ICT and scientific reasoning

The sheer amount of information now available to any individual is enormous and pupils need to be equipped to evaluate it and build personal knowledge. They need to know how to distinguish a statement which may

be true (e.g. our sun is 4.5 billion years old) from a fact (e.g. the earth moves around the sun) and how to distinguish the knowledge produced by pseudo-science (e.g. astrology) from science (e.g. astronomy). Moreover, modern society requires citizens to make decisions on many issues related to the cultural implications of scientific achievements (e.g. cloning). For these reasons public understanding of science necessitates that pupils understand not only the content of science, but also its methods. It is

ANGELA MCFARLANE

argued (Driver et al. 1996) that emphasising scientific knowledge is not enough for pupils to be scientifically literate. They need to be introduced to the ways that scientists came to these conclusions.

But the way that scientists come to conclusions is not entirely straight- forward or uniform. Helms (1998: 128) identifies scientific method as all the skills and processes, technologies and tools employed by scientists to gather valid and reliable data in order to verify, falsify or formulate a theory. This is very similar to the model that the UK National Curriculum identifies above others. Other authors (Hodson 1985; Driver et al. 1996; Leach 1998) argue that epistemology shows that there is not a single method or an ‘algorithm’ (Millar 1996: 15) that scientists follow in order to solve a scientific problem. Some scientists perform experiments whereas others do not. For instance, astronomers cannot intervene to conduct an experiment since they are only able to see what happened in the past (sometimes millions of years ago) in systems they cannot possibly influ- ence. In addition, while some scientists develop a theory after experimentation, sometimes theories come first and experimentation supports or disproves the theory later.

The above examples illustrate the diversity of strategies that real scientists employ and also that scientific method cannot be templated. There- fore, if there is not any simple algorithm which describes sufficiently the ways that scientists work, can the scientific method be taught? It is difficult, if not impossible, for pupils to learn all scientific strategies through school investigations. Nevertheless, it might be realistic to introduce pupils to at least some of them. Here I want to concentrate on the understanding of the relationship between evidence, the conclusions based on that evidence and the development of rational-calculative approaches to this relationship which can be termed ‘scientific reasoning’. A very simple proposition can usefully illustrate the underlying objective of a science curriculum aimed at developing scientific reasoning. A student who has successfully completed such a curriculum, when faced with the report of a scientific investigation in the popular media, would automatically ask the questions ‘How do they know that?’, ‘Who is writing this?’, and perhaps ‘Who is paying for this work?’. Whilst the non-expert cannot be expected to interpret the raw data, or even perhaps the arguments put in full in the original source, the scientifically literate will have the requisite skills to interpret the more popular reports and make a valid judgement as to the likely validity or otherwise of their claims, as well as any likely bias in interpretation based on its provenance and the credibility of its sources. In particular, it should be possible to question whether the logical deductions in the argument are sound and if the data offered does indeed support the conclusions drawn. This will involve the understanding of and ability to apply such concepts as prob-

ability, risk and certainty 2 which allow us to make judgements as to the likely validity of such reports, and the personal and social consequences associated with related behaviours or policy decisions. These skills have

ICT AND PRIMARY SCIENCE – WHERE ARE WE GOING ?

always been important to an individual who wishes to play an active role in any democracy with a culture underpinned by science and technology. Arguably, in this era of information overload they are essential. How else are we to avoid intellectual paralysis as we are bombarded with information and mis-information, claim and counter-claim on such important topics as food safety, genetic manipulation, nuclear power, climate change and environmental pollution? Anyone who takes any interest in these issues can easily discover an overwhelming range of sources of conflicting information through print and electronic media, some original research reports as well as critiques and analyses based on them which may be interpreted from very particular positive or negative perspectives.

Home access to the Internet is growing and access through libraries and other public facilities such as learning centres mean anyone who wants access to the World Wide Web in the developed world can have it pretty much irrespective of income or age. The skills needed to turn this overwhelming sea of information into authentic knowledge include an ability to search vast multimedia sources, identify and interpret relevant information, critique sources in terms of provenance including source, accuracy, validity and reliability, weigh evidence which may be conflicting, and finally collect and synthesise sources into an authentic representation of personal knowledge. These are important elements of ICT literacy which are relevant to scientific literacy and to the development of scientific reasoning.

Extensive discussion of scientific literacy and the relevance of such literacy to science education has, of course, taken place elsewhere (see Osborne 2002). Here I wish only to flag the importance of the role of the Internet and the World Wide Web as contexts for the development of these important skills sets. This is particularly so when the experience of access to information sources, including broadcast and Internet media in the wider community, is growing so rapidly and is such a central part of young people’s experience of the world beyond school (Buckingham and McFarlane 2001).

ICT and scientific reasoning