Moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed (Jatropha curcas) as a source of vegetable oil for biodiesel production
,
.
Provided for non-comrr:ercial research and education use.
Not for reproductionl dfStribotion or commercial use.
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B I O M ASS AND B 10(NtRGY 36 (20 1 2) 226-233
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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BIOMI\SS &
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http ://www.e lsevier.com/l Dca te/bi 0 m b i oe
Moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed (Jatropha curcas)
as a source of vegetable oil for biodiesel production
1. Amalia Kartika a ,. , S. Yuliani b, S.l. Kailaku b , L. Rigal C
iI Department oj Agroindusma l Technology, FATETA·IPB, Darmaga Campus, P.O. Box 220, Bogor, West]aua 16002, Indonesia
b Indonesian Center for Agricultural Postharvest Research and Development (ICAPRD). JI. TentarQ PelajaT 12. Bogor 16114, Indonesia
c Laboratoire de Chimi. Agro·lndustri.II., UMR 1010 INRAIINPT-ENSlACET, 4 all •• Emil. Monso, BP 44362, Toulous. 31432, France
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history:
This research studied the moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed allowing the
development of a model correlating the equilibrium moisture content (EMq and the free
fatty acids (FFA) content as a function of water activity and EMC, respectively. Two sets of
sorption-isotherm experiment were performed to describe the relationship between EMC
and FFA content with water activity, for both fresh and dried seeds. The seeds were
conditioned in series of saturated salts having certain water activity and stored at different
temperatures (20. 30, 40 "C) . The nested experimental design and ANOVA (F-test at p = 0.05)
were applied to study the effects of temperature and water activity on the EMC of jatropha
seed.
EMC increased generally with the increase in water activity and with the decrease in
temperature at either desorption or adsorption. The £MC was significantly affected by
water activity, but the temperature ctid not significantly affect the EMe , The hysteresis
effect was more pronounced at lower temperatures. The fFA content of seed was relatively
constant at low water activity (a w < 0 ,8), but it was high at higher water activity.
The moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed revealed that like most product, it
exhlbited the sigmoid pattern, The BET. GAB, Harkins-Jura, Halsey and Henderson models
were recommended as adequate models in predicting the amount of moisture adsorbed or
desorbed at known humidity. The relationship between EMC and ITA content of jatropha
seed showed that the polynomial equation was the best fitting for either fresh or dried
seed.
ｾ＠ 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Received 23 May 2011
Received in revised form
30 September 2011
Accepted 21 October 2011
Available online 3 December 2011
Keywords:
Sorption isotherm
Jatropha seed
Water activity
Equilibrium moisture content
Biodiesel
1_
Introduction
The seeds. a part of jatropha plant with the highest
Jatropha curcas is a drought-resistant shrub or tree belongin g
potential for utilization, contain 40--60% oils and 20-30%
proteins. The jatropha seed is generally toxic to hwnans and
to the family Euphorbiaceae. which is cultivated in Central
and South America, South-East Asia, India and Africa [11.
animals due to phorbol ester and curcin contents [l,5i.
The oil of Jatropha curcas is regarded as a potential diesel
The plant can be used to prevent and/or control erosion, to
reclaim land. grown as a hedge to protect fields, and be
planted as a commercial crop [2-41 .
s ubstitute [1-5J. The fact that the jatropha oil cannot be used
for nutritional purposes without detoxification makes its use
as an energy source for fuel production very attractive .
• Corresponding author. Tel: + 62 251 862 19 74; fax: + 62 251 862 SO 88.
E-mail address:ikatkQyahoo.com (l.A. Kartika).
0961·9534/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
dOi:10.10161j.biombioe.2011.10.026
"
227
BIOMASS AND B I OENERGY 36 (2017) 226 - 233
Most of biodiesel is produced using methanol and an
alkaline catalyst through a transesterification reaction [6,7].
The problem with an alkaline-transesterification of the vegetable oils is that they often contain large amount of free fatty
acids (FFA) which quickly react with the catalyst to produce
soaps that are difficult to separate [8.9J. This may reduce the
quantity of catalyst available for nansesterification, lowering
the ester production yield. Low free fatty acids content in the
oil (less than 3%) is therefore required fOT alkali-catalyzed
transesterification [8J .
Attractive approach to control the FFA in the seed level is
by controlling water activity (a w ) of the seed to a level that
disables any undesirable reactions or enzyme activities. A
fundamental approach for controlling the water activity of the
seed is by understanding of seed characteristics and its
behaviour in responding the changes in environmental
conditions, particularly the relative humidity (RH, where
a w = %RHll00 at saturation condition). This approach has
been successfully applied to several oilseeds such as canola,
macadamia nuts 1101 , wheat 1111, soybean, hazelnut 1121 ,
peanut 1131, amaranth 1141, sunflower 1151 and com [161 .
Controlling the FFA in the seed level can thus be achieved by
proper handling and storage of the seed before oil extraction.
The main purpose of this research is to achieve a fundamental understanding of the hygroscopic properties of jatropha seed allowing the development of models correlating the
equilibrium moisture content (£Me) and the FFA content as
a function of water activity and EMC, respectively.
2.
Materials and methods
Jatropha fruit used in this research was originated fro m two
different locations in Indonesia, i.e. Lampung and Santen, and
supplied by Indonesian Center for Estate Crops Research and
Development. All chemicals and solvent were of analytical
grades (Sigma-Aldrich, AppliChem and J.T. Baker, Indonesia).
The seed was first characterized for their chemical
composition. The sorption isotherm properties of the seed
from each location were determined for both fresh and dried
seeds at 20, 30 and 40 "C. The moisture and FFA contents of the
seed were quantified at eqUilibrium condition of given relative
humidity using ZnCl" NaOH, CH,COOK, MgCI" K,CO" NaBr,
NaCI, (Nl4)'SO" KNO, and K,SO, to detennine sorption
behaviour of the seed and its correlation with FFA content
A model is fitted to the data to provide an estimate of
change of moisture content under different conditions of
equilibrium relative humidity. Data of sorption isotherm was
applied to eight different isotherm equations, Le. Halsey,
Henderson, Harkins-Jura, Iglesias-Chirife, Oswin, Smith, BET
(Brunauer, Emmet and Teller) and GAB (Guggertheim, Anderson and de Boer) (Table 1) in order to determine the best model
to predict the sorption behaviour of the jatropha seed. The
constants for isotherm equations were calculated using linear
regression and differently non -linear regression for GAB
model. The goodness of fit of the different models was
evalu ated with the mean relative deviation modulus (P = (100/
n)L;(M,- MPi)/M,)J between the experimental (M,) and predicted moisture contents (MPi).
Table 1 Models considered in equilibrium is otherm
mod e lin g
Equation
Model
BET
GAB
Halsey
Harkin-Jura
Henderson
Iglesias-Chinfe
Oswin
Smith
a,.l(l-aw).M = lIMo.C + aw.(C-1Y
Mo.C
M = A.8.Mo.a..l
(1-8.3....).(1-8.a"'" + AS.a ....)
M _ (- Nr.ln(aw)llJll
VM' = (B/A)-(VA).Iog a w
M = - On(l-awYA.T)""
In(M + (Ml + MO.;o.s) = A + B.a..,
M = A.(a,/1-a w )8
M = A-B.ln(l-a w)
A, S, C are parameters pertinent to each equation; Mo is monolayer
moisture content; T is temperature absolute {K}.
2.1.
Jatropha fruit collection and preparation
The ripe fruits were peeled, and the seeds were removed and
collected. The seed from each location was separated into two
groups; one was directly transferred into series of desiccators
containing saturated sa1ts for determination of sorption
isotherm, and the other one went into oven drying (50 "C, 48 h)
to reduce its moisture content (around 3-5%) then transferred
into desiccators fo r the same saturation treatments.
2.2.
Characterization of jatropha seed
The chemical compositions of the seed were determined to
provide the initial conditions of the seed before conditioning
for sorption isotherm determination. Moisture content of both
fresh and dried seeds was determined using the constanttemperature-oven method. The seeds were dried at lOS "C
for 15 h. after which they were cooled in a desiccator containing silica gels and reweighed to quantify moisture loss in
weight upon drying.
Oil content of the seed was detennined using solvent
extraction method. Ground seed was placed into an extraction
thimble, and the oil was extracted using soxhlet extraction
apparatus with hexane for 6 h. The solvent was then evaporated using rotary vacuum evaporator, and the remaining oil
was weighed. Seed oil content was expressed as percent by
mass of the dry matter. The oil was then sent to the Gas
Chromatography (perkin Elmer Autosystem XL) to determine
the fatty acid compositions. The GC was equipped with
a Harne ionization detector and using helium as carrier gas.
The sample injected was separated in a VF-5 ms (VARIAN)
column (15 m x 0.32 mm). The oven temperature of the GC
was programmed from 55 "c to 360 "c at an increasing rate of
45 "c min - 1 to the temperature of 80 "C, and then
l00 "C min- I. The oven temperature was then held at 360 "C
for 15 min. The injector temperature was programmed from
55 "C to 34O "C at an increasing rate of 200 "C min- I and was
held at 340 "c for 35 min. On the other hand, the detector
temperature was fixed at 365 "C.
Initial FFA content of the seed was determined using
a method described in section 2.4. Protein, ash and fiber crude
contents were determined according to AOAC approved
methods (AOAC 991.20, AOAC 923.03 and AOAC 962.09).
'.
It I O M .... SS A N D B I OENERGY 36 {20Il}226 - l 33
228
2.3.
Determination of sorption isotherm
An isopiestic method was employed for the determination of
was determined by titration using KOH (0.1 N) with phenolphthalein as an indicator. The end point of titration was the
appearance of permanent pink in the solvent mixture.
sorption isotherms by exposing the seed to aonospheres of
known relative humidity at different temperatures. 200 g
seeds were taken randomly from 5 kg of fresh seeds then
divided into ten of 20 g for sorption isotherm determination.
Each 20 g seeds were placed into a desiccator containing
saturated salts with certain relative humidity. Saturated salt
solutions comprised ZnCI" NaOH, CH,COOK, MgCI" K, CO"
NaBr, NaCl, (Nl-l.hS04. KNO l and K2SO... The seeds were
removed every day, reweighed and returned to the desicea·
tors. When seeds reached constant weight, i.e. in equilibrium
with the saturated salt solution (2-4 weeks), their moisture
content was determined using oven method. The same
procedure was repeated for the dried seed. These sorption
isothenn experiments were conducted at three different
temperatures (20, 30 and 40 "C) in two replications.
The experimental design applied to this study was nested
design, and its analysis was carried out usmgANOVA (F-test at
p = 0.05). The level of water activity factor (Il) was nested
within temperature factor (t ). The model can be written as
1171: Yijk = II + TI + ilJel, + "m,' with 1 :s k :S K; 1 :s i :s I; 1 :S j :S ),
where K is the number of replicates perfonned for each level
of 1: and p factors (K = 2), I is the number of temperature levels
(I = 3), and) is the number of water activity levels U= 10). Yijk
is the observed equiltbrium moisture content of jatropha seed
and !!'(IJ)k is the measurement error of the kth experimental
unit of the ith temperature at the jth water activity leve1. The
true common mean is denoted by ｾＬ＠ tl is the ith temperature
effect, and JJj(i) is the jth water activity effect nested within the
ith level of temperature factor. The water activity of salt at
different temperatures was measured using aw-meter
(NOVASINA MS 1).
2.4.
ITA determination
Two gram seeds were ground, and placed into an erlenmeyer
containing 50 mL ethanol 96%. The acid value (FFA content)
Table 2
3_
Results and discussion
The average physicochemical characteristics of the two
jatropha varieties used in these experiments are shown in
Table 2. The moisture content of jatropha seed was relatively
high for fresh seed (Lampung: 44.11-45.77%; Santen:
42.34-44.18%), and 3.65-4.63% (Lampung) and 3.29-4.03%
(San ten) for dried seed. The oil content of jatropha seed
ranged from 34.77 to 40.25% for Lampung variety and from
34.04 to 37.06% for Santen variety with FFA content of
1.49- 2.56% (Lampung, fresh seed), 1.39-2.08% (Lampung,
dried seed), 1.80-3.00% (Banten, fresh seed) and 1.40-2.46%
(Santen, dried seed). Both varieties are rich in oleic, linoleic
and palmitic fatty acids. Protein and ash contents of jatropha
seed were respectively 20.14--21.96% (Lampung) and
21.26- 22.70% (Banten), and 3.62-3.72% (Lampung) and
4.13-4.21% (Ban ten). !n addition, thejatropha seed contained
the crude fiber of 49.13% (Lampung) and 53.31% (Banten)
(expressed as percent by mass of the dry and deoiled matter).
Fig. lA showed typical adsorption and desorption isotherm
for Lampung and Santen varieties of jatropha seed at the
temperature of 20 °C. The EMC increased with the increase in
water activity. The adsorption and desorption curves for
jatropha seed followed the characteristics of sigmoidal s hape
commonly found in many hygroscopic products, as observed
for macadam
.
Provided for non-comrr:ercial research and education use.
Not for reproductionl dfStribotion or commercial use.
BIOMASS &
BIOENERCY
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BIOMASS AND BIOENERGY
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Kana Kam ll"l.lra, Hiroluni Kuboy3ma, Koichi Yam,Hooto
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65l H2 kg" and 62 5 9 PHS kg-' TS fed
26
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slam Is very actIVe to ploduce the cellulase during leurentalion characteristics II> T he enzyme
ch.:uaclorisIICS 01 the cellulose were also call1ed oul
43
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49
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.. The ollYe pomace oil could be sustainably used as a complementary feedstock to blOdlese)
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Sate llita,derived products as suitable inputs into decision making tools for a sustainable
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.. in thiS study we ITOnrtored the startup phase
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showed that three groups 01 cases were enhghtable .. FOSITAC value is the parameter beuer
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B I O M ASS AND B 10(NtRGY 36 (20 1 2) 226-233
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
SciVerse ScienceDirect
BIOMI\SS &
810ENERGV
http ://www.e lsevier.com/l Dca te/bi 0 m b i oe
Moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed (Jatropha curcas)
as a source of vegetable oil for biodiesel production
1. Amalia Kartika a ,. , S. Yuliani b, S.l. Kailaku b , L. Rigal C
iI Department oj Agroindusma l Technology, FATETA·IPB, Darmaga Campus, P.O. Box 220, Bogor, West]aua 16002, Indonesia
b Indonesian Center for Agricultural Postharvest Research and Development (ICAPRD). JI. TentarQ PelajaT 12. Bogor 16114, Indonesia
c Laboratoire de Chimi. Agro·lndustri.II., UMR 1010 INRAIINPT-ENSlACET, 4 all •• Emil. Monso, BP 44362, Toulous. 31432, France
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history:
This research studied the moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed allowing the
development of a model correlating the equilibrium moisture content (EMq and the free
fatty acids (FFA) content as a function of water activity and EMC, respectively. Two sets of
sorption-isotherm experiment were performed to describe the relationship between EMC
and FFA content with water activity, for both fresh and dried seeds. The seeds were
conditioned in series of saturated salts having certain water activity and stored at different
temperatures (20. 30, 40 "C) . The nested experimental design and ANOVA (F-test at p = 0.05)
were applied to study the effects of temperature and water activity on the EMC of jatropha
seed.
EMC increased generally with the increase in water activity and with the decrease in
temperature at either desorption or adsorption. The £MC was significantly affected by
water activity, but the temperature ctid not significantly affect the EMe , The hysteresis
effect was more pronounced at lower temperatures. The fFA content of seed was relatively
constant at low water activity (a w < 0 ,8), but it was high at higher water activity.
The moisture sorption behaviour of jatropha seed revealed that like most product, it
exhlbited the sigmoid pattern, The BET. GAB, Harkins-Jura, Halsey and Henderson models
were recommended as adequate models in predicting the amount of moisture adsorbed or
desorbed at known humidity. The relationship between EMC and ITA content of jatropha
seed showed that the polynomial equation was the best fitting for either fresh or dried
seed.
ｾ＠ 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Received 23 May 2011
Received in revised form
30 September 2011
Accepted 21 October 2011
Available online 3 December 2011
Keywords:
Sorption isotherm
Jatropha seed
Water activity
Equilibrium moisture content
Biodiesel
1_
Introduction
The seeds. a part of jatropha plant with the highest
Jatropha curcas is a drought-resistant shrub or tree belongin g
potential for utilization, contain 40--60% oils and 20-30%
proteins. The jatropha seed is generally toxic to hwnans and
to the family Euphorbiaceae. which is cultivated in Central
and South America, South-East Asia, India and Africa [11.
animals due to phorbol ester and curcin contents [l,5i.
The oil of Jatropha curcas is regarded as a potential diesel
The plant can be used to prevent and/or control erosion, to
reclaim land. grown as a hedge to protect fields, and be
planted as a commercial crop [2-41 .
s ubstitute [1-5J. The fact that the jatropha oil cannot be used
for nutritional purposes without detoxification makes its use
as an energy source for fuel production very attractive .
• Corresponding author. Tel: + 62 251 862 19 74; fax: + 62 251 862 SO 88.
E-mail address:ikatkQyahoo.com (l.A. Kartika).
0961·9534/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
dOi:10.10161j.biombioe.2011.10.026
"
227
BIOMASS AND B I OENERGY 36 (2017) 226 - 233
Most of biodiesel is produced using methanol and an
alkaline catalyst through a transesterification reaction [6,7].
The problem with an alkaline-transesterification of the vegetable oils is that they often contain large amount of free fatty
acids (FFA) which quickly react with the catalyst to produce
soaps that are difficult to separate [8.9J. This may reduce the
quantity of catalyst available for nansesterification, lowering
the ester production yield. Low free fatty acids content in the
oil (less than 3%) is therefore required fOT alkali-catalyzed
transesterification [8J .
Attractive approach to control the FFA in the seed level is
by controlling water activity (a w ) of the seed to a level that
disables any undesirable reactions or enzyme activities. A
fundamental approach for controlling the water activity of the
seed is by understanding of seed characteristics and its
behaviour in responding the changes in environmental
conditions, particularly the relative humidity (RH, where
a w = %RHll00 at saturation condition). This approach has
been successfully applied to several oilseeds such as canola,
macadamia nuts 1101 , wheat 1111, soybean, hazelnut 1121 ,
peanut 1131, amaranth 1141, sunflower 1151 and com [161 .
Controlling the FFA in the seed level can thus be achieved by
proper handling and storage of the seed before oil extraction.
The main purpose of this research is to achieve a fundamental understanding of the hygroscopic properties of jatropha seed allowing the development of models correlating the
equilibrium moisture content (£Me) and the FFA content as
a function of water activity and EMC, respectively.
2.
Materials and methods
Jatropha fruit used in this research was originated fro m two
different locations in Indonesia, i.e. Lampung and Santen, and
supplied by Indonesian Center for Estate Crops Research and
Development. All chemicals and solvent were of analytical
grades (Sigma-Aldrich, AppliChem and J.T. Baker, Indonesia).
The seed was first characterized for their chemical
composition. The sorption isotherm properties of the seed
from each location were determined for both fresh and dried
seeds at 20, 30 and 40 "C. The moisture and FFA contents of the
seed were quantified at eqUilibrium condition of given relative
humidity using ZnCl" NaOH, CH,COOK, MgCI" K,CO" NaBr,
NaCI, (Nl4)'SO" KNO, and K,SO, to detennine sorption
behaviour of the seed and its correlation with FFA content
A model is fitted to the data to provide an estimate of
change of moisture content under different conditions of
equilibrium relative humidity. Data of sorption isotherm was
applied to eight different isotherm equations, Le. Halsey,
Henderson, Harkins-Jura, Iglesias-Chirife, Oswin, Smith, BET
(Brunauer, Emmet and Teller) and GAB (Guggertheim, Anderson and de Boer) (Table 1) in order to determine the best model
to predict the sorption behaviour of the jatropha seed. The
constants for isotherm equations were calculated using linear
regression and differently non -linear regression for GAB
model. The goodness of fit of the different models was
evalu ated with the mean relative deviation modulus (P = (100/
n)L;(M,- MPi)/M,)J between the experimental (M,) and predicted moisture contents (MPi).
Table 1 Models considered in equilibrium is otherm
mod e lin g
Equation
Model
BET
GAB
Halsey
Harkin-Jura
Henderson
Iglesias-Chinfe
Oswin
Smith
a,.l(l-aw).M = lIMo.C + aw.(C-1Y
Mo.C
M = A.8.Mo.a..l
(1-8.3....).(1-8.a"'" + AS.a ....)
M _ (- Nr.ln(aw)llJll
VM' = (B/A)-(VA).Iog a w
M = - On(l-awYA.T)""
In(M + (Ml + MO.;o.s) = A + B.a..,
M = A.(a,/1-a w )8
M = A-B.ln(l-a w)
A, S, C are parameters pertinent to each equation; Mo is monolayer
moisture content; T is temperature absolute {K}.
2.1.
Jatropha fruit collection and preparation
The ripe fruits were peeled, and the seeds were removed and
collected. The seed from each location was separated into two
groups; one was directly transferred into series of desiccators
containing saturated sa1ts for determination of sorption
isotherm, and the other one went into oven drying (50 "C, 48 h)
to reduce its moisture content (around 3-5%) then transferred
into desiccators fo r the same saturation treatments.
2.2.
Characterization of jatropha seed
The chemical compositions of the seed were determined to
provide the initial conditions of the seed before conditioning
for sorption isotherm determination. Moisture content of both
fresh and dried seeds was determined using the constanttemperature-oven method. The seeds were dried at lOS "C
for 15 h. after which they were cooled in a desiccator containing silica gels and reweighed to quantify moisture loss in
weight upon drying.
Oil content of the seed was detennined using solvent
extraction method. Ground seed was placed into an extraction
thimble, and the oil was extracted using soxhlet extraction
apparatus with hexane for 6 h. The solvent was then evaporated using rotary vacuum evaporator, and the remaining oil
was weighed. Seed oil content was expressed as percent by
mass of the dry matter. The oil was then sent to the Gas
Chromatography (perkin Elmer Autosystem XL) to determine
the fatty acid compositions. The GC was equipped with
a Harne ionization detector and using helium as carrier gas.
The sample injected was separated in a VF-5 ms (VARIAN)
column (15 m x 0.32 mm). The oven temperature of the GC
was programmed from 55 "c to 360 "c at an increasing rate of
45 "c min - 1 to the temperature of 80 "C, and then
l00 "C min- I. The oven temperature was then held at 360 "C
for 15 min. The injector temperature was programmed from
55 "C to 34O "C at an increasing rate of 200 "C min- I and was
held at 340 "c for 35 min. On the other hand, the detector
temperature was fixed at 365 "C.
Initial FFA content of the seed was determined using
a method described in section 2.4. Protein, ash and fiber crude
contents were determined according to AOAC approved
methods (AOAC 991.20, AOAC 923.03 and AOAC 962.09).
'.
It I O M .... SS A N D B I OENERGY 36 {20Il}226 - l 33
228
2.3.
Determination of sorption isotherm
An isopiestic method was employed for the determination of
was determined by titration using KOH (0.1 N) with phenolphthalein as an indicator. The end point of titration was the
appearance of permanent pink in the solvent mixture.
sorption isotherms by exposing the seed to aonospheres of
known relative humidity at different temperatures. 200 g
seeds were taken randomly from 5 kg of fresh seeds then
divided into ten of 20 g for sorption isotherm determination.
Each 20 g seeds were placed into a desiccator containing
saturated salts with certain relative humidity. Saturated salt
solutions comprised ZnCI" NaOH, CH,COOK, MgCI" K, CO"
NaBr, NaCl, (Nl-l.hS04. KNO l and K2SO... The seeds were
removed every day, reweighed and returned to the desicea·
tors. When seeds reached constant weight, i.e. in equilibrium
with the saturated salt solution (2-4 weeks), their moisture
content was determined using oven method. The same
procedure was repeated for the dried seed. These sorption
isothenn experiments were conducted at three different
temperatures (20, 30 and 40 "C) in two replications.
The experimental design applied to this study was nested
design, and its analysis was carried out usmgANOVA (F-test at
p = 0.05). The level of water activity factor (Il) was nested
within temperature factor (t ). The model can be written as
1171: Yijk = II + TI + ilJel, + "m,' with 1 :s k :S K; 1 :s i :s I; 1 :S j :S ),
where K is the number of replicates perfonned for each level
of 1: and p factors (K = 2), I is the number of temperature levels
(I = 3), and) is the number of water activity levels U= 10). Yijk
is the observed equiltbrium moisture content of jatropha seed
and !!'(IJ)k is the measurement error of the kth experimental
unit of the ith temperature at the jth water activity leve1. The
true common mean is denoted by ｾＬ＠ tl is the ith temperature
effect, and JJj(i) is the jth water activity effect nested within the
ith level of temperature factor. The water activity of salt at
different temperatures was measured using aw-meter
(NOVASINA MS 1).
2.4.
ITA determination
Two gram seeds were ground, and placed into an erlenmeyer
containing 50 mL ethanol 96%. The acid value (FFA content)
Table 2
3_
Results and discussion
The average physicochemical characteristics of the two
jatropha varieties used in these experiments are shown in
Table 2. The moisture content of jatropha seed was relatively
high for fresh seed (Lampung: 44.11-45.77%; Santen:
42.34-44.18%), and 3.65-4.63% (Lampung) and 3.29-4.03%
(San ten) for dried seed. The oil content of jatropha seed
ranged from 34.77 to 40.25% for Lampung variety and from
34.04 to 37.06% for Santen variety with FFA content of
1.49- 2.56% (Lampung, fresh seed), 1.39-2.08% (Lampung,
dried seed), 1.80-3.00% (Banten, fresh seed) and 1.40-2.46%
(Santen, dried seed). Both varieties are rich in oleic, linoleic
and palmitic fatty acids. Protein and ash contents of jatropha
seed were respectively 20.14--21.96% (Lampung) and
21.26- 22.70% (Banten), and 3.62-3.72% (Lampung) and
4.13-4.21% (Ban ten). !n addition, thejatropha seed contained
the crude fiber of 49.13% (Lampung) and 53.31% (Banten)
(expressed as percent by mass of the dry and deoiled matter).
Fig. lA showed typical adsorption and desorption isotherm
for Lampung and Santen varieties of jatropha seed at the
temperature of 20 °C. The EMC increased with the increase in
water activity. The adsorption and desorption curves for
jatropha seed followed the characteristics of sigmoidal s hape
commonly found in many hygroscopic products, as observed
for macadam