To help us recognize what the term word is, also to avoid the ambiguity of the meaning of words, Ingo Plag (2002) have given a summary the properties of words. First, words are the syntactic atoms, the smallest elements in a sentence. Second, words (usually) have one main stress. Spoken in isolation, every word can have only one main stress.45 The main stressed syllable is the syllable which is the most prominent one in a word. Prominence of a syllable is a function of loudness, pitch and duration, with

43_Ibid, p. 17 44

Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, op.cit. 2002a, p. 146 45

stressed syllables being pronounced louder, with higher pitch, or with longer duration than the neighboring syllable(s).46

Third, words are (usually) indivisible units (no intervening material possible).

If some modificational element is added to a word, it must be done at the edges, but never inside the word. For example, plural ending –s in girls, or negative elements such as un- in uncommon or endings that create verbs out of adjectives such as -ize in colonialize never occur inside the word they modify, but are added either before or after the word. However, there are some cases in which word integrity is violated. For example, the plural of

son-in-law is not son-in-laws but sons-in-law.47

The last, words are entities having a part of speech specification. Words belong to certain syntactic classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc) which are called part of speech, word classes, or syntactic categories.48 The position in which a given word may occur in a sentence is determined by the syntactic rules of a language. These rules make reference to words and the class they belong to.49 We can therefore test whether something is a word by checking whether it belongs to such a word class.

2. Types of English Word Formation

There is broad, but not complete, agreement as to how the field of word formation should be divided up. The linguists have divided word formation into five until six kinds of word formation, but Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell

46

Ibid, p. 6-7 47_Ibid

, p. 7 48_Ibid,

p. 8-9 49

have stated more complete kinds of word formation. There are at least eight word formations which have divided by them. They also categorize the word formation into two groups: regular word formation and new word creation.

There are two kinds of regular word formation based on Minkova and Stockwell, they are derivation and compounding. But the writer also adds inflection into this group. Another group has six kinds of word formation which

are creation de novo, blending, clipping, back-formation, abbreviations:

acronyms and initialisms, and eponyms.

a. Inflection and Derivation

Bloomfield (1933/1935) as quoted by Malmkjaer, referred to inflection as the outer layer of the morphology of word forms, and derivation as the inner layer.50 In other words, inflection is added when all derivational and compositional processes are already complete.51 For the clear example of that explanation is the plural form of motorbike is motorbikes, not motorsbike.

Aronoff (1976) and Corbin (1987) explicitly omit inflectional morphology from consideration, so they do not address the issue of whether any or all inflected word-forms should be lexically listed.52 But Halle (1973) saw no reason not to list inflected forms as well as derivatives; the only difference between them was that inflected forms were grouped in the

50

Kirsten Malmkajaer, op.cit., p. 358 51_Ibid

52

dictionary into paradigms.53 The notion of inflection rests on the more basic notion of lexeme.

A lexeme is a unit of linguistic analysis which belongs to a particular syntactic category, has a particular meaning or grammatical function and ordinarily enters into syntactic combinations as a single word; in many instances, the identity of the word which realizes a particular lexeme varies systematically according to the syntactic context in which it is to be used.54

Since inflected forms are just variants of one and the same word, inflecting a word should not cause it to change its category.55 Typically inflection contributes a morpheme that is required in order to ensure that the word has a form that is appropriate for the grammatical context in which it is used.56 English is a language which has less number of inflections. Fromkin have described eight inflection affixes in English with the examples:

-s third-person singular present She wait-s at home.

-ed past tense She wait-ed at home.

-ing progressive She is eat-ing the donut.

-en past participle Mary has eat-en the donuts.

-s plural She ate the donut-s.

-‘s possessive Disa’s hair is short

53

Ibid

54

Andrew Spencer & Arnold M. Zwicky, loc.cit.

55

Andrew Spencer, Morphological Theory, (Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1991), p. 9 56

-er comparative Disa has short-er hair than Karin.

-est superlative Disa has the short-est hair.57

As can be seen from the inflection affixes above, if we have a third person subject, a present tense verb agreeing with it must take the –s ending; anything else is forbidden.58 The application of an inflectional process is automatically triggered if the right syntactic conditions obtain.

Inflection cannot cause a word to change its syntactic category, but derivation does. Derivation is the reverse of the coin of inflection. Same as inflection, it consists of affixes. Derivational affixes function not to express morphosyntactic categories but to make new words. 59 Derivation is motivated by the desire to create new lexical items using pre-existing morphemes and words.60 It is possible to create a new lexical item by recycling pre-existing material. This is derivation; it takes one of three forms: affixation, conversion, or compounding.

Derivation by affixation consists in making up new words by adding affixes, or endings, to more basic forms of the word.61 These derivations require no special definition or explanation because they follow regular rules. For example, the word active in Chambers Dictionary have derived

57

Victoria Fromkin et. al., op.cit., p. 358 58

Francis Katamba, loc.cit.

59

Kirsten Malmkjær, op.cit., p. 359 60

Francis Katamba, op.cit., p. 41 61

words: activate, activation, actively, activeness, activity, activism, activist. But sometimes different dictionaries make different decisions.

Derivation enables us to add new lexical items to the open word-classes of noun, adjective, verb, and adverb.62 Consider the following pairs of sentences in which the same words appear in different functions such as a noun but also an adjective/adverb/verb, for example:

It‘s no trouble at all. Don‘t trouble yourself.

In these cases the verb or adjective and noun look alike and sound alike. There is reason to believe that the verb is derived from the noun, it derived without affixation. They are said to be derived by a process of conversion – the noun is converted into a verb.63 Conversion that have been around long enough are normally shown with a single entry in many dictionaries, with the identification n., a., v., meaning that the form occurs as noun, adjective, and verb all three.64

b. Compounding

Derivation is not the only way of forming new words, of course. In many languages, compounding is the most frequently used way of making new words. Its defining property is that it consists of the combination of

62

Francis Katamba, loc.cit.

63

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, op.cit., p. 8 64

lexemes into larger words.65 In simple cases, compounding consist of the combination of two words, in which one word modifies the meaning of the other, the head. This is a very large, and therefore very important, source of new words. To produce a new word by compounding, what we do is put together two words in a perfectly transparent way, and then various changes take place which may cause the compound to lose its transparency.66

When a new compound is formed, we already know the meaning of its constituents, and the only task we face is to find out about the semantic relation between the two parts. The right constituent of a compound is normally the head. The left constituent of such compounds functions to modify the meaning of the head constituent.67 The head is the element that serves to determine both the part of speech and the semantic kind denoted by the compound as a whole.68 For example, greenhouse is a noun, as house is, and skyblue is adjective, as blue is. Similarly, the second base determines the semantic category of the compound – in the former case a type of building, and in the latter a color.

Minkova and Stockwell distinguish compounding into two types,

syntactic compounds and lexical compounds. Syntactic compound is

compounds are formed by regular rules of grammar, like sentences, and they

65

Geert Booij, The Grammar of Words, (United States: Oxford University Press In. New York, 2005), p. 75

66

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, loc.cit.

67

Geert Booij, op.cit., p. 76 68

are no, therefore, listed in a dictionary.69 For example, birthplace (a place of birth), washing machine (we wash things with the machine), sunrise (the rising of the sun). Another type of compound is lexical compound which (if we do not know the meaning already) has to be looked up in a dictionary like a totally novel word.70 For example, crybaby is not refers to babies that cry but to people who act like babies that cry. Similarly, girl friend is not just a girl who is a friend, nor is boy friend just a boy who is a friend. These compounds actually can mean what they appear to mean on the surface, but usually they mean more than that.

c. Creation de novo

Though one might think it an easy matter to create a new word (without basing it on some pre-existing word or part of a word) for some new idea or new artifact, such creations are rare. The invention of completely new morphs is rare in comparison to the kinds of word formation described above (inflection, derivation, and compounding). Word formation processes are variably productive but constantly in operation to expand the lexicon as new meanings emerge, social and technological change takes place, and individuals create new forms.71

69

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, op.cit., p. 10 70_Ibid

71

Creation de novo or de novo itself refers to words created entirely from scratch, a process known also as word-manufacture.72 Completely new words often start as trade-marks. Kodak was created and registered as a proprietary name in 1888 by George Eastman, founder of the camera company that bears his name. The word Kodak itself is reported to have said that it was ―a purely arbitrary combination of letters, not derived in whole or in part from any existing word.‖73

In the world of marketing, such creations are generally the result of massive commercial research efforts to find a combination of sounds, words that have a pleasant ring to them and that are easy to pronounce. But most of the new words that even advertising experts come up with are derived from old words.74 So, it can be concluded that creation de novo is mostly formed from a brand which used and known worldwide.

d. Blending

In blending, parts of two familiar words are yoked together (usually the first part of one word and the second part of the other) to produce a word which combines the meanings and sound of the old ones.75 Most treatments converge on a definition of blends as words that combine two words into one, deleting material from one or both of the source words.76 Successful

72

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, op.cit., p. 12 73

Ibid

74_Ibid , p. 13 75_Ibid 76

examples are smog a blend of smoke and fog, motel from motor and hotel, heliport from helicopter and airport, and brunch from breakfast and lunch.

The examples of blending can be assigned to two classes such as blend of motel; the meaning of this form is one where the first element modifies the second element.77 Another example is mocamp from motor and camp is a kind of camp, not a kind of motor. A brunch is both breakfast and lunch. The blends in that example denote entities that share properties of the referents of both elements.78

e. Clipping

One of the many ways in which speakers shorten their words or phrases is by clipping off some part of word, and throwing away the rest.79 Clipping which can involve deletion of initial morphemes or final word-segments, such as lab(oratory), or (tele)phone.80 Plag (2002) have also stated about clipping in addition to Minkova and Stockwell (2009) that clipping is the processes involving the deletion of material, yet another case of non-concatenative morphology. The process also occasionally encountered with words that are not personal names.81

The examples of clipping are phone from telephone, plane from

airplane, flu from influenza. Ad and British advert are transparently based

77

Ibid, p. 156 78

Ibid

79

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, op.cit., p. 14 80

Kirsten Malmkjær, loc.cit.

81

on advertisement. In many cases it is apparent that they are deliberate shortenings to save time and space; such clipping are, technically speaking, not ―new‖ words, but stylistic variants of existing words.82

f. Back-formation

Quite often, words are analogically derived by deleting a suffix, a process called back-formation.83 Back-formation occurs when a suffix is removed from a complex word.84 An example of such a back-formation is the verb edit which was derived from the word editor by deleting –or on the basis of a proportional analogy with word pairs such as actor – act.85

Another example of back-formation is the verb escalate, which occurs with two meanings, each of which is derived from a different model word. The first meaning can be paraphrased as ‗to climb or reach by means of an escalator ... to travel on an escalator‘ (OED), and is modeled on escalator. The second meaning is escalate is roughly synonymous with ‗increase in intensity‘ which is back-formed from escalation which can be paraphrased as ‗increase of development by successive stages‘.86

82

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, op.cit., p. 15 83

Ingo Plag, op.cit., p. 48 84

Kirsten Malmkjær, op.cit., p. 360 85

Ingo Plag, loc.cit.

86

g. Abbreviations: acronyms and initialisms

Abbreviation is most commonly formed by taking initial letters of multi-word sequences to make up a new word. For example, FAQ for frequently asked question. One can also find abbreviations that incorporate non-initial letters. As an example, ASAP stands for as soon as possible.87 If we take a look into abbreviation, it will give differences of abbreviation by its spelling and pronunciation. So, abbreviations can be grouped into two part, abbreviation non-initial called acronyms and abbreviation by taking initial named initialisms.

g.1 Acronyms

Acronyms (acr-o ‗tip, point‘ + onym ‗name‘) are a special type of shortening. A typical acronym takes the first sound from each of several words and makes a new word from those initial sounds and resulting initials that pronounced like any other word.88 The spelling of acronyms may differ with regard to the use of capital letters. Usually capital letters are used, which can be interpreted as a formal device that clearly links the acronym to its base word. 89 The acronyms are, for example: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Often, however, to make an acronym pronounceable, we

87_Ibid

, p. 161 88

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, op.cit., p. 16 89

take not just the initial sounds but, for example, the first consonant and the first vowel together such as radar from radio detecting and ranging.90

g.2 Initialisms

If the letters which make up the acronyms are individually pronounced, like COD, such acronyms are called initialisms. The word initialisms based on Oxford English Dictionary means ‗a significative group of initial letters‘. 91

The examples of initialisms, NBC (National Broadcasting Company), BBC (British Broadcasting Company, FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation). Classifying a new form as either an acronym or initialism is not always easy or possible. The words CD-ROM

(compact disk read-only memory) or JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts

Group) are initialism-acronym hybrids. Sometimes one and the same word can be pronounced either as initialism or as acronym such as FAQ

(Frequently Asked Question).92

h. Eponyms

There are new words based on names (epi- ‗upon‘ onym ‗name‘). So, eponym is a new word that is formed from a name of an inventor or discoverer. Eponym mostly appear in fields like biology, physics, chemistry, etc. quite often eponym come from an individual name, a character familiar

90

Donka Minkova & Robert Stockwell, loc.cit.

91_Ibid 92

from mythology, history, a place name, a brand name, etc.93 It is like turning a proper noun into a common noun. For example: boycott (Charles Boycott, an English land agent in Ireland), cheddar (a village in Somerset when the cheese first came), atlas (he was condoned by Zeus, the leader of the Greek gods, to support the earth and heavens on his shoulders), Google was an internet search engine registered and launched in 1998; the verb to google has been in use since 1999.

3. Structural Morphology Theory

Modern linguistics has three approaches in twentieth-century: structuralism, functionalism and generativism.94 Ferdinand de Saussure known as the Founding Father of modern linguistics has an important role in structural linguistics followed by Franz Boas, Leonard Bloomfield and Edward Sapir.95 Structuralism focuses on the description of languages. Eugene A. Nida releases Morphology:

The Descriptive Analysis of Words in 1946 which talk about the description of

words structure. Yet, Nida uses the term morpheme in his book to explain and describe about word formation. In his book, Nida explains and describes about the meaning of morpheme, kinds of morpheme, how morphemes merger to form a word, morphological structure, also identify the meaning of morphemes.96

93

Ibid, p. 19 94

Kirsten Malmkjaer, op.cit., p. xxxiii 95

Ibid

96

Eugene A. Nida, Morphology: The Descriptive Analysis of Words Second Edition, (United States of America: The University of Michigan Press, 1949)

Ba‘dulu & Herman in their book Morfosintaksis have summarized Nida‘s work. They also describe the structural morphology processes to describe word formation. They write the point to analyze and describe words from Nida‘s book into four processes:

Figure 2.2 The Organization of Structural Morphology97

The first task for the analyst is to identify all the morpheme, both free and bound morpheme from the data that have been collected. The second component is word formation which explains about how morphemes in a language arranged in groups to form real words in that language. The third is morphophonology processes, a mechanism of morphophonology processes which show the changes that occur in the merger of morpheme. The last component is dictionary. All the word that passed those three processes will be or must be listed in a dictionary.98

An example of the process of structural morphology theory is the word

helpfulness. First thing to do is separates the word helpfulness into smaller parts,

make a list of morpheme which contain in the word. helpfulness is consist of three

97

Ibid,p. 16 98

Ibid, pp. 16-17

List of Morphemes

Word Formation

Morphophonology Processes

morphemes help, -ful, and –ness. Help is the base which is free morpheme because it is also an independent word. Then, -ful and –ness are the bound morphemes or suffixes because it cannot stand alone as a word and it attached at the end of the base. But, in morphology, helpfulness can be sonsist of two morphemes. They are helpful and –ness. Helpful is as the root which is a free morpheme and –ness as the suffix.

Second is the process of word formation. Helpfulness is a derivation word formation because it creates new lexical items using pre-existing morphemes and words and changes the syntactic category from helpful (adj) into helpfulness (n). Helpfulness is the type of derivation by affixation because it creates new word by adding affix –ness. Third is the morphophonology processes. Helpfulness does not have any special morphophonological process in changing or omitting the letters to form it into a new word. It only added a suffix –ness. The last step is dictionary.

Helpfulness is listed in Cambridge Dictionary with a meaning ―willing to help, or

useful‖.99

It means that the word helpfulness is a real word and agreed by people in the world.

4. Technology

Technology becomes a main part in human life today. They need technology items and use it to help them doing their job and daily activity. The term technology itself is a combination of the Greek techne for art, craft, with logos which means word, speech. At first, technology is the term for discussion of

99

Cambridge Dictionaries Online,

the applied arts only. In the early 20th century, it embraces a growing range of means, processes, and ideas in addition to tools and machines.100―Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry‖ that is how Oxford Dictionaries have a definition of technology.101 The example of current technology that is highly developed is communication devices such as smartphones and tablets.

100

http://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology accessed on October 1,

2015 101

Oxford Dictionaries Online,

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/technology accessed on October 1,

34 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH FINDINGS

A. Data Description

In data description, the data are collected from The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-tech articles on January – March 2014. The data that will be analyzed are the words related to technology term which is directly related to technology, technology development, technology items and terms associated with technology items. There are nine headlines that have been chosen and there are 54 different words related to technology term and contain word formations that have been found without repetition occurring in the nine articles. The researcher also uses four main dictionaries to check every word that has been analyzed whether the word is listed in the dictionaries or not. The four dictionaries are Oxford Dictionaries Online, Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online.

The words that have been found are written into a piece of paper. Then, the researcher chooses the half number of 54 words from the articles to analyze. The researcher gets 27 words that have been chosen and describe into the table below:

Table of Data Collected from The Jakarta Post‘s Sci-Tech Article January – March 2014

No. Article Word Formation Data

1 MY GADGET: Arifin Putra looks to high performance.

Acronym RAM

Inflection Megabyte

Tablets Laptops Websites

2 MY GADGET: Sacha

Stevenson uses gadgets till their last blip.

Compounding Software

Initialism DSLR

Derivation Connectivity

3 ZTE‘s Nubia Z5S ‗selfie‘ lovers.

Blending Cell Phone

Derivation Selfie

Initialism LTE

Inflection Megapixel

4 MY GADGET: Tanta

Ginting: Cannot stay away from his iPhone.

Initialism PC

Eponym YouTube

B. Data Analysis

1. Article 1: MY GADGET: Arifin Putra looks to high performance. 1) WiFi

a. Morpheme

The word WiFi consists of one morpheme. WiFi is a free morpheme because it can stand alone as a word. Based on the types of gadgets when necessary.

Derivation Communication

6 MY GADGET: Nonita Respati: Capturing great and inspiring things.

Eponym WhatsApp

Inflection Gadgets

7 Google redesigns Android to power smart watches.

Clipping Tech

App

Eponym Google

8 A heads-on look at Sony‘s virtual reality goggles.

Compounding Headphone

Initialism 3D

VR

9 Facebook launches lab to bring internet everywhere.

Eponym Facebook

morpheme, WiFi can be called as a free root morpheme because it happens as a free form with identifiable word class properties.

b. Word Formation

WiFi can be classified as an eponym word formation. Eponym is a new word that is formed from a name. There are so many eponym comes from a brand name, individual name, company name and place name. Eponym is like turning a proper noun into a common noun. WiFi belongs to eponym on an organization‘s name WiFi Alliance. WiFi is a trademark of WiFi Alliance. It is a word that has been use since most of people use WiFi to connect the device such as Smartphone and laptop to the internet.

c. Morphophonological Processes

WiFi has no special change in omitting or adding any letters to create the word. WiFi is a completely new word which is taken from an organization‘s name. It does not use any pre-existing words. It is taken from the developer name WiFi Alliance.

d. Dictionary

WiFi is listed in Oxford Learner‘s Dictionaries Online in the technology topic related to computer hardware. It is also listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online and Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online. But, WiFi is not listed in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online.

Thus, WiFi has passed the four processes of word formation which use the structural morphology processes of identifying the word. WiFi has one morpheme as a free morpheme. WiFi has been classified as an eponym word formation and do not have any special processes in morphophonological because it is completely a scratch. WiFi is also listed in Oxford Learner‘s Dictionaries Online, Cambridge Dictionaries Online and Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online. Then, WiFi is structurally perfect as a word.

2) RAM

a. Morpheme

RAM is short from Random Access Memory. RAM is only has one morpheme which is a free morpheme. It can stand alone as a word and has word class property that can be identified. But, if we also identify Random Access Memory, it has three free morphemes. They can stand independently as a word with identifiable word class properties.

b. Word Formation

RAM is a kind of abbreviation. But, abbreviation is grouped into two parts, abbreviation non-initial called acronym, and abbreviation by taking initial named initialism. RAM is belong to acronym because it takes the first sound from each of several words Random Access

Memory and makes a new word from those initial sounds R, A, and

Usually capital letters are used, which can be interpreted as a formal device that clearly links the acronym to its base word.

c. Morphophonological Processes

In this process, there is no special change to create the word RAM. They only shorten the base words Random Access Memory by taking the first letters R, A, and M, and omitting the others letter.

d. Dictionary

RAM is listed in Oxford Learner‘s Dictionaries Online in the technology topic related to computer hardware. It is also listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. It is not listed in Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online.

Thus, RAM has passed the fourth processes of word formation which use the structural morphology processes of identifying the word. RAM is a single free morpheme. RAM has been classified as an acronym in word formation. The process in morphophonological is taking the initials R, A, and M of the words Random Access Memory. RAM also listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Oxford Dictionaries Online, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. Then, RAM is structurally perfect as a word.

3) Megabyte a. Morpheme

The word megabyte consists of two morphemes. They are mega- and byte. Based on the concept of morpheme, mega- can be described as an affix. This affix is attached at the beginning of the word. The affix that is attached in the beginning of the word called prefix. This prefix is an inflectional affixes because it does not change the syntactic category. It only changes the amount of byte. A prefix is part of bound morpheme because it is attached to the morpheme byte and it cannot stand alone as a word. Byte is the main part of this word because it can be predicted to find the meaning of the word.

Byte is a free morpheme because it can stand alone as a word even

without the morpheme mega-. Based on the types of morpheme; byte is a free root morpheme because it happens as a free form with identifiable word class properties.

b. Word Formation

Megabyte can be classified as an inflection. It forms a variant of one and the same word without cause it to change its category. Based on the concept of inflection, it cannot cause a word to change its syntactic category. It can be proved that the word byte has a syntactic category as a noun. Then, the word megabyte has the same syntactic category and does not change anything both the meaning and the syntactic category. So, it can be classified that megabyte is an inflection.

The word megabyte does not have any special morphophonological process in changing or omitting the letters and morphemes to form it into a new word. It only added the prefix mega- to state a big amount of byte.

d. Dictionary

Megabyte is listed in Oxford Learner‘s Dictionaries in the

technology topic related to computer hardware. It is also listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. Thus, megabyte has passed the fourth processes of word formation which use the structural morphology processes of identifying the word.

Megabyte has two morphemes, the first is mega- as a bound morpheme

and the second is byte as a free morpheme. Megabyte has been classified as an inflection word formation and do not have any special processes in morphophonological because it only added a prefix mega-. Megabyte is also listed in Oxford Dictionaries Online, Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. Then, Megabyte is structurally perfect as a word.

4) Tablets

a. Morpheme

The word tablets consist of two different kinds of morpheme. They

morpheme because it can stand alone as a word. Based on the types of morpheme, tablet can be called as a free root morpheme because it happens as a free form with identifiable word class properties. Move to another morpheme which is –s. Based on the theory, -s is an affix. In English, affix which attach at the end of the base is called suffix. This suffix is a member of inflectional affixes which mean as a third-person singular present or a plural form. An affix is absolutely a part of bound morpheme because it is attached to the morpheme tablet and it cannot stand alone as a word.

b. Word Formation

Tablets can be classified as an inflection. It forms a variant of one and the same word without cause it to change its category. Based on the concept of inflection, it cannot cause a word to change its syntactic category. It can be proved that the word tablet has a syntactic category as a noun. Then, the word tablets have the same syntactic category and does not change anything both the meaning and the syntactic category. So, it is positively an inflection.

c. Morphophonological Processes

Tablets do not have any special morphophonological process in

changing or omitting the letters to form it into a new word. It only adds a suffix –s as a third person singular/plural form.

Tablet is listed in the four dictionaries. It is listed in Oxford Dictionaries Online, Cambridge Dictionaries Online and Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online.

Thus, tablets have passed the fourth processes of word formation which use the structural morphology processes of identifying the word.

Tablets have two morphemes, the first is tablet as a free morpheme and

the second is –s as a bound morpheme. Tablets have been classified as an inflection in word formation and do not have any special processes in morphophonological because it only added a suffix –s. Tablets also listed in Oxford Dictionaries Online, Cambridge Dictionaries Online, and Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online. Then, tablet is structurally perfect as a word.

5) Laptops a. Morpheme

The word laptops consist of two morphemes. They are laptop and – s. The morpheme laptop is the main part of this word because it can be predicted to find the meaning of the word. Same as gadget and

tablet, laptop is a free morpheme because it can stand alone as a

word even without the morpheme -s. Based on the types of morpheme; laptop is a free root morpheme because it happens as a free form with identifiable word class properties. The morpheme –s can be described based on the theory, is suffix. This suffix is a member of inflectional affixes which mean as a third-person singular

present or a plural form. A suffix is part of bound morpheme because it is attached to the morpheme laptop and it cannot stand alone.

b. Word Formation

Laptops also can be classified as an inflection. It forms a variant of one and the same word without cause it to change its category. Based on the concept of inflection, it cannot cause a word to change its syntactic category. It can be proved that the word laptop has a syntactic category as a noun. Then, the word laptops have the same syntactic category and does not change anything both the meaning and the syntactic category. So, it can be classified that laptops is an inflection.

c. Morphophonological Processes

The word laptops also do not have any special morphophonological process in changing or omitting the letters to form it into a new word. It only added a suffix –s as a third person singular/plural form. d. Dictionary

Laptops is listed in Oxford Learner‘s Dictionaries in the technology

topic related to computer hardware. It is also listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online.

Thus, laptops has passed the fourth processes of word formation which use the structural morphology processes of identifying the word.

Laptops have two morphemes, the first is laptop as a free morpheme and the second is –s as a bound morpheme. Laptops have been classified as an inflection in word formation and do not have any special processes in morphophonological because it only added a suffix –s. Laptops also listed in Oxford Dictionaries Online, Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. Then, laptop is structurally perfect as a word.

6) Websites a. Morpheme

The word websites consists of two morphemes. They are website and

–s. Website is the free morpheme also the main part of this word

because it can stand alone as a word and can be predicted to find the meaning of the word. Same as gadget, tablet, and laptop, website is a free root morpheme because it happens as a free form with identifiable word class properties. The morpheme –s can be described based on the theory, is a suffix. This suffix is a member of inflectional affixes which mean as a third-person singular present or a plural form. A suffix is part of bound morpheme because it is attached to the morpheme website and it cannot stand alone.

b. Word Formation

Websites also can be classified as an inflection. It forms a variant of one and the same word without cause it to change its category.

Based on the concept of inflection, it cannot cause a word to change its syntactic category. It can be proved that the word website has a syntactic category as a noun. Then, the word websites have the same syntactic category and does not change anything both the meaning and the syntactic category. But, it changes the tenses or the number become plural. So, it can be classified that websites is an inflection. c. Morphophonological Processes

The word websites also does not have any special morphophonological process in changing or omitting the letters to form it into a new word. Same as the three words before, it only added a suffix –s as a third person singular/plural form.

d. Dictionary

Websites is listed in Oxford Learner‘s Dictionaries in the technology

topic related to websites. It is also listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online.

Thus, websites has passed the fourth processes of word formation which use the structural morphology processes of identifying the word.

Websites have two morphemes, the first is website as a free morpheme

and the second is –s as a bound morpheme. Websites have been classified as an inflection in word formation and do not have any special processes in morphophonological because it only added a suffix –s. Websites also

listed in Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Oxford Dictionaries Online, Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Online, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online. Then, website is structurally perfect as a word.

2. Article 2: MY GADGET: Sacha Stevenson uses gadgets till their last blip. 1) Software

a. Morpheme

The word software has two morphemes. They are soft and ware. The morpheme soft is a free morpheme because it can stand alone as a word. The other morpheme is ware which is also free morpheme because it can stand as a word. Based on the types of morpheme; soft

and ware are free root morphemes because they happen as a free

form with identifiable word class properties. b. Word Formation

The word software is classified as a compounding word formation. It consists of the combination of two words which are soft and ware, in which one word modifies the meaning of the other as the head. The head of a compound word is normally the right constituent. That is ware. The head is the element that serves to determine both the part of speech and the semantic category. For software is a noun, as ware is. Based on Minkova and Stockwell who have distinguished compounding into two types, syntactic and lexical, software is a type

I‘m quite up-to-date with gadgets. I bring all of them along in my daily activities. Even so, as a fashion designer, I still do my drawings manually with a pencil and a paper. I admit, I don‘t know how to do digital drawing. When I need to transfer my drawings for a digital version, for example in my bedding set that was inspired by the parang motif in batik, I will ask someone to do it for me.

Article 7

Google redesigns Android to power smartwatches

Michael Liedtke, The Associated Press, San Fransisco | Sci-Tech | Wed, March 19 2014, 10:06 AM

Google thinks it's time for an Internet-connected watch that performs many of the same tasks as a smartphone but with fewer distractions and rude interruptions. The Internet's most influential company is trying to unleash a new era in mobile computing with a version of its Android software tailored for high-tech watches and other devices that can be worn instead of held.

The "Android Wear" operating system released Tuesday is an altered version of Google's popular software that powers more than 1 billion of the world's smartphones and tablets. The new software will run on an array of so-called smartwatches scheduled to be released later this year.

The Android watches will be less conspicuous — and perhaps less obnoxious — than Google Glass, the high-tech headwear that includes a small camera and thumbnail-sized display screen attach to frames that look like a pair of spectacles. Google so far has only sold the $1,500 Glass device to a limited number of people known as "explorers." Some of those early Glass adopters have been mocked as goofy-looking geeks while others have been ridiculed and scorned for being able to take video and photos surreptitiously without the consent of those around them. Like Glass and smartphones running on other versions of the software, the Android watches will respond to voice commands such as "Ok Google" to play a specific song, send a text or make a restaurant reservation. It will also feature a virtual assistant, called Google Now, to learn a user's routines and preference so it can automatically show important information that can be seen with a quick look at the wrist.

Google is already trying to create more uses for Android watches by making the software available to computer programmers interested in making apps for the software.

Cultivating more applications will be crucial because smartwatches probably may never become the main device that people use to help manage their lives, said Gartner analyst Brian Blau. That means consumers are going to have to see more compelling features to be persuaded to spend another $100 or $200 for a complementary device to a smartphone or tablet.

"Fashion is a big industry, but selling these watches will be more of challenge," Blau predicted. "We still need to see what kind of cool apps there will be and what kind of new behaviors they will enable."

The first Android watch may come from Motorola Mobility, a Google subsidiary that is in the process of being sold to Lenovo Group. Motorola already has built a prototype of its Android watch, called "Moto 360," that will go on sale this summer. No details on pricing were announced.

LG Electronics, a frequent Google partner in the smartphone and tablet markets, and fashion accessory maker Fossil Group also say they will share more details about their Android watches in the coming months. Other device makers working

Google.

Those companies will likely be competing against a highly anticipated smartwatch from iPhone maker Apple Inc. that is expected to be unveiled later this year. True to its secretive nature, Apple hasn't confirmed any plans to add a watch to its product line, although CEO Tim Cook has left little doubt he is intrigued by the concept.

There are already several other smartwatches on the market, including a recently released timepiece from Samsung that runs on that company's own operating system.

So far, those watches have proven to be novelties that primarily appeal to gadget-loving geeks and physical fitness enthusiasts looking for more tools to help track their workouts and general health.

Google's new take on Android may help cultivate more mainstream appeal for smartwatches. The software already is the most popular smartphone operating system in the world with a 79 percent share of the market, according to the research firm International Data Corp. Apple's iOS software ranks second with a 15 percent market share, so that company's entrance into the smartwatch category would also help spur more innovation in the category.

Smartwatches and Google Glass are just two of the first examples of how computing devices increasingly are expected to become like appendages to the human body as technology advances and connecting to the Internet becomes as reflexive as breathing. Google executives have even openly talked about day when it might be possible to help people live longer and more enjoyable lives by planting chips in their heads or under their skin.

"The possibilities with devices that you wear on your body are endless," David Singleton, an Android director of engineering, said in an online video posted Tuesday. (***)

Article 8

A heads-on look at Sony's virtual reality goggles

Derrik J. Lang, Associated Press, San Francisco | Sci-Tech | Thu, March 20 2014, 9:28 PM

The promise of virtual reality in the living room is coming closer to, well, reality. Sony unveiled a prototype headset this week capable of surrounding a wearer's vision with interactive virtual worlds. The system, codenamed Project Morpheus, utilizes a 1080p head-mounted display with head-tracking capabilities and works in concert with the PlayStation 4 console to display imagery on the headset's screen, providing a 90-degree field of view.

During a private demonstration of Project Morpheus to The Associated Press at the Game Developers Conference, the headset felt secure thanks to a sturdy yet comfortable halo-like ring that snaps into place around the head. There's a wheel positioned on the back headband that can be turned for an even tighter fit.

It's lighter than one might expect and certainly sleeker than the Oculus Rift, a similar VR headset that's captured game makers' imaginations over the past two years but has yet to be released. A long, thick cable that pokes from the side of the visor, as well as dangling headphone cords, prove cumbersome during physical movement while wearing the goggles.

A closer look at four of the interactive experiences — not actual full-fledged games — Sony was using to demonstrate Project Morpheus at GDC:

"The Deep": This demo created specifically for Project Morpheus by Sony's London studio cast a standing user in the role of deep sea diver — complete with virtual wet suit and flare gun — inside a shark cage that submerges into the depths of the ocean. The undersea encounter is interrupted by a great white who attacks the enclosure at the first whiff of blood.

With lush graphics and stereoscopic 3-D audio, "The Deep" showcased how Project Morpheus could recreate frantic "Jaws"-like moments as the shark ominously circled the cage. However, it wasn't completely immersive because Project Morpheus only tracked movement of the head and DualShock 4 controller, so fin flipping wasn't translated to the feet on screen.

"EVE: Valkyrie": Developed by CCP Games and set in their "EVE" universe, "Valkyrie" is a sci-fi multiplayer dogfighter pitting players against each other in the cockpits of galactic fighter jets. Project Morpheus' version featured richer graphics and details, like a massive carrier in the distance of the star field battleground, than the one demoed over at Oculus Rift's booth.

Playing in a seated position with a DualShock 4 controller in hand that acts as the spaceship's yoke, the sedentary orientation provided "Valkyrie" with a VR advantage. Pulling off dizzying maneuvers like rolls, spins and corkscrews while simultaneously blasting other users compellingly simulated what it might be like to really pilot an X-Wing from "Star Wars."

NASA Mars Project: The technology demo created in tandem with NASA utilized high-resolution images captured by both satellites and the Curiosity rover to transport a user to the surface of Mars. The rover itself also made an interactive

Anton Mikhailov on a DualShock 4 controller.

The parts of the landscape closest to the user were crafted from rover imagery, while mountainous vistas in the distance were filled in using satellite data. By depicting the surreal sensation of strolling around a chunk of the Red Planet, the minimalistic demo was the most immersive of those on display and showed off the non-game capabilities of Project Morpheus.

"The Castle": This combat-centric game demo dispatched users to a cartoony medieval training ground where they could totally abuse a dummy in a suit of armor. When armed with a pair of gesture-detecting PlayStation Move controllers in each hand, "The Castle" depicted gauntlets on the headset's screen that could reach out and wield swords and a crossbow.

For example, the wand-like controllers could be used to slice off the mannequin's arm with one hand and grab it with the other before gruesomely wiggling the appendage and discarding it into the distance. The controllers flawlessly mimicked hand movement in the virtual castle yard, but a lack of interactive elements in the surrounding space left a desire for more. (*****)

Article 9

Facebook launches lab to bring Internet everywhere

The Associated Press, New York | Sci-Tech | Fri, March 28 2014, 6:31 AM

Facebook is giving more details about its effort to connect remote parts of the world to the Internet — and it involves drones, lasers and satellites.

CEO Mark Zuckerberg said Thursday that Facebook is hiring "key members of the team" from Ascenta, a U.K. company whose founders created early versions of the world's longest-flying solar powered drone.

Zuckerberg also unveiled the Facebook Connectivity Lab. The operation will employ the Ascenta hires as well as hires from NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab and Ames Research Center.

The lab's goal is to bolster Internet.org, the Facebook-led project that aims to connect the more than 70 percent of the world's 7 billion people who are not yet online.

The announcement comes days after Facebook announced a $2 billion deal to buy virtual reality startup Oculus.

Zuckerberg has said that access connectivity is not the main obstacle to getting the world online. He noted at the Mobile World Congress wireless show in Barcelona, Spain last month that more than 80 percent of the world's population live in areas with 2G or 3G wireless access. More important, he said, is giving people a reason to connect: basic financial services, access to health care information and educational materials.

Facebook's acquisition of a company called Onavo last fall also fits with Internet.org's vision. Onavo develops data compression technology, which helps applications run more efficiently. This is especially important in developing countries, where people have access to much slower Internet speeds.

Google Inc., which is not a part of the Internet.org effort, launched a similar undertaking earlier this year with the goal of getting everyone on Earth online. Called Project Loon, the effort launched Internet-beaming antennas aloft on giant helium balloons. (***)