This enables us to specify whether one joint program could meet all the language development needs in the area, or whether groups need to work separately.
4 Methodology
Methodology will be discussed in terms of the three goals listed in the previous section. For each goal, research questions and corresponding indicators will be identified. We will mention the tools used to
evaluate the indicators, followed by further discussion of tools in sections 4.4 and 4.5. Names of fieldworkers and a discussion of villages visited are also presented in section 4.4.
4.1 Goal 1: Determine whether the Watut vernaculars have strong vitality
Five research questions inform the first goal. They are listed below with corresponding indicators. 1
Do language use patterns suggest that language shift is occurring or likely to occur? The presence of language shift in a community indicates that the community’s vernacular is not likely to
be used far into the future. Three indicators will show us that shift is not taking place, supporting a view that the vitality is strong:
• Children are fluent in the vernacular and use it in most domains. • Parents use primarily the vernacular to socialise their children.
• The community uses the vernacular in most or all domains.
These indicators, if present, would show that vitality of the vernacular is strong. The indicators were assessed using probes on a questionnaire.
2 Do intra- and extra-community attitudes support continued use of the vernacular?
A community’s language use is a reflection of its own and its influential neighbours’ language attitudes Landweer 2012:168–169. Positive attitudes towards use of the vernacular suggest continued use of the
vernacular and strong vitality. A possible influence on language use choices is institutional support Fasold 1984:221. For this reason we also consider language use in the church and in schools, the
primary institutions at the local level in PNG. We identify the following indicators regarding the second research question:
• The community want their children to be fluent in the vernacular and to use it. • From the perspective of teachers and pastors, the community likes to help outsiders learn and
use their vernacular. • Where they exist, churches use the vernacular.
• Where they exist, elementary schools use the vernacular.
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In communities where current vernacular vitality is strong, these indicators reveal forces that would promote continued use of the vernacular in the future. The first indicator was assessed using probes on a
questionnaire. The second indicator was assessed using guided interviews with teachers and pastors. The third and fourth indicators were assessed using a combination of guided interviews with teachers and
pastors, observation in churches and schools, and a participatory tool evaluating domains of language use in churches.
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See section 5.4.1 for a brief explanation of the Papua New Guinea educational system.
3 Does the language use of immigrants and returning migrants support continued use of the vernacular?
Immigrants and returning migrants may introduce outside languages to the community or facilitate language shift. Therefore, to help assess vernacular vitality we will look at the following indicators:
• Spouses of immigrants and returning migrants use the vernacular with their children; or immigrants and migrants constitute an insignificant percentage of the population.
• The community believe immigrants and returning migrants should use the vernacular. These indicators not only suggest that immigrants and returning migrants pose no threat to vitality,
but may indicate that other factors motivate immigrants and returning migrants to use the vernacular as opposed to other languages in their repertoire. This would suggest the vitality of the vernacular is strong
Landweer 2012:166–167. Assessment of these indicators was made using one probe on the Main Questionnaire and a house-by-house reporting tool called the Walkabout Questionnaire.
4 Does the community’s distance from urban centres foster continued vitality?
This research question looks at opportunity for shift whereas others look at attitude often evidenced by behaviour. It was assessed using the following indicator:
• Travel to Lae, Mumeng and Bulolo does not provide a majority of the community with great opportunity to shift their language refer to map 1 in section 2.2.
Extremes in patterns of travel to Lae, Mumeng and Bulolo could be predictive in terms of vitality. If few community members travel to these places and they do so rarely, there is little opportunity for
language shift. If most community members travel to these places and do so often, there is greater potential for language shift. Between these extremes, conclusions are harder to draw, but our description
of the situation may still inform our overall assessment of vitality Landweer 2012:164. This indicator was evaluated using probes on the Main Questionnaire.
5 Do economic endeavours weaken the vernacular?
If a community feel they need to use a language other than their vernacular to be economically successful, they may favour use of that language over the vernacular. This is especially true if they have
ample employment opportunity in contexts where the vernacular is not used Landweer 2012:169. These considerations lead to the following indicator:
• The need and opportunity to use a language other than the vernacular at work does not affect a large portion of the population.
Our description of the community’s economic situation in regard to language use may inform our overall assessment of vitality. This indicator was evaluated using probes on the Main Questionnaire.
4.2 Goal 2: Determine whether the Watut communities have interest in vernacular language
