Review of Related Literature

8

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION

This chapter includes the elaboration of the related literature used in the research and the findings as well as the interpretation of the findings.

A. Review of Related Literature

In this research the writer used several theories as the basic theories to design the material. Those theories are about Dick and Carey’s model of instruction, Kemp’s model of instruction, pronunciation and speaking. Dick and Carey’s models of instruction and Kemp’s model of instruction were used as the basic theories to design the material which contained some steps the writer had to follow in designing the material. The writer chose some steps in Kemp’s theory and combined it to Dick and Carey’s Theory. There are five steps that the writer chose. It had beed elaborated more in the methodology in the first chapter. By following those steps, the writer would finally come to the developing and selecting the material. Therefore, the writer would need theory about pronunciation to be integrated as the basic pronuncation material. The writer took some examples of words that consisted of phonetic alphabet that included consonants, vowels and diphthongs to be put in the material. The writer made the speaking material as the main material to teach. In this case, the theory about speaking was needed. It was needed by the writer to know the difficulties that the teacher might face in speaking class so that the writer could make suitable material and activities for the teacher and the students. All of those theories will be elaborated more in the following points: 1. Dick and Carey’s Model of Instruction According to Dick and Carey 2005, “instruction process itself can be viewed as a system” p. 2. The components of system include the learners, the instructor, the instructional materials, and the learning environment. Teachers are supposed to be able to design material because one of the components of system is the instructional material. There are ten steps that the teachers should follow to design instruction based on Dick and Carey’s model of instruction, which can be seen from the following figure. Figure 2.1 Dick and Carey System Approach Model for Designing Instruction The procedure of figure 2.1 will be elaborated below. a. Identify instructional goals Instructional goals deal with what the designer wants the students to be able to do after they have completed the instruction. It can be the lists of goals. It means the designer can make more than one goal of instruction. p. 6 b. Conduct instructional analysis Conducting instructional analysis is needed “to determine step-by-step what the students were doing when they performed that goal” p. 6. This included the determination of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that were required for the learners to be able to begin the instruction p. 6. c. Analyze learners and contexts It is stated that “there is a parallel analysis of the learners, the context in which they will learn the skills, and the context in which they will use them” p. 6. It means there is a relation between the learners, their skills and the context which they use their skills. It is also stated that “Learner’s current skill and preferences, and attitudes are determined along with the characteristics of the instructional setting and the setting in which the skills will eventually be used” p. 6. The learners’ skills depend on the context. d. Write performance objectives This is the step to write the statements of the goals. It can be written “based on the instructional analysis and the statements of entry behaviours” p. 6. It is also written that this statement “will identify the skills to be learned, the condition under which the skill must be performed, and the criteria for successfull performance” p. 6. e. Develop assessment instruments This step is to design assessment istrument. It is designed to measure the learners’ ability to perform what had been written in the objectives p. 6. This will emphasize more on the skills describe in the objectives p. 6. f. Develop instructional strategy It is the step to identify the strategy that would be used in the instruction in order to achieve the terminal objective p. 6. This would involve several components of students learning including pre-instructional activities, presentation of contents, learner participation and assessments p. 6. g. Develop and select instructional materials This step is to use the instructional strategy to develop the instructional material p. 7. It includes “the instructor’s guides, students’ modules, overhead transparancy, video-taped, computer-based multimedia formats, and web-paged for distance learning” p. 7. h. Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction This step is to design the formative evaluation. There are three types of formative evaluation to be refered to, which are “one-to-one evaluation, small- group evaluation, and field-trial evaluation” p. 7. i. Revise instruction After finished with the 9 steps mentioned before, the next step is to revise the instruction. It is stated that “data from the formative evaluation will be summarized and interpreted to find out the difficulties experienced by the learners in achieving the objectives” p. 7. The designer will revise the instruction based on the result of formative evaluation. j. Design and conduct summative evaluation Within this step, the designer has to design the summative evaluation to assess the students’ ability. It is stated that summative evaluation is “an evaluation of the absolute andor relative value of worth of the instruction and occurs only after the instruction has been formatively evaluated and sufficiently revised to meet the standard of the designer” p. 8. This system approach can be used to identify “what is to be taught”, determine “how it will be taught” and evaluate “the instruction” p. 9. The system approach provides the guidelines for the writer to design material. It helps the writer to focus on what the learner are supposed to be able to do as it is stated in Dick and Carey’s book “The Systematic Design of Instruction” 2005: p. 8. 2. Kemp’s Model of Instruction Kemp’s model of instruction is more flexible. Teacher can choose whichever component to start first. The teacher can also move from one component to another component freely. There are only eight steps in Kemp’s model of instruction. The relationship among the components can be seen from the following figure. Figure 2.2 Kemp’s Model of Instruction The components of Kemps’ Model of Instruction can be described below. a. Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Kemp began with stating a question, which is “what do you want to accomplish in teaching each topic?” p. 13. This part is divided into three which will be elaborated based on Kemp’s theory. 1 Identifying Goals The goals can be derived from society, students and subject area. “Statements of goals should recognize changes in learners’ needs and interests, as well as changes in the needs of society and its institutions” p. 14. 2 Selecting Topics After recognizing the goals, the designer has to list the major topics. The topics should be defined within the content area as the scope of the course. “At this point it become necessary to decide how many topics should be treated and to what depth” p. 15. 3 Listing General Purposes General purpose is accepted as a starting point for the planning p. 16. Some expressions can be used to state the general purposes. They are used to “signifying broadly what the teacher wants to accomplish in the topic” p. 16. Some of the expressions that are commonly used are: to acquire a skill to comprehend to learn to appreciate to determine to like to become aware of to enjoy to master to become familiar with to grasp the significance of to perceive to be introduced to to have the feeling for to understand to be believe in to know to use b. Learner Characteristics Kemp stated a question to be answered that is, “what factors do you want to know about the student group or individual learners that will affect plans for their learning?” p. 18. In order to design an instructional plan, the teacher should know some factors that will contribute information about the learners. The information can be gotten from two areas. 1 Learning Condition It is stated that “learning condition refers to a group of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information” p. 19. Each person has different responds to environment. As an example, the students’ responses to music while studying are different. Some students enjoy studying with music while some do not. 2 Learning styles Different person has different learning style. “Some profit more from visual approach; others from verbal listening andor reading experiences; and still others from physical activities and the manipulation of objects” p.20 c. Learning Objectives Kemp proposed one question dealing with learning objective, which is “what should students know or be able to do, or in what ways should they behave differently, after studying this topic?” p. 23. The objective can be categorized as cognitive, psychomotoric and affective. In writing objective, there will be some difficulties. Therefore, there has to be a procedure to be followed. Starting with defining an action verb, followed by the content reference that describe the subject being treated, followed by the performance standards, and finally it is followed by criteria or conditions under which the learning must take place. p. 29 The level of objectives has to be considered. There are 6 levels that are stated by Kemp which are knowledge as the lowest level, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as the highest level. p. 31 d. Subject Content This part starts with a question “what subject content should be treated?” or “what subject content support each objective?” p. 43. There are two steps that should be accomplished, which are organizing content and task analysis. Organizing the content based on the topics that have been decided and making the task to analyze the students’ mastery of the material. e. Pre-Assessment To check the students existing knowledge, pre-assessment can be used. There are two kinds of pre-assessment, which are prerequisite testing and pretesting. “A prerequisite test determines whether students have the appropriate private background preparation for the topic” p. 51. Meanwhile pretesting test is used to “determine which of the objectives students may already have achieved” p. 51 f. TeachingLearning Activities Resources It deals with the instructional method and instructional resources to accomplish the objectives p. 55. There are many methods that can be used in teaching and learning activity. Some of the examples are group presentation, individual learning, and interaction between teacher and students pp. 60-70. g. Support Service It includes the support services that are required to implement the design plan. In order to define the support service, the teacher has to know the budget during development and during implementation p. 85. Besides that, defining facilities, equipments, time and schedule and coordinating with other activities are also needed. h. Evaluation This is the last part of designing instruction. The final step to do is to evaluate the students whether the students really achieve the goal or not. This is dealing with how to measure the amount of the students learning p. 91. 3. Pronunciation The theory about pronunciation is needed by the writer to design basic pronunciation material. There is one of the terms used in theory about pronunciation that will be elaborated more by the writer. The term is ‘”phonetics”. Phonetics is also known as the sound of language. According to Dardjowidjojo 2009, “phonetics is a science that deals with the sound of human language” p. 12. Dardjowidjojo divided phonetics into acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics. Dardjowidjojo 2009 said, “Acoustic phonetics deals with the study of the physical properties of sounds in the form of sound waves that result from the production of the sounds” p.12. Meanwhile “Auditory phonetics deals with how sound are perceived by our brains” p.13. As the speaker speaks, the sounds the speaker produces will create sound waves that will be catch by the ears of the listener. Dardjowidjojo 2009 stated, “Articulatory phonetics also deals with the sound of language, but it focuses on how the sounds are produced” p. 14. It also deals with the speech mechanism. It includes several things that have role in producing sounds. In this paper, the writer focused on articulatory phonetics. Jurafsky and Martin 2009 also stated that articulatory phonetics deals with “how speech sounds are produced by articulators in the mouth” p.216. He also said that articulatory phonetics deals with the production of sounds by the various organs in the mouth, throat, and nose which modify the airflow from the lungs 2009,217- 218. Wray, Trott and Bloomer 1998 said that, if someone is focusing on pronunciation, it will be clear that heshe needs “a means of transcribing sounds in some details” p. 195. The learners need to be able to demonstrate the sounds on the paper so that they can see the differences between the sounds. Traugott and Pratt 1980 also stated that in studying a language, “it’s important to have some way to write down sounds unambiguously” p. 46. For these reason, International Phonetic Alphabet IPA was developed in late 1880s with the aim of transcribing the sounds of human language stated in Traugott and Pratt, 1980, p.46, and Jurafsky and Martin, 2009, p 216. Syafei 1988 said that, “Phonetic alphabets are based on the principle that one symbol is always used to represent a given sound, and each sound is represented by one symbol only” p. 3. Syafei 1998 also said, “Writting down the pronunciation of an utterance with these symbols is known as transcription” p. 3. Therefore, the term “phonetic transcription” is also used to refer to the combination of phonetic alphabets from the sound of a word. According to Indriani 2005, the English speech sounds can be classified into two which are consonants and vowel p. 8. However, there is one more English speech sound which is diphthong or gliding vowels. a. Consonants Consonant deals with many speech mechanisms. To define the sound of a consonant, the learner has to know the anatomy of a consonant. It includes the airstream mechanism, oral or nasal, the manner of articulation, airflow central or lateral, and the place of articulation McMahon, 2002, pp. 24-30. According to Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 2007, there are 25 consonants in English which can be seen from the following table. Table 2.1 Some Phonetic Symbol for American English Consonant Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Stop oral Voiceless Voiced p b t d k g Ɂ Nasal voiced m n ŋ Fricative Voiceless Voiced f v ð θ s z ʃ Ӡ h Affricative Voiceless Voiced ʧ ʤ Glide Voiceless Voiced ʍ w j ʍ w Liquid Voiceless Voiced l r Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 2007 stated, “we classified consonants according to where in the vocal tract the air flow restriction occurs, called the place of articulation” p.227. From table 1.1, bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal are classified into the place of articulation. It is classified based on the articulators which are moving when the certain sounds are produced. Table 1.1 also has stop, nasal, fricative, affricative, glide and liquid as the manner of articulation. According to Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 2007, the manner of articulation deals with the way the airstream flows out of the lungs. The airstream can flow from the lungs up and out of the mouth which is called “oral sound” or out of the nose which is called “nasal sound”. The vocal cords may also vibrate as the air flows through it that will produce “voiced sound” or do not vibrate which means of producing “voiceless sounds”. Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams, 2007, p.229 It is better for the students to know the theory of consonants. If the students master the sounds of consonants and each symbol, they will find it easier to read the symbol or write down the symbol in form of phonetic transcription. Besides that, by knowing the consonants, the students will be able to recognize the minimal difference of the consonants. For example the difference between voiced and voiceless consonants. b. Vowels Vowels are voices that escape freely from the mouth without any fricative. According to Jurafsky and Martin 2009, “vowels can be characterized by the position of the articulators as they are made” p.222. There are 12 vowels in English according to Indriani 2005, p. 13. 1. i - tea 4. œ - sad 7. a : - art 10. ʊ - foot 2. I - sit 5. 3 : - bird 8. ʌ - up 11. ᴐ: - war 3. e - pen 6. ә - ago 9. u: - food 12. ɒ - not The theory about vowel will help the student differenciate two similar vowel sounds. For example, the diferrence between i: and I , ᴐ: and ɒ, u: and ʊ, etc. c. Diphthongs According to Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 2007, “diphthong is a sequence of two sounds, vowel plus glide” p. 238. Indriani 2005 stated that some people agree to have 9 diphthongs meanwhile some agree to have 8 diphthongs because they consider the diphthong ᴐә as ᴐ:. 1. a I - like 4. I ә - hear 7. ᴐә - more 2. e I - day 5. ʊә - doer 8. a ʊ - down 3. ᴐ I - boy 6. ɛә - care 9. әʊ - show This diphthongs theory is aslo essential to be learned by the students. The students will know some combination of vowels sounds. The students can also know the difference between vowels and diphthongs. Those three elements of speech sounds are really important for the students to be able to master basic pronunciation material. By knowing each of those elements, the students will be able to recognize sounds they are listening. They can also write the sounds they are listening as of phonetics transcription. Indirectly, the students will know how to read phonetics transcriptions of English words. They can consult dictionary to find out how a certain word sounds. 4. Speaking Skill In mastering a language, the students have to be able to communicate using the language. One important skill to master is speaking. There are three main parts in speaking that will be viewed theoretically. a. Nature of Speaking Speaking is one skill that can be acquired naturally. When a baby is born, then grows up, the baby will learn speaking firstly, and it happens naturally. As language is used for communicative purpose, speaking is considered as an important skill. According to Richards and Rodgers 2001, “language can be called as interactional view” p. 21. It sees language as a tool in the relation of “interpersonal relation” and “the performance of social transactions between individuals” p 21. In relation to interpersonal relation, speaking takes a bigger role than the other three skills as it is viewed as a tool to express meaning p. 21. The importance of knowing the nature of speaking is to make the writer sees the language as communication tool in speaking class. The students need to speak and to use the language to communicate with others. It also makes the writer sees that speaking skill can be acquired by the students naturally if the students keep practicing. b. Nature of Teaching Speaking In teaching speaking, there are many problems that teachers should deal with. According to Ur 1999: 121, “some fundamental problems that appear in the speaking class include inhibition, complete silence, and low participation” as cited in Sinatra, 2010, p. 15. Learners are often afraid of making mistake and being criticized by others. They also feel shy to be the centre of attention when they are speaking. Some learners also complain that they do not have something to talk or even they do not know how to say. Therefore, some learners prefer using mother tongue because it is easier Sinatra, 2010, p. 15-16. In the School Based Curriculum Government Regulation number 22 of year 2006, each meeting of English teaching and learning is 2 times 45 minutes. It means the students are limited by time. If some students are active in the class, they will have bigger chance to speak and more time to speak. However, the problem comes up dealing with the passive students. The passive students will only have very little time to talk Sinatra, 2010, p. 16. By knowing the possible problems that may appear in speaking class, the writer can make the strategy to overcome the problems. The writer can aslo make the materials and activities that suitable for speaking class. c. Strategy in Teaching Speaking Dealing with the problems in teaching speaking, the teachers are expected to design activity that will be able to overcome the problems Sinatra, 2010, p. 15- 16. Ur 1999, p. 120 suggests four characteristics of successful speaking class. First, the teacher should provide much time for the learners to talk. Second, classroom activity should not be dominated by the active students who are talkative. Third, interesting topic will make the learners eager to speak. The last, the teacher should provide material that is relevant and comprehensible. cited in Sinatra, 2010, p. 16. These strategies are needed by the writer to design activities so that all the students can be active in class with no exception. All students should have enough chances and time to speak in class. Therefore all students will have enough speaking practice.

B. Findings