3
.
3
. Philosophy of life or scientific thinking
?
In order to understand todays organic farming movement, it may be useful to know that the
highly influential form of organic agriculture, bio- dynamic farming Steiner, 1975, had its roots in a
philosophy of life and not in the agricultural sciences Kirchmann, 1994. A common attitude
within the organic movement is that nature and natural products are good, whereas man-made
chemicals are bad, or at least not as good as natural ones. This way of thinking may also ex-
plain why man-made fertilizers and synthetic pes- ticides are excluded.
Although there is no reason to believe that nature is only good, as exemplified in agriculture
by crop failures, plant or animal diseases, and the effects of natural disasters, this romantic way of
thinking is widespread. The forces of nature are fantastic and filled with still unknown secrets, but
at the same time the results of natural activity may be ‘bad’. That is why natural conditions cannot be
the only guideline for an ethical code about inter- actions between humans and nature. We have to
define an ethical code which takes into account the full truth, and it is our responsibility to do so.
As indicated above, views and beliefs originat- ing from a philosophy of life are the driving force
behind organic farming. People should have free choice concerning religion or a philosophy of life
and a strong ethical foundation is very important, but placing philosophical ideas above scientific
thinking, especially if they contradict scientific results, leads to severe communication problems.
For example, to demand the exclusion of synthetic fertilizers shifts matters of science into the field of
dogma Jansson, 1971. The fundamental ques- tion, why plant nutrients should be added in
organic forms or as untreated minerals only, has never been proved.
One reason for the increase in organic agricul- ture in many countries in Europe today is our need
to solve environmental problems. In such situa- tions, we often tend to accept appealing solutions.
Furthermore, intensive propaganda by representa- tives of organic farming movements has had a
strong influence on public opinion, politicians, and scientists.
4. Relevant research areas
This section describes some research areas that are important for the development of our future
agriculture. One may keep in mind that this selec- tion is highly affected by the environmental condi-
tions we live in and our personal knowledge.
4
.
1
. Precision agriculture Precision agriculture is a discipline that aims to
increase efficiency in the management of agricul- ture. It is the development of new technologies,
modification of old ones and integration of moni- toring and computing at farm level to achieve a
particular goal Blackmore, 1994.
For example, the spatial variability of plant nutrients in fields affects the efficiency of nutrients
added and thereby yield. Thus, techniques for recording variations within fields and the software
to support the farmer when making decisions need to be developed. Prediction of mineralizable N in
soils through combination of extraction methods with model simulation is one desirable way Appel
and Mengel, 1998. This will enable plant nutrients to be applied according to the nutrient status of
the soil and the growing crop. Such precise appli- cation will optimize the utilization of manure and
fertilizers and will help to increase yields and improve crop quality. Also, a spatially selective
application of pesticides will help to reduce the amount of chemicals used Stafford and Miller,
1993. Furthermore, methods to assess the N status of growing crops, for example via chloro-
phyll concentration in the tissue, are needed to avoid overfertilization with nitrogen and the re-
sulting impact on N leaching.
4
.
2
. Low leaching cropping systems
4
.
2
.
1
. Co6er crops Leaching of plant nutrients and erosion occurs
mainly when the soil is bare. The use of cover crops will decrease leaching and erosion. Cover
crops adapted to a variety of conditions are needed. Their characteristics should be slow
growth during development of the main crop and rapid growth after harvest. Further, they should
survive winter conditions. Mineralization of plant nutrients during decay should synchronize with
the uptake of nutrients by the following crop.
4
.
2
.
2
. Perennial cereals In some parts of the world the risk of erosion is
so high that a permanent vegetative cover is es- sential. Perennial cereals enable the production of
grains in areas that are otherwise not possible. Development of such species seems to be a mean-
ingful task Pimm, 1997.
4
.
3
. Acti6e management of soil biological processes
4
.
3
.
1
. Decomposition and synchronization Decomposition processes in soil are comprised
of the humification of fresh litter and the break- down of humus. Measures that enable a more
efficient carbon stabilization of fresh litter can enable an increase in carbon sequestration in soil.
Speeding up the breakdown of mineralizable N during crop growth will result in better synchro-
nization between release and uptake. Slowing down the breakdown of mineralizable N during
autumn
and winter
may help
to conserve
nutrients.
4
.
3
.
2
. Climatic trace gas emissions Soil biological processes are linked to the trace
gas composition of the atmosphere. Reduced CO
2
emission from soil and the use of the land as a sink for excess CO
2
can help to counteract an increase in the atmosphere. It is most likely that
emissions of nitrous oxides from soils as well as methane oxidation can also be controlled. An
understanding of regulating factors and knowl- edge of the effect of different cultivation tech-
niques may enable us to actively manage soil biological processes.
4
.
4
. Maximum circulation of plant nutrients
4
.
4
.
1
. Animal wastes A balanced distribution of animal manure on
farm areas is the most important step to establish effective circulation of plant nutrients. Further-
more, the development of new methods to handle and store solid animal manures on farms that
enable nutrient conservation are desirable.
4
.
4
.
2
. Food and urban wastes Development of new or supplemental industrial
systems for utilization of plant nutrients in munic- ipal wastes is needed in order to enable recycling
without contamination by environmental pollu- tants. Waste products need to be transported over
longer distances to avoid too high nutrient levels in arable soils in the circumference of cities and
towns. Methods that enable long-distance circula- tion are desirable.
5. Outlook
