Review of Related Studies

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Review of Related Studies

As mentioned in the previous chapter, this study is conducted to reveal the different portraits of death and the seeds of wisdom which generate in life found in Yasunari Kawabata’s selected English version mini-short stories taken from his writings compilation entitled Palm of the Hand Stories 1988. Since his great achievement in 1968, Kawabata’s writings are known world widely. As an impact, a wave of curiosity raises among the scholars to do some studies on his writings. Some of those studies deal with his famous novels that won the Nobel Prize award, such as Snow Country 1937, Old Capital 1962 and Thousand Cranes 1952. As one of Japanese writers who follow the Japanese literary tradition and its art convention, Kawabata’s works later remind people of tanka and haiku not only due to the decorative use of natural images, associations and play of seasonal words, but also the presence of gaps and the use of haiku form in his writings. Moreover, contrasts which also become significant aspects in haiku can also be found in Kawabata’s writings. 39 The contrasts in his writings can be seen through the portraits of youth in the agony of old age, virginity that is engraved on the body of prostitutes, glorious life that can be felt through the dense atmosphere of death or even eternity that can be grasped through the fragility of mortal life. Consequently, reading Kawabata’s writings needs an exploration of a wide space of imagination in order to get their genuine essence which will generate the seeds of wisdom in life. 39 Cornyetz 18. 21 Related to Kawabata’s poetic lyrical quality in his writings, many scholars view it as a uniqueness which makes his writings as great as classical Japanese literary works. One of the studies mentions that Kawabata’s Snow Country 1937 is comparable with a classical Japanese narrative entitled The Tale of Genji 1021 written by Lady Murasaki Shikibu. It is related to Kawabata’s ability in creating unforgettable impressions in his writings through “the emphasis on decorative details, such as the scent of perfectly brewed tea or the crane pattern adorning a kimono” which are the characteristic of the classic Heian-period monogatari tale fiction. 40 Further, those impressions are able to make Kawabata’s readers experience the similar effect that is provided by tanka and haiku in the classical Japanese literary works. As mentioned in the following: By nature, Snow Country is a kind of ‘lyrical novel’ or ‘prose poem’ in step with classical Japanese narratives, such as The Tale of Genji. The work lacks a well-defined plot structure. Flashbacks are suddenly mixed in, while relevant information is often left out. The unresolved ending does not give the reader a firm sense of fulfillment or closure. The story is mainly narrated, but not exclusively, from Shimamura’s perspective, although he is not the narrator. In this mode of perception, the narrative viewpoint solely focuses on the items that Shimamura finds worth noticing, either for an aesthetic value or for mere interest. ... The reader is therefore expected to appreciate not a series of actions, which would keep him or her suspended in eager anticipation of the story’s unfolding, but rather beauty observed in human affairs as well as in seasonal changes of the mountain environment. ... Such an aesthetically charged moment is comparable to what tanka and haiku poems provide in classical Japanese narratives. 41 In addition, another study mentions about Kawabata’s ability in using a loose-fragmented structure of linked verse and a sharp sudden flash of satori in catching natural scenes through his haiku-style lyrical novel has made his writings so rich of classical taste of Japanese literary works. As it is written in the following quotation: 40 David Pollack, Reading Against Culture: Ideology and Narrative in the Japanese Novel, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992 116. 41 Masaki Mori, “Kawabata’s Mirrored Poetics,” Japan Studies Review 8 2004: 53-54. 22 The slight story of a Tokyo Dilettante named Shimamura and his affair with a hot spring geisha called Komako on his periodic visits to the “snow country,” the novel displays those features for which Kawabata is renowned: a loose, fragmented structure traceable renga or linked verse; sharp, fleeting and often startlingly modernistic images taken from reminiscent of haiku poetry; a dominance of sensual impressions, especially the sense of touch; and a sad poignant lyricism recalling such Japanese classics as The Tale of Genji from the eleventh century. 42 Further, the use of a loose-fragmented structure in Kawabata’s writings is related to renga as the heritage of Japanese literary tradition. 43 This literary tradition regards plot of the story or suji as a decorative thin thread that sews up every part of the story such as: themes, characters, settings and narrative art in a loose knot. As mentioned by Kenkichi Yamamoto in his postscript of 1957 edition of The Sound of the Mountain found in Starrs’ book, this particular fragmented structure of renga-like found in Kawabata’s writings is adopted from the ancient tradition of renga poets who also wrote their works in verse-by-verse style or ichiku ichiku. In the same section of Starrs’ book, Mitsuo Nakamura adds that the structure found in Kawabata’s writings is later called as earthworm-like structure due to the ability of “Kawabata’s writings that can be cut up into any number of parts and still each part can survive on its own”. 44 As an impact, the readers are still able to understand the grand design of Kawabata’s writings from any parts that they read by using their flowing imagination in completing the missing parts of those writings. Since Kawabata’s writings are parts of the Japanese art convention which influenced by Zen Buddhism teachings, reading his writings is like viewing the Sino-Japanese ink painting called sumi-e since Kawabata acts as 42 Iwamoto Yoshio, “The Nobel Prize in Literature, 1967-1987: A Japanese View.” World Literature Today 62.2 1988: 217-221. 43 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 174. 44 ibid., p. 175. 23 the painter who uses the blank spaces of his painting to arise the viewers’ imagination in completing the whole image pictured on the painting. Hence, it can be said that Kawabata does not only regard Zen Buddhism as his source of inspiration in writing, but also as part of his character as Japanese writer. 45 Another important aspect found is the use of natural elements in Kawabata’s writings. According to Kawabata, daily events such as chirping birds, falling leaves or even breezing wind can be used as suitable media to express the unexpressed feeling and also as the source of inspiration in writing. 46 Yet, the use of natural elements and seasonal words in Kawabata’s writings are not only able to create aesthetical moments, but also raise the complexity level of his writings especially for his foreign readers who read his writings in non-Japanese translations. 47 In addition, it is mentioned that the complexity is related to the traditional view of Japanese literary style that regards silence as the mark of sincerity since sometimes words that are used as the medium in expressing feelings are inadequate to express the real depth of feeling. This statement is aligned with the notions that are mentioned by Kenneth Yasuda and John Gould Fletcher in Yasuda’s book entitled The Japanese Haiku 2001 which can be found in the quotation below: When one happens to see a beautiful sunset or lovely flowers, for instance, he is often so delighted that he merely stands still. This state of mind might be called “ahh-ness” for the beholder can only give one breath-long exclamation of delight: “Ah” The object has seized him and he is aware only of the shapes, the colors, the shadow, the blendings... 45 Sansom 336. 46 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 187. 47 Gwenn Boardman Petersen,“Kawabata Yasunari: Snow in the Mirror,” Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction 9.2 1969: 5-15. 24 There is here no time or place explicitly for reflection, for judgments, or for the observer feelings. There is only the speaking, impassioned object, with its “extraordinary powers to set up echoes in the reader’s mind.” 48 Further, Kawabata as a Japanese writer who adopts Japanese literary heritage and its art convention also uses natural elements and seasonal words in his writings as the medium to express the unexpressed feeling. 49 Moreover, Kinya also mentions in Starrs’ book that the natural elements and seasonal words are also used to emphasize the depth of the feeling that Kawabata wants to convey to his readers. Even though Kawabata’s writings are complicated ones to be understood, it is mentioned that a careful reading of his writings may offer the readers a unique experience which cannot be found in the West. 50 It is believed that the particular experience offered by the Japanese literary pieces, especially Kawabata’s writings, is related to its literary tradition and its art convention that are influenced by Zen Buddhism teachings. 51 Since plot and characters in the stories are only regarded as complements due to the use of loose-fragmented structure, Kawabata emphasizes more efforts on the use of lyrical-delicate- language style in writing his stories. The use of lyrical-delicate-language style in Kawabata’s writings has underlined his special quality as a Japanese writer who preserves the Japanese literary tradition of renga. 52 Further, it is even said that Kawabata is considered as a truly poet since he has a particular ability to observe 48 Kenneth Yasuda, The Japanese Haiku. New York: Tuttle Publishing, 2001 38-39. 49 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 64. 50 Petersen, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction 15. 51 Sansom 336. 52 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 174. 25 human life through Japanese traditional spectacles which later offered the readers with the beautiful scenes of ancient Japan that are essential in Japanese literary heritage. 53 In addition, his role as a haiku-poet always puts him in deep communion with all living things including the humblest life forms of natural world. The seasonal words which can be found in his writings such as the moon cycle, changing season, scattering of the autumn leaves are used to reflect the passing time and the brevity of human existence in this transient world. 54 Through the precise detailed depictions of the characters in his stories, Kawabata wants to convey his idea to his readers that the characters in his writings represent ordinary people who only become small parts of a vast natural design of this universe. This idea is emphasized by Kawabata by using anonymous characters in most of his writings which are simply called ‘the woman’, ‘the man’, ‘the husband’, ‘the wife’, ‘the mother’, ‘the father’, ‘the girl’, the boy, the daughter or the son’ without mentioning any particular names. Through the use of those anonymous characters, Kawabata wants to make the readers realize that the things happened in the stories are ordinary things that can also happen to everyone in ordinary life since everything is part of others. 55 Besides, Kawabata wants to emphasize that those characters represent all human beings who play the same role like other living beings in order to create a good harmony in this transient life. Moreover, they also share the same fate with other living beings as mortal beings which are 53 Petersen, The Moon in the Water: Understanding Tanizaki, Kawabata, and Mishima, Hawaii: The University Press f Hawaii, 1979 128. 54 Ivan Morris, rev. of The Sound of the Mountain, by Yasunari Kawabata, The New York Times Book Review 14 June.1970: 5, 27. 55 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 16-17. 26 destined to die. 56 As a consequence of Kawabata’s careful observation towards his surroundings, the characters in his stories leave unforgettable impressions in his readers’ mind which later create a particular experience for his readers as if they were the characters themselves. Later, Kawabata’s writings become so real and natural since they are so rich with the true colors of human life that are not only filled with joy and laugh, but also with sorrow and tears. As mentioned that Zen Buddhism has become the essence of the Japanese soul that influences their perspective in seeing the life itself, Zen Buddhism has molded not only Kawabata’s character as Japanese, but also the way he expresses his perspective in seeing the life itself through his writings. 57 It can be seen in the way he adopts haiku which is part of Japanese art convention in his writings. It is due to the belief that haiku is an expression of enlightenment in which both the writer and the reader see into the life of things naturally. 58 This notion is aligned with the idea mentioned earlier that haiku has helped in gaining satori or spiritual enlightenment. 59 Further, this notion is related to the belief that the presence of haiku is able to utter the unspoken Dharma Law which said that everything is part of each other in the Realm of Emptiness. In other word, haiku has become an alternative way of returning people to nature as its natural entities. It means that haiku has the ability in returning people to their moon nature, to their sakura nature or in brief, to return them to their Buddha nature due to its role in evoking 56 Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture 353. 57 Sansom 336. 58 R. H. Blyth, Haiku, Vol. 1: Eastern Culture, Tokyo: The Hokuseido Press, 1950 270. 59 Hoffmann 16. 27 the presence of satori. 60 Consequently, it is hoped that people will be able to return themselves to their original forms as natural entities of the nature through the presence of satori. Related to the significant role of natural images found in haiku to achieve satori, it is believed that the enlightenment can also be found naturally anywhere and anytime through natural events found in daily life. 61 The glimpse of poetry that can be felt from natural events happened in Kawabata’s writings is aimed to lead the readers in gaining particular experience based on the horizon of expectation that is formed in order to complete the rest of the works. As a result, it is hoped that it can help the readers to gain their own natural enlightenment and later feel the wholeness of life itself. Hopefully, the harmony of life will be achieved as those readers back to their true nature as natural entities which shared the same destiny with others in this transient life. 62 Those studies above have emphasized the impact of Zen Buddhism teachings toward Japanese literary tradition and its art convention in form of Kawabata’s haiku writing style. Unfortunately, those studies only discuss about Kawabata’s ‘major’ writings which gained International highlights. This fact has created an awareness to give an equal attention to another form of Kawabata’s writings called palm-of-the-hand-stories written in English. It will make this study different since Kawabata’s palm-of-the-hand-stories are often neglected and 60 Blyth 270. 61 Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture 376-377. 62 ibid., p. 353. 28 considered as his ‘minor’ writings both by the readers and the scholars because of their brevity which is often regarded as the representation of their poor quality. In fact, these kinds of writings are able to show and emphasize Kawabata’s good talent in uniting the imageries and the strong expression of deep emotion in his lyrical way of writing. 63 In spite of their brevity, Kawabata’s palm-of-the-hand- stories are rich of various aspects that can be discussed and analyzed by using different pairs of spectacles. Besides dealing with Kawabata’s palm-of-the-hand-stories, another aspect that has made this study different with other studies is the use of the spectacles of Zen Buddhism teachings. The use of these spectacles is related to the presence of death in most of Kawabata’s English version short stories. Since Zen Buddhism penetrates deeply in Japanese life and influences their perspective in seeing the life itself, death is seen both as the continuation of life and as a part of being alive rather than the life ending in Kawabata’s short stories. 64 This interesting perspective is related to Zen Buddhism teachings about the beautiful harmony of the life cycle that sees life and death as a part and parcel of each other in the Realm of Emptiness. 65 Related to that, the analysis will be focused on revealing different portraits of death which can be found in Kawabata’s selected English version short stories and the seeds of wisdom which generate in life as the impact of the presence of death. Further, they will be able to emphasize the mortality of human beings and the temporal presence of their possessions in this transient 63 Starrs, Modernism and Japanese Culture 157. 64 Sansom 336. 65 Hin-Jee 226. 29 world. As a result, new blooming buds of enlightenment will arise from the awareness that the presence of death has made life meaningful since death is an inevitable episode in this life. It means that every second in life counted and life needs to be appreciated by adorning it with good deeds and gratitude. Later, Kawabata’s ability in uniting the presence of life and death wrapped in the beautiful package of Zen Buddhism teachings has made him to be considered as one of the most poetic novelists. 66 His poetic ability cannot be separated from his life story which is decorated by the death of his loved ones. In addition, the death of many Japanese in the First World War 1914-1918 and in the Great Kantō Earthquake in 1923 has also given a great contribution in coloring his life canvas. In order to escape from his unbearable pain that is caused by death, Kawabata tries to seek a way that can save and protect him from the cold grip of death. His quest brings him to Zen Buddhism teachings and the notion of emptiness. This teaching offers him a hope to transcend death due to the belief that everything exists in each other presence in the Realm of Emptiness since the concept of logical dualism is not acknowledged, including the notions of death and life. 67 Further, this teaching has led him to the monist philosophy. 68 He clearly states his belief that monist philosophy can help him to transcend death in an article written in the early twenties entitled Eternal Life and Immortality. This statement is quoted by Tetsuya Hadori in Starrs’ book as follows: 66 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 16. 67 Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture 37. 68 Monist philosophy is a philosophy that view reality as one unitary organic whole with no independent parts. 30 To save the human being from personal death, it seems that the best way is to blur into vagueness the boundaries between one individual and another, and between the human being and all other objects of the physical world. 69 Related to the quotation above, Kawabata wants to say that the more one identifies oneself with the species or with nature as a whole, the more one plays the same part in immortality. As a result, the less one feels the heavy burden of one’s fate as an individual that is destined to die alone. By applying the notion of monist philosophy in his writings, Kawabata wants to emphasize the fact that human beings cannot be separated with nature and has become an inseparable entity which shared the same destiny-to die. 70 Next, this inseparable unity is represented in Kawabata’s writings by using different kinds of metaphors which use various natural elements around him to express the unexpressed feelings. 71 Further, the union that can be found in his writings can help people to realize that there is an alternative way to free them from the cold grip of death. That freedom itself can be achieved by identifying their existence as human beings with the larger world of nature and feeling oneness with everything. 72 It is hoped that after achieving the freedom, people are not only able to establish beautiful relationships among diverse things, but also to find unity in diversity which will create the harmony of life itself. 69 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 16. 70 Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture 353. 71 Starrs, Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari 187. 72 Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture 353. 31

B. Theoretical Concepts