An Analysis of Speech Act Types in George Orwell’s Animal Farm

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Linguistics is a study which has a tight relation with humans‟ life. We can see it through the macro linguistics, i.e. sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, semantics, and pragmatics. The last one mentioned has a tight relation with humans‟ life since human in using language in daily communication has his or her own context. Therefore, it could be concluded that pragmatics is a study about language in use rather than the structure, for example in the clause „The movie is terrific‟. If we analyze it merely based on the structure, the clause can be regarded grammatically right, but if it is analyzed through the usage, in communicating an idea, it may have a literal meaning (the movie is, in fact, a really good movie) or speaker meaning (the speaker said that as an irony). As cited in Cummings (2005, p. 200), Habermas argues that language has three pragmatic functions; representative function, expressive function, and interactive function:

“The representative function describes language‟s capacity to represent states of affairs in the world…The expressive function describes language‟s capacity to give expression to the intentional experiences of its speakers…The third pragmatic function of language – an interactive function – describes the capacity of language to establish interpersonal relations between its speakers.”

(Cited in Cummings: 2005, p. 200)

The three pragmatic functions noted by Habermas are more specified included into the predecessors‟ theories about speech acts which are conveyed by

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Austin and Searle. Speech act is our utterance which can make someone do something as a response to it. This interesting phenomenon shows us about how powerful or influential the speech is. In order to discover more thoroughly about the existence of these phenomena, the writer will take the data from Animal Farm by George Orwell. Animal Farm is a satire fable about the animals in Manor Farm rebelling to the master, humans. The pigs which at first declared about the equality of all animals („FOUR LEGS GOOD, TWO LEGS BAD‟), suddenly in the end, started to betray all the animals there.

In betraying all the animals in the Manor Farm (or Animal Farm), they do it smoothly by using, mostly, speech. In doing the speech, the origin paradigm has been altered, and they believe that the content of the speech is true. Thus, this story reflects that merely by using speech, we can alter someone‟s belief, thought, feeling, or acts. In other words, it reflects how powerful the speech acts and how it can affect human, and it often occurs in the real world; one of them is the usage in the politics field, e.g., the speech to gather the election voice to a candidate. Since the writer finds out the reflection that is often used in the Animal Farm, the writer wishes to be able to conduct a research in this topic.

Speech acts have been researched in many topics as in “Speech acts as intercultural danger zones: A cross-cultural comparison of the speech act of apologising in Irish and Chilean soap operas” by María Palma Fahey, The Construction of Away Messages: A Speech Act Analysis by Nastri, Peña and Hancock, Conventional Speech Act Formulae: from Corpus Findings to Formalization by Ann Copestake and Marina Terkourafi.

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In A cross-cultural comparison of the speech act of apologising in Irish and Chilean soap operas, Fahey mainly discussed about the speech act of apologizing which compares the data between an Irish soap opera Fair City and a Chilean soap opera. Fahey found out that there are differences regarding the preferred apology strategies in both sets of data. This happens because this strategy in the Chilean context does not have the same value as it does in the Irish context. Meanwhile, Nastri, Peña and Hancock examined what specific types of utterances, or speech acts that the participants use in creating their away messages which can inform about the structural and functional properties of away messages. Copestake and Terkourafi in Conventional Speech Act Formulae: from Corpus Findings to Formalization discussed about illocutionary force allowing the conventionalized formulae to be regarded as interpretive shortcut.

Beside those, there is a study which has been conducted in the study of speech act; locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary acts. Sapitri (2008) in The Analysis of Locutionary, Illocutionary, Perlocutionary Acts in “Clumsy Hans” Comic (A Study of Pragmatics) has several findings. Sapitri analysed the syntactic structure, locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary in each utterance of those Clumsy Hans Comic.

The conducted researches have examined about language phenomena by using speech act theories such as locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Yet, these topics researched have not been classified more detailed as the writer conducted. The writer classified the data into illocutionary acts according to

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Austin and be more specified by using Searle‟s speech act types (representatives, directives, commisives, expressive, and declaring).

1.2 Research Questions

1. What types of speech act are used in Animal Farm?

2. What factors affect the occurrence of each speech act type?

1.3 Objectives

1. To investigate about the types of speech acts used in the Animal Farm 2. To describe the factors which affect the occurrence of each speech act type

1.4 Significances to Knowledge

To conduct a study of AN ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACT TYPES USED IN GEORGE ORWELL‟S ANIMAL FARM (A Study of Pragmatics) is significant since speech acts are widely used in communicating our intention to others in daily life. We can see the example in the election; how can the candidate pursue us to vote for him. These phenomena are also found in a novel, mostly the well-known and high literary works such as the Animal Farm.

The novel and any other kinds of literary works, now, are not merely considered as just a literature to be read, but also as something that has a lot of meaning or message written by the writer to convey to the readers. The relation among the writer and the readers indicates that communication happens there. Thus, it is relevant to examine about the message of the story since novel is a part of communication among humans.

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In addition, a literary work not only can be analyzed by using the literature theory, but also by using the linguistic theory, and the one that will be used is the pragmatic theory, the speech act types. In the Animal Farm, as noted before, the characters perform the speech acts, and in order to understand better about what is intended by the speaker here, we can analyze it by using the speech act types. Besides that, the writer also intends to provide other students‟ reference in order to help them to conduct deeper research in the same field.

1.5 Framework of the Theories

In analyzing the data, the writer used the theory of speech acts types according to Austin (locution, illocution, and perlocution), which were specified by the types of illocution of Searle (representatives, directives, commisives, expressive, and declaring).

Moreover, the writer also used the theory of discourse; theory of situational context, specifically by using the features of context theory. This theory was used in order to support the previous theories and to help the writer in classifying the data into certain speech act type.

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Chapter II

The Framework of Theories

2. 1 Theories on Speech Acts

In practice, there are found that we can perform acts by using language, for example to give orders, to make promise, to make offer, or to threaten, and these are called as speech acts. (Cummings: 2005, p.6) There are two most influential scholars about speech acts; Austin and Searle. Austin classifies speech acts into three types, while Searle classifies these more detail, those are into five types.

2.1.1Theory of Austin

There are several scholars classifying speech acts into some types, and the most regarded theories are taken from Austin, which is later is more specified by Searle.

Austin distinguished speech acts into three types; locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary. The first is locutionary act which refers to the literal or factual meaning of the sentence (utters about something that exists in the real world, may be judged true or false), for example is ‘The ice cream is cold’ referring to the temperature of the ice cream. Meanwhile, illocutionary act refers to the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc., uttered by a speaker in order to deliver his or her intention. Nowadays, this type of acts is being referred as the ‘speech acts’ itself, since the utterance will make someone do something as a response according to our speech, for example is when we order someone to close a door, we may say ‘Close the door!’, and the hearer will give a response whether

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he will close the door or disobey it. While the third, perlocutionary act refers to the effects on the audience when someone is uttering a speech. Such effects are being special to the circumstances of utterance – the utterance that gives effect into someone whether it is into someone’s feeling, mind or action. For example is the response from the hearer after he or she listened to the utterance ‘Close the door!’, he or she may close the door or refuse to close the door .

2.1.2 Theory of Searle

Searle, as cited in Levinson (1995, p.240), expanding from the types that Austin has noted, makes a further distinction, i.e. five types of basic actions which can occur in utterance :

a. Representatives, which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition (paradigm cases: asserting, concluding, etc.)

Example: “The lasagna is very delicious.”

b. Directives, which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something (paradigm cases: ordering, requesting, questioning)

Example: “Turn on the lights!”

c. Commissives, which commit the speaker to some future course of action (paradigm cases: promising, threatening, offering)

Example: “I promise you that I’ll be there on time.”

d. Expressive, which express a psychological state (paradigm cases: thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating)

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e. Declarations, which effect immediate changes in a state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate state of affairs and elaborate extra-linguistic institutions (paradigm cases: excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from employment)

Example: “Hereby I declare you as husband and wife.” 2.1.3 Theory of Habermas

Afterward, as cited in Cummings (2005, p.203), the theory of speech acts is also discussed by Habermas in the study of universal pragmatics. He noted four theses about speech acts in universal pragmatics:

1. THESIS 1: A speech act succeeds in establishing the interpersonal relation that is intended by its speaker to the extent that it has an illocutionary effect upon the hearer.

2. THESIS 2: For a speech act to have an illocutionary effect upon a hearer, it must satisfy a condition à la Searle. These conditions take the form of rules – preparatory, essential and sincerity – for the ‘successful and non -defective’ performance of a speech act.

3. THESIS 3: These rules place the speaker under certain obligations. For a speaker to have an illocutionary effect upon a hearer, the speaker must secure the hearer’s recognition of his or her (the speaker’s) intention to engage seriously with these obligations. For institutionally bound speech acts, the speaker can appeal to the norms of institutionally unbound speech acts, the hearer’s recognition is secured through appeal to validity claims. 4. THESIS 4: Validity claims attach automatically to speech acts –

constantive speech acts, for example, contain a claim to truth. These claims commit the speaker to various forms of proof of his or her intentions, etc. In the case of a claim of truth, the speaker is obliged to provide grounds for the truth of an utterance. Should these grounds or other forms of proof fail to dispel doubt, the validity claim itself becomes the subject of examination within, usually, theoretical or practical discourse.

From this utterance, ‘I promise to come to your party on time tonight.’, the rules which are mentioned Habermas (or conditions according to Searle) could be achieved. First, preparatory rule could be achieved if both of the speaker and the

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hearer want the action of the promise done and it would not otherwise be done. Second, the speaker must intend to perform the promised action as the sincerity rule. Third, as the essential rule, the utterance must be regarded as an obligation and the speaker must commit to do the promised act upon them if the speaker is to have an illocutionary effect on the hearer. (Cummings: 2005, p.202)

However, a speech act is highly affected by the form, the content, and the context in which it occurs. It can be identified properly by relating it to its complete text, including what has come before and what will come after it, rather than by examination of an utterance in isolation (Flowerdew in Paltridge: p. 17 ), e.g. in the word ‘Hello’. As Richards and Schmidt found that the word ‘Hello’

may be a greeting (as in ‘Hello!’), or a summons (as in ‘Hello –anybody home?’),

or an answer to a summons (as when someone answers the telephone). Furthermore, it is also common for an utterance to have more than a single illocutionary force; to have several possible meanings. It can be seen from this utterance, ‘I will buy you a dress later’ – here it can be inferred that the speaker is not only stating that he or she will buy someone a dress but also promise to do that.

2.2 Theory of Situational Context

Context is the ‘environment’ or ‘circumstances’ in which the language is used. Context, in the view of Hymes, besides has the role to limit the range of possible interpretation, it also has the role to support the intended interpretation (Hymes in Wooton in Brown and Yule: 1983, p. 38):

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The use of a linguistic form identifies a range of meanings. A context can support a range of meanings. When a form is used in a context it eliminate the meaning possible to that context other than those the form can signal: the context eliminates from consideration the meanings possible to the form other than those the context can support.

2.2.1 Features of context

There are features of context which are set by Hymes as cited in Brown and Yule (1983, p.38) that may be relevant with the identification of a type of speech event, those are:

a. The roles of addressor and addressee – the addressor is the speaker or the writer who produces the utterance, while the addressee (or audience for the presence of the overhearers may contribute to the specification of the speech events) is the hearer or the reader who is the recipient of the utterance

b. Setting – either terms of where the event is situated in place and time, or in terms of the physical relations of the interactants with respect to posture and gesture and facial expression

c. Channel – the way how is the contact between the participants in the events being preserved – by speech, writing, signing, smoke signals. d. Code -- what language, or dialect, or style language is being used e. Message form – what form is intended – chat, debate, sermon,

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f. Event – the nature of the communicative occasion within which a genre may be embedded; thus questioning and answering activities may be a part of larger events, a presentation in a class.

g. Key – which involves evaluation – was it a good presentation, a pathetic explanation, etc.

h. Purpose – what did the participants intend should come about as a result of the communicative event

2.3 Theory of Co-text

There is a term named the previous discourse co-ordinate which is introduced by Lewis. This co-ordinate functions to take account of the sentences which include specific reference to what has been mentioned before. However, any sentence other than the first in a fragment of discourse, will have the whole of its interpretation forcibly constrained by the preceding text. (Brown and Yule, 1983, p.46) Besides that, within co-text, a further context may be constructed which has its own index of coordinates.

2.4 Literature Review

Several researches about speech act types have been conducted, just as mentioned before. Fahey, Nastri, Peña and Hancock, Copestake and Terkourafi, and Sapitri (2008) are some of them who have conducted a research about this topic. Fahey found out that although speech acts are universal, there are some particular speech acts that can be different because of cross-cultural happened in language and cultures. Meanwhile Nastri, Peña and Hancock, found out that the

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“away messages” often be constructed by assertive, which means that the message has a purpose to inform or to entertain the addressee.

In their research, Copestake and Terkourafi found out that the conventional formulae is used by the speaker in order to make hearer can interpret his intention clearer. In the mean time, Sapitri (2008) found out about the syntactic structure, the intention of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary in each utterance of the Clumsy Hans Comic.

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Chapter III Research Methodology

3.1 Research Object

The writer analyzed the speech acts types used in Animal Farm by the study of pragmatics. The data of this research are taken from George Orwell’s Animal Farm which was published in 1945 by Martin Secker & Warburg, Ltd.. In analyzing the data, the writer used the pragmatics theory; speech act types theory according to Austin and Searle, and the discourse analysis theory – Hymes’ features of context. This research was conducted because speech acts are significant in delivering intention to other party, and the writer found out that the actors in Animal Farm through their dialogue perform these phenomena.

3.2 Research Method

The method used in this research is qualitative since this method intended to reach a depth in analysis of the subject studied. Steinhauer in Aminuddin (1990, p.2) stated that there are four major activities in language qualitative research; identify the relation between our research with the previous researches, conduct a library research, collect the data, and analyze the data.

3.2.1 Data Collection

In doing a research, it is needed for the writer to provide the exact and accurate data as the data source. Hence, the writer conducted a library research to gather the references of this topic for this research.

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In collecting the data, there are several procedures which were applied. First, the writer chose the data source, and chose George Orwell’s Animal Farm as the subject because in this novel various kinds of speech acts were occurred through the dialogues of the actors. The next step was reading the novel comprehensively. Since this research will be focused on the dialogues of the actors and also the responses of the hearer(s), the writer read the novel more than three times in order to get a better understanding and get the accurate data. Then, after reading the novel comprehensively, the writer attempted to find out the data which has an indication whether the speech act is occurred, and after that, all the data were marked by underlining.

The fourth was classifying the data into the speech act types. The underlined data were classified into the speech act types according to Austin and Searle. In this research, the writer only focused on the illocutionary act, therefore the rest were not analyzed. The writer has classified the data into the speech act types according to Austin and Searle. Those are representatives, directives, commissives, expressive, and declaring. (Levinson: 1983, p.240) After all the data had been presented by the table, then the selected data were going to be analyzed.

3.2.2 Data Analysis

After conducting the data collection and library research, the writer will start to analyze and interpret the data according to the results which will emerge. The results emerge, which will answer the research questions, will be explained,

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and further according to the results, the writer may draw a conclusion about the phenomena about the speech act types happen in Animal Farm.

There is an utterance that can be classified not only into one class of speech act type, but into two kinds of type.

1. ‘Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it, our

lives are miserable, laborious and short…No animal in England Is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth…There, comrades, is the answer to all our problems. It is summed up in a single word – Man. Man is the only real enemy we have. Remove Man from the scene, and the root cause of hunger and overwork is abolished for ever. (Orwell: 1993, p. 4-5)

According to the description written on the Animal Farm, the Old Major is very regarded by the animals in the Manor Farm: …Old Major was so highly regarded on the farm that everyone was quite ready to lose an hour’s sleep in order to hear what he had to say. (p.1) Because Old Major is very influential, thus every animal wants to listen to his saying. This speech was uttered when the Old Major had a dream in which the animals live freely and enjoy the nature without human’s disturbances, and this dream, he delivered by giving speech to the animals in the Manor Farm.

Therefore, it can be analyzed that the addressor is Old Major, while the addressees / audiences are the animals who attended the meeting in Manor Farm big barn, they are the three dogs; Bluebell, Jessie and Pincher, the pigs, the hens, the pigeons, the sheep, the cows, the two cart-horses; Boxer and Clover, the white goat Muriel, the donkey Benjamin, and the white mare Mollie. Meanwhile the settings of the occurrence of the speech are that the speech happened at the big barn of Manor Farm at night when Mr. Jones was asleep. It is described that Old

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Major is a majestic-looking pig and has a benevolent and wise appearance and the way that he speeches indicated that he is in higher status than the other animals, thus he is able to say the utterance to the animals there, but still he preserves his modesty by calling the animals there with ‘Comrades’.

Beside those features of context, there are also channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose. According to the discourse, we can find out that it is an excellent speech in English in order to tell the animals in Animal Farm about the dream that Old Major had last night, that is a dream about the ideal condition for the animals; free, happy and prosperous without any disturbance of human. Old Major stated that all animals live in misery because of human, therefore human should be removed from animals’ life, and hence they must do the Rebellion in order to achieve the ideal condition of living.

After hearing the speech of Old Major, there are two results emerging: it is described that his speech had given the pigs in the farm a totally new point of view of life; Major’s speech had given to the more intelligent animals on the farm a completely new outlook on life (p.9). Therefore, it can be implied that the speech of Old Major has given them an immediate change of thinking and state. At first, they thought that their life under human’s control was alright, but it is not anymore after they heard the speech. According to Searle’s theory, if there is an immediate change of thinking or state, it can be classified into declaring. Therefore, this speech of Old Major can be regarded as declaring. Meanwhile, the second result is that the continuity of their way of thinking as the result of Old Major’s speech, that is the accomplished Rebellion. In page 12, it is narrated that

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the animal has obeyed the speech of Old Major, that is to do the rebellion; And so, before they know what was happening, the Rebellion had been successfully carried through; Jones was expelled, and the Manor Farm was theirs. Thus, it can be inferred that the Old Major did order the animals indirectly and the animals responded by doing what he had said. Therefore, this speech act is included into the directive type. According to these two results of the utterance of Old Major, it can be implied that two types of speech acts occur, the first is the declaring type and the second is directive.

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CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Findings

After conducting the analysis, the writer found out that in the forty-six analyzed data, the speech act types that occur the most are declarations (39.13%) and then directives (28.26%), followed by representatives (23.91%) and lastly commissives (8.70%). The results found out are based on the classification of the analyzed data to each speech act types, in which the classification of the data were affected by the respond from the audience, co-text, and also the context provided in the narration. Therefore, there are some data which have several types of speech acts since in one data, the responses, co-text, and contexts provided by the narration were varied.

4.2 Discussion 4.2.1 Declarations

1. „…Only get rid of Man, and the produce of our labour would be our own. Almost overnight we could be become rich and free. What then must we do? Why, work night and day, body and soul, for the overthrow of the human race!...‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.5)

It was an excerpt of Old Major‟s speech at night in the big barn to tell all the animals about his dream and his vision about all animals in the England to be free without Human. Therefore, it can be analyzed that the addressor is Old Major, while the addressees / audiences are the animals who attended the meeting in Manor Farm big barn, they are the three dogs; Bluebell, Jessie and

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Pincher, the pigs, the hens, the pigeons, the sheep, the cows, the two cart-horses; Boxer and Clover, the white goat Muriel, the donkey Benjamin, and the white mare Mollie. Meanwhile the settings of the occurrence of the speech are that the speech happened at the big barn of Manor Farm at night when Mr. Jones was asleep. It is described that Old Major is a majestic-looking pig and has a benevolent and wise appearance and the way that he speeches indicated that he is in higher status than the other animals, thus he is able to say the utterance to the animals there, but still he preserves his modesty by calling the animals there with „Comrades‟.

Beside those features of context, there are also channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose. According to the discourse, we can find out that it is an excellent speech in English in order to tell the animals in Animal Farm about the dream that Old Major had last night, that is a dream about the ideal condition for the animals; free, happy and prosperous without any disturbance of human. Old Major stated that all animals live in misery because of human, therefore human should be removed from animals‟ life, and hence they must do the Rebellion in order to achieve the ideal condition of living.

At first, the animals there thought that their live under the power of Human was fine. Here, we can see that Old Major intend to influence the animals to imagine and „realize‟ that their live now as a misery. He tried to plant the idea in their mind to get rid of human in order to be able to reach the ideal portrait that he envisioned. The animals became interested in listening to his speech, and in the end, they conducted the Rebellion toward humans. By intending to alter the

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animals mind here, this speech can be classified into declaration type of speech act.

2. „Comrade,‟ said Snowball, „those ribbons that you are so devoted to are the badge of slavery. Can you not understand that liberty is worth more than ribbons?‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.10)

While Mr. Jones, the owner of the Manor Farm was sleeping, a secret meeting to plan the Rebellion held. Mollie, a spoiled white mare asked questions whether she could get her sugar and ribbons. Then Snowball answered it with the statement above. Here, the addressor is Snowball, giving a well-stated speech (channel, message form and key) in English (code) in order to change Mollie‟s perception or view about the ribbons (purpose), and the addressee is Mollie. Meanwhile the settings of the occurrence of the speech are it happened at the big barn of Manor Farm at early in March, at night when Mr. Jones was asleep.

Here, we can see that Mollie still thought that those things are fine, but after hearing that answer, she agreed with it though she was not really sure: Mollie agreed, but she did not sound very convinced. (Orwell: 1993, p.10) Actually, based on the description above, it can be inferred that there is an indication of altering Mollie‟s perception about those things, thus the force in that utterance can be included into declaration.

3. „No sentimentality, comrade!‟ cried Snowball, from whose

wounds the blood was still dripping. „War is war. The only good human being is a dead one.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.28)

In this utterance, the settings occurred in early on October, when the animals did their work at the hayfield, when suddenly there was an attack from

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humans. All the animals fought to defend the Animal Farm, and Boxer, the strongest horse there, was not an exception. In the battle, the animals won once again, the humans run away, unless a boy who died because he was gotten hit by Boxer‟s leg used iron shoe. When Boxer knew this, he became sorrowful and guilty, but then Snowball stated that utterance.

Thus, the addressor is Snowball, and the addressee is Boxer. In this utterance, it can be inferred that he intended to alter boxer‟s feeling. By stating this, Boxer may be expected to feel better after he listened into it; that he did not do a fatal mistake by killing a boy because he knew that in Snowball‟s opinion, the good human is the dead one (purpose). Thus, it can be concluded that this utterance is a declaration.

4. „Comrades,‟ he said, „I trust that every animal here appreciates the sacrifice that Comrade Napoleon has made in taking this extra labour upon himself. Do not imagine, comrades, that leadership is a pleasure! On the contrary, it is a deep and heavy responsibility. No one believes more firmly than Comrade Napoleon that all animals are equal. He would be only too happy to let you make your decisions for yourself. But sometimes you might make the wrong decisions, comrades, and then where should we be? Suppose you had decided to follow Snowball, with his moonshine of windmills – Snowball, who, as we now know, was no better than a criminal?‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.36)

In Animal Farm, after the Old Major‟s dead, there are two pigs who became the leaders, Snowball and Napoleon. At first, they had same vision and idea, and able to cooperate with each other. As time goes by, they started to disagree with each other‟s plans and idea, …These two disagreed at every point where disagreement was possible…(Orwell: 1993, p.30)

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Until a day, Snowball planned to make a windmill, to supply the farm with electricity, but Napoleon disagreed with that idea. Since Snowball was suave in giving speech, thus the animals agreed with his idea. Suddenly, when he was still giving speech in the big barn, nine enormous dogs entered the barn to attacked Snowball. He directly sprang and dashed to save himself, slipped through a hole in the hedge and seen no more. The animals were so shocked and terrified about the event that almost took away one of their leader‟s live.

Therefore, Squealer (addressor), as the speaker of Napoleon tried to redeem the situation (purpose). He tried to influence the animals (addressees) thought by stating that Snowball was a criminal, and that the truly hero and leader was Napoleon. Although the animals did not take this assumption, but they were afraid by the dogs which set themselves around Napoleon, so they remained silent. Later, it was narrated that the animals believed to what Squealer had said, that Snowball was a criminal, and he always be wronged if there was a problem: …Whenever anything went wrong it became usual to attribute it to Snowball… (Orwell: 1993, p.50) Hence, based on the attempt of Squealer to influence and alter the animals mind to believe his saying and Napoleon, this speech can be classified into declaration.

5. „Comrades,‟ he said quietly, „do you know who is responsible for this? Do you know the enemy who has come in the night and overthrown our windmill? SNOWBALL!‟ he suddenly roared in a voice of thunder, „Snowball has done this thing! In sheer malignity, thinking to set back our plans and avenge himself for his ignominious expulsion, this traitor has crept here under cover of night and destroyed our work of nearly a year. Comrades, here and now I pronounce the death sentence upon Snowball…‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.46)

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When the windmill‟s was in ruins in a morning of November, even though the real reason was the heavy south-west winds, but it was Snowball who was accused for that by Napoleon. He stated that in the field, he could sniff and smell Snowball‟s trace, therefore he accused Snowball. The animals were so shocked with that statement, and they believed that it was Snowball‟s fault, and they even thought about the way for them to punish Snowball when if he came back to the farm, …the animals were shocked beyond measure to learn that even Snowball could be guilty of such an action. There was a cry of indignation, and everyone began thinking out ways of catching Snowball if he should ever come back. (Orwell: 1993, p.46-47). The intention (purpose) of Napoleon (addressor) to put the blame on Snowball instead of saying the truth – that was the south-west winds – to all the animals (addressees) implies that the declaration happens since he tried to alter the animals thinking.

6. „Comrades!‟ cried Squealer, making little nervous skips, „a most terrible thing has been discovered. Snowball has sold himself to Frederick of Pinchfield Farm, who is even now plotting to attack us and take our farm from us! Snowball is to act as his guide when the attack begins. But there is worse than that. We had thought that Snowball‟s rebellion was caused by his vanity and ambition. But we were wrong, comrades. Do you know what the real reason was? Snowball was in league with Jones from the very start! He was Jones‟s secret agent all the time. It has all been proved by documents which he left behind him and which we have only discovered. To my mind this explains a great deal, comrades. Did we not see for ourselves how he attempted – fortunately without success – to get us defeated and destroyed at the Battle of the Cowshed?‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.51-52)

After Napoleon stated that the ruins of the windmill was Snowball‟s fault, Snowball always be accused for troubles that happened in there by the animals

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there. He became such a terror for the animals there. Suddenly, in one evening of spring (setting), Squealer (addressor) told the animals (addressees) to gather to inform about the result of the investigation about the problems there (purpose), and once again, the missing Snowball was accused. The animals were bewildered when they heard it since if it was true, it was so wicked for Snowball to do so. One of the animals, Boxer (addressor) even stated his opinion to Squealer (addressee):

„I do not believe that,‟ he said. Snowball fought bravely at the Battle of the Cowshed. I saw him myself. Did we not give him “Animal Hero, First Class” immediately afterwards? (Orwell: 1993, p.52)

Then it was replied by Squealer‟s speech:

„That was our mistake, comrade. For we know now – it is all written down in the secret documents that we have found – that in reality he was trying to lure us to our doom.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.52)

This statement of Squealer still be argued by Boxer who is innocently just for stating his mind, which being opposed again by Squealer:

„That was part of the arrangement! Cried Squealer. Jones‟s shot only grazed him. I could show you this in his own writing, if you were able to read it. The plot was for snowball, at the critical moment, to give the signal for flight and leave the field to the enemy. And he very nearly succeeded – I will even say, comrades, he would have succeeded if it had not been for our heroic Leader, Comrade Napoleon. Do you not remember how, just at the moment when Jones and his men had got inside the yard, Snowball suddenly turned and fled, and many animals followed him? and do you not remember, too, that it was just at that moment, when panic was spreading and all seemed lost, that Comrade Napoleon sprang forward with a cry of “Death to Humanity!” and sank his teeth in Jones‟s leg? Surely you remember that, comrades? Exclaimed Squaler, frisking form side to side. ‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.52-53)

25

Because Squealer (addressor) described about the situation of battle vividly in his speech (channel, message form), the animals (addresses) finally felt that they remember the same scene too, though Boxer did not sound very convinced with that: …Now that Squealer described the scene so graphically, it seemed to the animals that they did remember it. At any rate, thy remembered that at the critical moment of the battle Snowball had turned to flee. But Boxer was still a little uneasy. (Orwell: 1993, p.53) Then because Boxer still had a doubt about the statement of him, Squealer added more:

„Our Leader, Comrade Napoleon,‟ announced Squealer, speaking very slowly and firmly, „has stated categorically – categorically, comrade – that Snowball was Jones‟s agent from the beginning – yes, and from long before the Rebellion was ever thought of.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.53)

Then, after hearing this statement, that the accusation of Snowball came from Napoleon, Boxer finally believed that it was the truth, since he had a maxim inside his heart that „Napoleon is always right‟. We can see it in the following excerpt:

„Ah! That is different!‟ said Boxer. „If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right!‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.53)

From the excerpts above, it is clearer for us to see that Squealer intended to influence the animals for changing their perception and thinking (purpose). The most brief example was Boxer. He, at first, felt uneasy with the statement of the accusation of Snowball, but because of hearing Squealer‟s statements, he was still doubt about that, but his hesitation was weakened by the statements that Squealer gave, mostly after Squealer stated that this information were coming

26

from Napoleon; Boxer suddenly convinced with the statement. Therefore, it is clear that sequence of utterances of Squealer can be identified as declaration.

4.2.2 Directives

In the analyzed data, directives occurred for thirteen times. However, there are only seven data that purely belong to this type. Below are the data:

1. „And above all, pass on this message of mine to those who come

after you, so that future generations shall carry on the struggle until it is victorious.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.5)

As the addressor, Old Major delivered the well-stated speech (key and channel, message form) to the animals as the addressees when they gathered in the big barn at a night (settings). He told about the Rebellion that they must do in order to free themselves just like his dream from Humans and that the animals should spread the message and pass it to the next generations. It was narrated that the news had been successfully spread to the animals in other neighbouring farms; By the late of summer the news of what had happened on Animal Farm had spread across half the country. Every day Snowball and Napoleon sent out flights of pigeons whose instructions were to mingle with the animals on neighbouring farms, tell them the story of the Rebellion, and teach them the tune of ‘Beast of England’. (Orwell: 1993, p.24), and Rumours of a wonderful farm, where the human beings had been turned out and the animals managed their own affairs, continued to circulate in vague and distorted forms, and throughout that year a wave of rebelliousness ran through the country side…Above all, the tune and even

27

the words of ‘Beast of England’ were known everywhere. It had spread with astonishing speed… (Orwell: 1993, p.25)

By seeing this, it is obviously that Old Major has an intention (purpose) to order the animals to spread the news, and as a response, Snowball and Napoleon with the help of pigeons successfully conducted this. Thus, it can be said that in this utterance, the directive happened.

2. „…remember also that in fighting against Man, we must not come to resemble him. Even when you have conquered him, do not adopt his vices. No animal must ever live in a house, or sleep in a bed, or wear clothes, or drink alcohol, or smoke tobacco, or touch money, or engage in trade…‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.6)

This is a fragment of the Old Major‟s speech (as the addressor) about his dream last night which encouraged the animals (as the addresses) to do the Rebellion at the big barn of Manor Farm at night when Mr. Jones was asleep (settings). In this event, we can imply that this is a terrific speech – key, channel and message form – (in English (code) in order to tell the animals there about his thought that the animals, even though has won against Man, must not resemble Man, and later on this statement became as principles of Animalism (purpose).

Form this speech, there are two major response; complied and did not comply. First, in the text here, it is described that after conducting the Rebellion successfully, Snowball restated about one of Old Major‟s saying to all the animals in Animal Farm; „Ribbons, he said, „should be considered as clothes,‟ which are the mark of a human being. All animals should go naked.‟ After hearing this statement, Boxer fetched his straw hat and flung it into the fire and being followed

28

by the rest animals. In a very little while the animals had destroyed everything that reminded them of Mr. Jones (Orwell: 1993, p.13).

Besides that, it is also described about the settings; in the dawn after they conducted the Rebellion, they went to inspect and survey the whole farm, and the farmhouse was not an exception. The animals went inside, though they were afraid, and looked around the house, and after that, they agreed that no animal must ever live there. An unanimous resolution was passed on the spot that the farmhouse should be preserved as a museum. All were agreed that no animal must ever live there. Thus, according to Searle, we can imply that this is a directive since the addressees (animals) responded to the order of the addressors (first is Old Major and second is Snowball), which in this story the response shown by the animals is that they complied with the order in the speech.

Second, after Snowball had gone, the pigs –under Napoleon‟s leadership – started to do the contrary; they lived in the house, slept in the bed, wore clothes, drank alcohol, smoked tobacco, touched money, and engaged in trade. In And the news soon leaked out that every pig was now receiving a ration of a pint of beer daily, with half of gallon for Napoleon himself… (Orwell: 1993, p.74), it can be implied that though at first all the animals complied with the rules, but while Napoleon was in charged, he started to be not complied with the rules. Therefore, it can be implied that the speech of Old Major has the same intention, that is directive, which in this case, the addressee didn‟t comply with it as the response.

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3. „Will there be sugar after the Rebellion?‟(Orwell: 1993, p.10) 4. „And shall I still be allowed to wear ribbons in my mane?‟ asked

Mollie. (Orwell: 1993, p.10)

These questions (3 and 4) were uttered in a sequence by Mollie (addressor) to Snowball (addressee) in front of the other animals in the barn at night when Mr. Jones was asleep (settings). She asked these questions when the discussion of the Rebellion was held. Firstly, she asked the existence of sugar after rebellion, which was answered by Snowball (1993, p.10): „No,’ said Snowball firmly. ‘We have no means of making sugar on this farm. Besides, you do not need sugar. You will have all the oats and hay you want.‟

After being answered, she continuously asked about the possibility of her to use ribbons, and Snowball answered her questions (1993, p.10): ‘Comrade, said Snowball, ‘those ribbons that you are so devoted to are the badge of slavery…’

She asked the question with the intention that someone would answer that, and it was answered by Snowball (purpose). Hence, it indicates that the directive happened here since by asking question, directly or indirectly, she directed someone to respond by answering it.

5. „Now, comrades,‟ cried Snowball, throwing down the paint brush,

„to the hayfield! Let us make it a point of honour to get in the harvest more quickly than Jones and his men could do.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.16)

After finishing the writing of the Seven Commandments on the wall of big barn (setting), Snowball asked the other animals to go to the hayfield, but at that time the animals did not directly follow his order because three cows were lowing

30

since they had not been milked and other animals paid their attention to them. Even though his asking did not get the response according to what he intended, his intention to order the animals to go to the hayfield (purpose) showed that this utterance is directive.

Later, after the cows had been milked, the animals looked the five buckets filled with creamy milk with considerable interest, but then, Napoleon uttered: „Never mind the milk, comrades! Cried Napoleon…‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.16). Based on this utterance, it can be inferred that he order the animals that they did not need to bother about the milk, and since he did the order, this utterance also can be regarded as directive. Then, he continued his order:

„…The harvest is more important. Comrade Snowball will lead the way. I shall follow in a few minutes. Forward, Comrades! The hay is waiting.‟(Orwell: 1993, p.16-17)

Hearing this, the animals went to the hayfield as the response: So the animals trooped down to the hayfield to begin to harvest…(Orwell: 1993, p.17) Hereby, it is explicitly that the Napoleon gave order which was complied by the animals, thus it can be categorized as directive also.

7. „Muriel,‟ she said, „read me the Fourth Commandment. Does it not say something about never sleeping in a bed?‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.44)

This was the question appearing in Clover‟s mind after she heard that the pigs are sleeping in the bed. She tried to recall her memory about the seven commandments, which one of them prohibited the animals to sleep in the bed. Unfortunately, she could not read the writings on the big barn‟s wall, so that was why she (addressor) asked Muriel (addressee) to read that for her (purpose), and

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then Muriel read it for her: „It says, “No animals shall sleep in a bed with sheets”,‟ she announced finally. (Orwell: 1993, p.44) By ordering Muriel to read the commandment for her, which was complied by Muriel, it is can be assumed that this is a directive type of utterance.

4.2.3 Representatives

1. „I do not think, comrades, that I shall be with you for many months longer, and before I die I feel it my duty to pass on to you such wisdom as I have acquired…‟ (p.3)

It was an excerpt of Old Major‟s speech (channel, message form) which is announced at the big barn when Mr. Jones was asleep (settings). Old Major (addressor) stated that to the animals (addressees) when he opened his speech about his dream and vision about animals to be free and to be able to live merrily. He thought that he would die and he believed about that and he stated what was on his mind. Thus, this can be concluded as a representative.

2. „A bird‟s wing, comrades,‟ he said, is an organ of propulsion and not of manipulation. It should therefore be regarded as a leg. The distinguishing mark of Man is the hand, the instrument with which he does all his mischief.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.22)

This is Snowball‟s speech (channel, message form) to the animals (addresses) in the Animal Farm when the birds felt objected because it seems that they only have two legs, and Snowball (addressor) stated this to prove them that it was not like that. The birds did not understand all of the speech, but they accepted it, The birds did not understand Snowball’s long words, but they accepted his explanation. By seeing this, this speech can be implied as

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representative because he concluded the proposition and stated his thinking that the bird‟s wings should be regarded as legs.

3. „I have no wish to take life, not even human life, repeated Boxer, and his eyes were full of tears. (Orwell: 1993, p.28)

This is an utterance from Boxer (addressor) in front of the animals (addresses) in the field after the Battle of the Cowshed when he knew that there was a boy who was killed because being hit by his iron shoe (settings). He felt guilty because he did not want to kill someone, and he stated his mind in utterance, and this type of utterance can be included into representative.

In the following excerpts, they are all representatives since they were uttered as an expression of disbelief of Boxer to the Squealer‟s statement to accuse Snowball as Jones‟ secret agent, and Boxer really believed that Snowball was not a secret agent of Jones:

„I do not believe that,‟ he said. Snowball fought bravely at the Battle of the Cowshed. I saw him myself. Did we not give him “Animal Hero, First Class” immediately afterwards? (Orwell: 1993, p.52)

„But he was wounded, said Boxer. „We all saw him running with blood.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.52)

„I do not believe that Snowball was a traitor at the beginning,‟ he said finally. „What he has done since is different. But I believe that at the battle of the Cowshed he was a good comrade.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.53)

After hearing from Squealer that the accusation towards Snowball was coming from Napoleon‟s investigation, Boxer became certain that it was true since he believed Napoleon by heart and adopted a maxim that Napoleon will always be right. Thus in stating this utterance, he believed that it was true, and by

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stating something that is regarded true by his mind, it indicates that the representative happens:

„Ah! That is different!‟ said Boxer. „If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right!‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.53)

4.2.4. Multi types of speech acts

After classifying and analyzing the data, the writer found out that in some cases, the speech act types occurring in an (fragment of) utterance might appear more than just one. These happened based on the addressor‟s intention in delivering the utterance. Below are some of the cases found by the writer:

In the following excerpts below, there are two types of speech acts that occurred, the first is declaring and the second is directive:

„Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it, our lives are miserable, laborious and short…No animal in England Is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth…There, comrades, is the answer to all our problems. It is summed up in a single word – Man. Man is the only real enemy we have. Remove Man from the scene, and the root cause of hunger and overwork is abolished for ever. (Orwell: 1993, p.3-4)

„Is it not crystal clear, then, comrades, that all the evils of this life or ours spring from the tyranny of human beings? Only get rid of Man, and the produce of our labour would be our own. Almost overnight we could become rich and free. What then must we do? Why, work night and day, body and soul, for the overthrow of the human race! That is my message to you, comrades: Rebellion! I do not know when that Rebellion will come, it might be in a week or in a hundred years, but I know, as surely as I see this straw beneath my feet, that sooner or later justice will be done.‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.4)

According to the description written on the Animal Farm, the Old Major was very regarded by the animals in the Manor Farm: …Old Major was so highly

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regarded on the farm that everyone was quite ready to lose an hour’s sleep in order to hear what he had to say. (Orwell: 1993, p.1) Because Old Major was a very influential, thus every animal wanted to listen to his saying. These speeches were uttered when the Old Major had a dream in which the animals live freely and enjoy the nature without human‟s disturbances, and this dream, he delivered by giving speech to the animals in the Manor Farm.

Therefore, it can be analyzed that the addressor is Old Major, while the addressees / audiences are the animals who attend the meeting in Manor Farm big barn, they are the three dogs; Bluebell, Jessie and Pincher, the pigs, the hens, the pigeons, the sheep, the cows, the two cart-horses; Boxer and Clover, the white goat Muriel, the donkey Benjamin, and the white mare Mollie. Meanwhile the settings of the occurrence of the speech are it happened at the big barn of Manor Farm at night when Mr. Jones was asleep. It was described that Old Major is a majestic-looking pig and has a benevolent and wise appearance and the way that he speeches indicated that he is in higher status than the other animals, thus he was able to say the utterance to the animals there, but still he preserved his modesty by calling the animals there with „Comrades‟.

Beside those features of context, there are also channel, code, message form, event, key. According to the discourse, we can find out that it is an excellent speech in English in order to tell the animals in Animal Farm about the dream that Old Major had last night, that is a dream about the ideal condition for the animals; free, happy and prosperous without any disturbance of human. Old Major stated that all animals live in misery because of human, thus human must

35

be removed from animals‟ life, and thus they must do the Rebellion in order to achieve the ideal condition of living (purpose).

After hearing the speech of Old Major, there are two results. It is described that his speech had given the pigs in the farm a totally new point of view of life; Major’s speech had given to the more intelligent animals on the farm a completely new outlook on life (Orwell: 1993, p.9). Thus, it can be implied that the speech of Old Major has given them an immediate change of thinking and state. At first, they thought that their live under human‟s control was all right, but it is not anymore after they heard the speech. Here, we can see that this speech part of Old Major brought an immediate change of thinking or state, thus it can be classified into declaring. Meanwhile, the second result is that the continuity of their way of thinking as the result of Old Major‟s speech, that is the accomplished Rebellion. In page 12, it is narrated that the animals have obeyed the speech of Old Major, that is to do the rebellion; And so, before they know what was happening, the Rebellion had been successfully carried through; Jones was expelled, and the Manor Farm was theirs. Thus, it can be inferred that the Old Major did order the animals indirectly since the animals do what he said. Therefore, this speech act is included into the directive type. According to these two results of the utterance of Old Major, it can be implied that two types of speech acts occur, the first is the declaring type and the second is directive.

3. All the habits of Man are evil. And above all, no animal must ever tyrannise over his own kind. Weak or strong, clever or simple, we are all brothers. No animal must ever kill any other animal. All animal are equal. (Orwell: 1993, p.6)

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This is also an excerpt of Old Major‟s speech in English (channel, message form) to the animals of the farm when they all gathered in the big barn (settings) to hear his speech about his dream. At that time, all the animals agreed with the statement, and remembered by heart that no one should tyrannize others. They also changed their state of mind, they who at first thought that the habits of man were fine, after listening to his speech thought that the habits of human as bad things. Old Major also believed and asserted that in order to be able to live in merry and peace, the animals must not do that. Unfortunately, his order being infringed by Napoleon in the end. It was narrated that Napoleon exercised his power to legalize the murder of other animals by reasoning that the animals were traitors, thus it was fine to punish them with death sentence:

…They were all slain on the spot. And so the tale of confessions and executions went on, until there was a pile of corpses lying before Napoleon’s feet and the air was heavy with the smell of blood, which had been unknown there since the expulsion of Jones. (Orwell: 1993, p.55)

By seeing into this, we can concluded that there are three points that Old major intended to deliver by his excellent speech (purpose); first is declaration – by trying to plant the ideas that all the habits of human as awful things. Second is directive, by order to the animals for not doing the tyrannies and murder to the other animals, and third is the representative, by asserting his mind which he believed that it is a right opinion.

6. „Comrades! He cried. „You do not imagine, I hope, that we pigs

are doing this in a spirit of selfishness and privilege? Many of us actually dislike milk and apples. I dislike them myself. our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health. Milk and apples (this has been proved by Science, comrades) contain

37

substances absolutely necessary to the well-being of a pig. We pigs are brainworkers. The whole management and organization of this farm depend on us. Day and night we are watching over your welfare. It is for your sake that we drink that milk and eat those apples. Do you know what would happen if we pigs failed in our duty? Jones would come back! Surely, comrades,‟ cried Squealer almost pleadingly, skipping from one side to side and whisking his tail, „surely there is no one among you who wants to see Jones come back?‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.23)

This Squealer‟s speech in English (channel, message form, and key) to the animals (addressees) in the Animal Farm. Squealer (addressor) stated this because the animals finally knew where the missing milk and the ripened apples go:

The mystery of where the milk went to was soon cleared up. It was mixed every day into the pigs’ mash…The animals had assumed as a matter of course that these would be shared equally; one day, however the order went forth that all the windfalls were to be collected and brought to the harness-room for the use of the pigs at this some of the other animals murmured, but it was no use. (Orwell: 1993, p.22-23)

By hearing this speech, the animals that were dissatisfied became agree that the pigs must drink the milk and eat the apples to keep their health. It means that Squealer has successfully to twist the paradigm of the animals there, therefore it can be implied that it is as declaring because Squealer has an intention to alter the animals‟ thought (purpose):

The importance of keeping the pigs in good health was all too obvious. So it was agreed without further argument that the milk and the windfall apples (and also the main crop of apples when they ripened) should be reserved for the pigs alone. (Orwell: 1993, p.23)

The animals thought that way because they were afraid that Jones would be come back, just as Squealer said. Here, commissive happened because

38

Squealer tried to frighten them with by saying that Jones surely would come back (purpose):

Now if there was one thing that the animals were completely certain of, it was that they did not want Jones back. When it was put out to them in this light, they had no more to say…. So it was agreed without further argument that the milk and the windfall apples…should be reserved for the pigs alone. (Orwell: 1993, p.23)

7. „You have heard, then, comrades, he said, „that we pigs now sleep in the beds of the farmhouse? And why not? you did not suppose, surely, that there was ever a ruling against beds? A bed merely means a place to sleep in. A pile of straw in a stall is a bed, properly regarded. The rule was against sheets, which are human invention. We have removed the sheets from the farmhouse beds, and sleep between blankets. And very comfortable beds they are too! But not more comfortable than we need, I can tell you, comrades, with all the brainwork we have to do nowadays. You would not rob us of our repose, would you, comrades? You would not rob us of our repose, would you, comrades? You would not have us too tired to carry out our duties? Surely none of you wishes to see Jones back?‟ (Orwell: 1993, p.44-45)

This speech came from Squealer (addressor), it was stated when the animals in Animal Farm were disturbed with the issue that the pigs started to live in the farmhouse and to sleep in the beds (setting). Clover the carthorse was curious about this matter for as far as she could remember, in the Fourth Commandment, the animals were prohibited to sleep in the bed. Then, she asked Muriel the goat to read it on the wall of the barn since she could not read well. At that time, Squealer conducted the speech in order to redeem this matter (purpose), and he was successfully did that: And Squealer, who happened to be passing at the moment, attended by two or three dogs, was able to put the whole matter in its proper perspective. (Orwell: 1993, p. 44) After hearing his speech, the animals

39

did not say anymore comment about this matter: The animals reassured him on this point immediately, and no more said about the pigs sleeping in the farmhouse beds. Orwell: 1993, p. 45) Therefore, it can be concluded that Squealer by this speech had intentions (purpose) to make the animals to accept his explanation by altering their actual thought (declaration) and to threat the animals there by the re-occurrence of Jones at Animal Farm (commissive).

Based on the analyzed data above, it was found out that a data can be classified according to the context or the respond from the audience. Therefore, the same data can have multi types of speech acts since there are several co-texts, contexts and responds which can affect the classification of the utterance.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This chapter deals with the conclusions and suggestions from the discussions of the research. The conclusions and suggestions are as follows:

5.1 Conclusions

According to the conducted analysis of data in Chapter IV, it can be concluded that in classifying an utterance into a speech act type, not only the writer needed to know about the intention of the addressor, but also the writer must know about the co-text, context or the result of the utterance itself in the narration of the story. These things really affect the classification of the data.

In this research, there are 46 gathered data included in speech act types; 18 of them are declarations, 13 are directives, 11 are representatives, and lastly, 4 are commissives. However, the analyzed data which are appeared in the Chapter IV are only 30 data since the rest also have the similar characteristic. The represented data show that there are only four occurred types of speech acts in this analysis; declarations, directives, representatives, and commisives. Meanwhile, the other one, expressive did not occur.

In addition, it is also found out that the most occurred speech act type is declaration (12 times), hence it can be concluded that the novel tries to describe or represent about the usage or intention of speech to alter someone’s belief or thought, which in this case is the animals, in order to reach their goal.

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5.2 Suggestions

In conducting the research, the writer found out that in classifying an utterance into a type of speech act, a writer must concern about the co-text, context, and response given in the narration since the writer needs them to be able to properly classify the utterance. For the next researchers, since this research is only focused on the analysis of the speech act types; representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations – which are more detailed on the illocution, the next researchers can analyze about the perlocutionary types.

ix CONTENTS

ABSTRACT vi

ABSTRAK vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii CONTENTS ix CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Research Questions 4 1.3 Objectives 4 1.4 Significances to Knowledge 4 1.5 Framework of Theories 5 CHAPTER II: THE FRAMEWORK OF THEORIES 6 2.1 Theories Speech Acts 6 2.1.1 Theory of Austin 6 2.1.2 Theory of Searle ... 7

2.1.3 Theory of Habermas ... 8

2.2 Theory of Situational Context ... 9

2.2.1 Features of context ... 10

2.3 Theory of Co-text ... 11

x

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 13

3.1 Research Object 13

3.2 Research Method 13

3.2.1 Data Collection 13

3.2.2 Data Analysis 14

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 18

4.1 Findings 18

4.2 Discussions 18

4.2.1 Declarations 18

4.2.2 Directives 26

4.2.3 Representatives 31

4.2.4. Multi types of speech acts 33

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 40

5.1 Conclusions 40

5.2 Suggestions 41

REFERENCES 42

APPENDICES 43

61

61

CURRICULUM VITAE

A. Personal Identity

1. Name : Lisa Tri Utami

2. Place and date of Birth : 16th of February 1988

3. Student Number : 63706003

4. Major : English Literary

5. Sex : Female

6. Nationality : Indonesian

7. Religion : Moslem

8. Phone Number : 0817 2332 447

9. Mobile Number : 0817 2332 447

10.Address : Pilar Mas blok M no.14/127

RT/RW 08/003 Leuwigajah, Cimahi Selatan 40533

11.E-mail address : zhenzhu247@yahoo.com

12.Weight : 55 Kg

13.Height : 158 Cm

14.Marital Status : Single

15.Parents

1. Father : Muhammad Sholeh Tjoe

Occupation : Entrepreneur

Address : Pilar Mas blok M no.14/127

62

62

Cimahi Selatan 40533

2. Mother : Muhana

Occupation : Housewife

Address : Pilar Mas blok M no.14/127

RT/RW 08/003 Leuwigajah, Cimahi Selatan 40533

B. Formal Education

No Year Institution

1. 1992-1994 TK Uswatun Hasanah

2. 1994-2000 SDN Baros I

3. 2000-2003 SMPN 1 Cimahi

4. 2003-2006 SMAN 9 Bandung

5. 2006-present Student of UNIKOM

C. Informal Education

No Year Institution / Training Event

1. 2008-present English Language Forum UNIKOM 2. 2009-present Homey Korean Language Club

(Uncertified)

3. 2007 Seminar on Copywriting I (Certified) 4. 2009 Seminar on Copywriting II (Certified)

63

63 D. Experiences

a. Becoming as the vice chairperson of English Language Forum

b. Participating as a committee of English Leadership Training of Education (ELITE) 2009

c. Interpreting for Oxford

d. Translating various textbook or document both form English to Indonesia and the reverse.

Bandung, July 2010

xi

LIST OF APPENDIXES

1. Appendix 1 : Total Data Based on the Novel 2. Appendix 2 : Classified Data

GRADUATE PROGRAM

INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER BANDUNG

REVISION APPROVAL

SKRIPSI _(S1)

NAME : LISA TRI UTAMI

STUDENT NUMBER : 63706003

DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

DATE OF EXAMINATION : JULY 22nd, 2010

TITLE OF THE SKRIPSI : AN ANALYSIS OF SPEECH

ACT TYPES USED IN GEORGE

ORWELL’S ANIMAL FARM

(A Study of Pragmatics)

THE SKRIPSI HAS BEEN REVISED, APPROVED BY THE EXAMINERS AND ADVISORS, AND IS ALLOWED TO BE COPIED.

NO. EXAMINERS SIGNATURE

1. Tatan Tawami, S.S. 2. Dr. Juanda

3. Drs. Yani, M.A.

Bandung, 7th of August 2010 Acknowledged by:

Advisor I, Advisor II,

Drs. Yani, M.A. Asih Prihandini, S.S., M.Hum. NIP 4127.20.03.010

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 13

3.1 Research Object 13

3.2 Research Method 13

3.2.1 Data Collection 13

3.2.2 Data Analysis 14

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 18

4.1 Findings 18

4.2 Discussions 18

4.2.1 Declarations 18

4.2.2 Directives 26

4.2.3 Representatives 31

4.2.4. Multi types of speech acts 33

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 40

5.1 Conclusions 40

5.2 Suggestions 41

REFERENCES 42

APPENDICES 43

61

61

CURRICULUM VITAE

A. Personal Identity

1. Name : Lisa Tri Utami

2. Place and date of Birth : 16th of February 1988

3. Student Number : 63706003

4. Major : English Literary

5. Sex : Female

6. Nationality : Indonesian

7. Religion : Moslem

8. Phone Number : 0817 2332 447

9. Mobile Number : 0817 2332 447

10.Address : Pilar Mas blok M no.14/127

RT/RW 08/003 Leuwigajah, Cimahi Selatan 40533

11.E-mail address : zhenzhu247@yahoo.com

12.Weight : 55 Kg

13.Height : 158 Cm

14.Marital Status : Single

15.Parents

1. Father : Muhammad Sholeh Tjoe

Occupation : Entrepreneur

Address : Pilar Mas blok M no.14/127 RT/RW 08/003 Leuwigajah,

Cimahi Selatan 40533

2. Mother : Muhana

Occupation : Housewife

Address : Pilar Mas blok M no.14/127 RT/RW 08/003 Leuwigajah, Cimahi Selatan 40533

B. Formal Education

No Year Institution

1. 1992-1994 TK Uswatun Hasanah

2. 1994-2000 SDN Baros I

3. 2000-2003 SMPN 1 Cimahi

4. 2003-2006 SMAN 9 Bandung

5. 2006-present Student of UNIKOM

C. Informal Education

No Year Institution / Training Event

1. 2008-present English Language Forum UNIKOM 2. 2009-present Homey Korean Language Club

(Uncertified)

3. 2007 Seminar on Copywriting I (Certified) 4. 2009 Seminar on Copywriting II (Certified)

63

63 D. Experiences

a. Becoming as the vice chairperson of English Language Forum

b. Participating as a committee of English Leadership Training of Education (ELITE) 2009

c. Interpreting for Oxford

d. Translating various textbook or document both form English to Indonesia and the reverse.

Bandung, July 2010

LIST OF APPENDIXES

1. Appendix 1 : Total Data Based on the Novel 2. Appendix 2 : Classified Data

GRADUATE PROGRAM

INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER BANDUNG

REVISION APPROVAL

SKRIPSI _(S1)

NAME : LISA TRI UTAMI

STUDENT NUMBER : 63706003

DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

DATE OF EXAMINATION : JULY 22nd, 2010

TITLE OF THE SKRIPSI : AN ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACT TYPES USED IN GEORGE

ORWELL’S ANIMAL FARM

(A Study of Pragmatics)

THE SKRIPSI HAS BEEN REVISED, APPROVED BY THE EXAMINERS AND ADVISORS, AND IS ALLOWED TO BE COPIED.

NO. EXAMINERS SIGNATURE

1. Tatan Tawami, S.S. 2. Dr. Juanda

3. Drs. Yani, M.A.

Bandung, 7th of August 2010 Acknowledged by:

Advisor I, Advisor II,

Drs. Yani, M.A. Asih Prihandini, S.S., M.Hum. NIP 4127.20.03.010