men either speak Khmer poorly or have no Khmer language ability at all.
42
We asked the village leaders questions about villagers’ travel patterns and the language they use with
strangers, but not all villagers travel or verbally interact with outsiders. Therefore, to say a certain language is the LWC does not imply that the majority of residents can speak it
fluently or even marginally.
5.2 Vernacular languages
• What are the vernacular language varieties spoken in Mondul Kiri and Kratie provinces?
• Where and by whom are these varieties spoken? Bahnaric vernacular languages
43
spoken in Mondul Kiri province include Bunong, Stieng, Kraol, Tampuan, Ra’ong, and, possibly, Thmon. Those in Kratie province include Bunong,
Stieng, Kraol, Khaonh, Thmon, and, possibly, Mel.
44
For each of these groups, the name is the same for both the people and their language, although Ra’ong appears to be a subgroup or
dialect of Stieng. The Thmon of Mondul Kiri appear to have stopped using their language in favor of Bunong as their mother tongue; they may have undergone a complete language shift,
but we cannot be certain whether or not Thmon is still used in some situations. We did not speak with the Thmon of Kratie, but secondhand reports say they use the Thmon language.
The Mel live in Kratie province and, although some still speak Mel, by all reports they are using Khmer; Mel children have Khmer as their mother tongue. Some Stieng, Bunong, and
Khaonh are also using Khmer more and more, with many children understanding, but not speaking the language of their parents and grandparents.
5.3 Groupings of Bahnaric varieties
• What are the groupings of Bahnaric varieties, based on intelligibility? Lexical similarity is only the very first step in measuring intelligibility, as it merely describes
the percentage of words that are the same between two or more wordlists. Actual intelligibility testing would be needed to confirm the groupings. Based on lexical similarity
alone, Mel and Khaonh are grouped together, as are Ra’ong and Stieng, although Ra’ong is also around 70 percent similar to some of the Bunong varieties. All Bunong varieties are over
80 percent similar to each other and so belong to one grouping as well. Otherwise, Thmon, Kraol, and Tampuan each stand alone, although Kraol, Thmon, Khaonh, and Mel are about
70 percent similar to Stieng as well. Tampuan is the least similar to all other varieties.
• How do speakers of the Bahnaric varieties in Cambodia perceive the groupings of Bahnaric varieties?
The Bunong, Stieng, Kraol, Khaonh, Tampuan, and Mel all see themselves as separate groups speaking different languages in the places where they are still using their ethnic vernacular
languages. Each group is solid and cohesive within itself; they either consider all people in the ethnic group to speak the same or, while recognizing that some villages may speak a little
differently, do not impose any clear divisions among themselves. The Mel are possibly beginning to see themselves as Khmer, rather than Mel. The Thmon of Mondul Kiri are using
Bunong as a mother tongue; it is still unclear whether they still view themselves as Thmon or
42
See Hiett 2003 for more information regarding self-assessed proficiency in spoken Khmer among the Bunong of Mondul Kiri.
43
In addition to the Bahnaric groups, there were also pockets or individuals of Jarai, Lao, Kuy, Cham, and Khmer.
44
“Possibly” refers to the fact that language vitality is an important issue. More research is needed to discover whether or not the Thmon and Mel peoples are, in fact, still using the Thmon and Mel languages.
are beginning to identify more with Bunong people. The Ra’ong identify themselves as Stieng, although perhaps perceive themselves to be a different kind of Stieng people using a
different type of Stieng language. Some Bunong and Stieng in Mondul Kiri consider the Ra’ong to be members of their respective groups, albeit speaking their languages a little
differently. Other Bunong and Stieng consider the Ra’ong to be a different ethnic group.
5.4 Relationships and interactions
