Immigration and emigration Opportunity for contact with other languages

4.1.1 Immigration and emigration

Immigration and emigration can have an impact on language vitality, because they can lower the ratio of speakers of various vernaculars living in the language area Landweer 2006:193. According to Landweer 1991, immigration is less likely to negatively impact language vitality when immigrants are proficient in the local language of their new home and no more than ten percent of the population is composed of immigrants. Immigrants make up about thirteen percent of the population and only half of them are reported to speak Bebeli. Forty percent of all marriages in the Bebeli area involve an immigrant, although seventy percent of children of immigrants are reported to speak Bebeli. The threat of immigration on the vitality of the Bebeli language is great, because of the high percentage of immigrants and the fact that only half speak Bebeli. There are 240 adult immigrants living in the Bebeli area 143 men and 97 women, who make up approximately thirteen percent of the adult population of the Bebeli communities. 8 Immigrants to Bebeli come from many areas of New Britain the Bola, Nakanai, Muduapa, Uneapa and Kuanua language areas, and the Arawe region in south New Britain as well as from all over Papua New Guinea New Ireland, Manus, Bougainville, Central, Madang and Morobe Provinces, the Sepik and the Highlands. All immigrants to the Bebeli area have come because they each married a Bebeli person. People from Mosa and Morokea reported that both male and female immigrants move to their villages for marriage, because of their close proximity to Kimbe. Because of this, nobody from Mosa or Morokea has emigrated for marriage. There are approximately 1203 married people living in the Bebeli language area. 9 Of these 601 marital unions, approximately forty percent involve an immigrant. 10 Fifty-one percent 122 of 240 of all immigrants speak Bebeli. More female than male immigrants can speak Bebeli, as sixty percent 56 of 97 of female immigrants are reported to be able to speak Bebeli, while less than half 11 66 of 143 of male immigrants can speak Bebeli. Some of the immigrants who cannot speak Bebeli are able to understand it, although they respond in Tok Pisin. Children of most immigrants were reported to know Bebeli. Of 206 immigrant parents for whom there is data, children of 145 seventy percent were reported to speak Bebeli, but these reports seem unlikely, given that few children of Bebeli speakers are reportedly able to speak Bebeli and children were rarely observed using Bebeli. 12 Children of an additional twelve immigrants were reported to understand Bebeli, but reply in Tok Pisin. Fifty-three Bebeli adults have emigrated from the Bebeli language area, 13 which represent approximately three percent of the adult population. 14 Twenty-one of these emigrants have left the area to work. 15 The other thirty-two emigrants all from Banaule have married people from other areas 16 and moved there. People reported that emigrants from all three villages return to visit occasionally. Emigrants from Morokea and Mosa speak both Bebeli and Tok Pisin with their friends and family upon their return, while emigrants returning to Banaule use only Bebeli when they are visiting. Children of emigrants speak only Tok Pisin when they are visiting the Bebeli area. Only children of people who have emigrated to Banaule from Morokea or Mosa are reported to speak some Bebeli along with Tok Pisin 8 Percentage of immigrants living in Bebeli communities = Immigrants Bebeli population, projected to 2009 adult percentage of population = 240 3163.587 = .129 9 Married people living in Bebeli communities = Bebeli population, projected to 2009 adult percentage of population Percentage of married adults in Bebeli communities = 3163.587 .648 = 1203.13 10 Marriages involving an immigrant = Immigrants Married people living in Bebeli communities 2 = 240 12032 = .3990 11 46 12 See sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2. 13 See Table 5 for a breakdown of work immigrants. 14 Percentage of Bebeli emigrants = Emigrants Bebeli population, projected to 2009 adult percentage of population + emigrants – immigrants = 53 3163.587 + 53 – 240 = .0317 15 See section 4.1.3 for more information about work emigrants. 16 For example, West New Britain Province, East New Britain Province, Sepik regions, Morobe Province, Central Province and Bougainville. when they return to Banaule. The low percentage of emigrants in the Bebeli language area and their language use patterns indicate that emigration is not likely to have a significant impact on language vitality.

4.1.2 Transportation