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3. Gather Information Data
Your research project should include empirical research i.e. primary research data. The ways that data can be gathered include:
One-to-one interviews with key informants in an organisation
these might be face to face or by telephone
Focus groups: discussion interviews Participant observation in a relevant social situation, e.g.
supermarket
A questionnaire survey, e.g. of relevant people in an organisation,
or of consumers, customers etc. This can be done using printed or electronic questionnaires
However, other approaches can be used too, e.g. autobiography, diary methods, Internet etc.
It is also possible to engage in problem solving research by an analysis of secondary data relevant to the chosen topic, but you will need to discuss
this acceptability of this approach with your tutor
INTERVIEWS Interviews can be grouped into three main types:
1. Structured 2. Semi-structured
3. Unstructured
Structured Interviews
Structured interviews involve the use of questionnaires based on a predetermined and identical set of questions. The questions are usually
read out by a researcher in a neutral tone of voice to avoid influencing or prompting a particular response from a participant. see also the section
on questionnaires Semi-Structured Interviews
The interviewer will have a list of themes and areas to be covered and there may be some standardised questions, but the interviewer may omit
or add to some of these questions or areas, depending on the situation and the flow of the conversation.
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Unstructured Interviews These are informal discussions where the interviewer wants to explore in-
depth a particular topic with another person in a spontaneous way. However, even in unstructured interviews it is likely that the researcher
would have a pre-decided range of topics to cover in the discussion.
What types of research project might favour a structured interview approach? Write in the space below
What types of research project might favour a semi-structured or unstructured interview approach? Write in the space below.
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sometimes be problematic. What factors might affect the outcome of any particular interview? Write in the space below
See comments on pages 37-43
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FOCUS GROUPS
Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the forms of opinions, from a selected group of people on a
particular and pre-determined topic, e.g. consumer topic; political topic etc.
The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way what is being said e.g. by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc.
The purpose of the discussion is introduced and discussion ground-rules agreed. The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to
intervene if necessary to resolve group problems. Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main issues and
concerns of any group are. This can help in questionnaire design or to develop a future interview strategy. They can be a useful way too, of
bringing to the surface issues that might not otherwise have been discovered: the dynamics of a group can often make people bolder in
advancing their opinions.
What might happen in a focus group to cause the researcher to intervene? Write in the space below.
See comments on pages 37-43
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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
As discussed earlier, participant observation is when a researcher attempts
to observe in some way in the group being researched and to share in the
experiences being recorded and analysed. It can be used in association with other research approaches or as the
primary way of gathering data. It can be a good way of getting below the surface of any situation and to help reveal or unravel complex causal
social processes.
The researcher can play an overt or covert role and the role the researcher can adopt in this situation has been summarised by Gill
Johnson 1977:
Complete participant Complete observer
Observer as participant Participant as observer
Complete Participant
The identity and purpose of researcher is not revealed to other
group members
The researcher attempts to become a full covert member of the group
Example: study of leadership styles in action
Complete Observer
The purpose of research activity not revealed to those being
observed
The researcher does not take part in the activities being observed Example: a detached study of consumer behaviour in a supermarket
Observer as Participant
The researcher’s role is known to others in the group
Researchers participate in activities, but their engagement with
group activities may be fairly superficial or spasmodic, as their role is to observe the ‘real’ participants.
Example: Observing team-building exercises taking part, but only in a superficial way, without real emotional involvement.
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Participant as Observer
The researcher’s role is known to all others in the group
The researcher would engage fully in all the activities and
experience it totally themselves, plus observe and talk to other participants about their experiences
Example: Attending and fully participating in an assessment centre selection day and taking an active part in all the activities
Data Collection as a Participant Observer This can be in the form of:
Primary Observations: where the researcher notes what actually
happened or what was actually said at the time
Secondary Observations: interpretative statements by observers
of what happened
Experiential Data: a record of the researcher’s feelingsvalues and
how these changed, if applicable, over time All three forms of data collection might be included in a research project
report.
Participant observation can present a researcher with a range of advantages disadvantages to consider beforehand or
afterwards. What might these be? Write your comments in the space provided on the following page.
One example of participant observation would be the observation of consumer behaviour in supermarkets, and the reactions of both check-
out cashiers and customers to queues. How much interaction is there between cashiers and customers in this situation? How do customers
appear to choose a queue to join? this could be followed-up with selected questioning of customers.
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AdvantagesPositives DisadvantagesNegatives
See comments on pages 37-43
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QUESTIONNAIRES
Main points to remember when designing and using questionnaires: adapted from Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2003, pp.315-6
a Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data by asking all, or a sample of people, to respond to the same questions. They can
be in both printed and electronic forms. b There are five types of questionnaire approaches:
1. On-line electronic 2. Postal printed
3. Delivery collection printed 4. Telephone electronicprinted
5. Interview face to facegroup electronic or printed
c You need to absolutely clear before you design a questionnaire what it is you want to learn and what data
you need to obtain to enlighten you in this search. You also need to think ahead about how you are going to collate the
information you gather. There is no point in designing a questionnaire that produces a range of information you find very
difficult to collate in any meaningful quantitative or qualitative way.
d The validity the extent to which the data accurately measures what they were intended to measure and reliability the
extent to which the data collection method will yield consistent findings if replicated by others of the data you collect depend
on the design of the questionnaire and the words that you use.
e Questions can be open or closed:
Open questions: a question is posed, but space is left for the respondent’s own answer the questions posed to you in
this workbook have all been open questions e.g. Please tell me which brand you prefer, and why in the space
that follows Closed: where a limited number of alternative responses to the
set question are provided. These can be in list, category, ranking, scalerating, grid or other quantitative form. They can be pre-
coded on a questionnaire to facilitate analysis.
e.g. Please tick the box shown below with the brand you prefer f The order and flow of questions should be logical to the
respondent. g There can be a low rate of return with questionnaires, so they
need to be introduced carefully and courteously to potential respondents. This introduction can include the use of a covering
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rate of return of questionnaires. h All questionnaires should be piloted, if possible, with a small
group before the main research to assess their value, validity and reliability.
Open Questions Closed Questions
Advantages: Advantages
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
What do you think are the respective research advantages and disadvantages of asking open questions and closed questions?
See comments on pages 37-43
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EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS
1. Specific Information Request
Kategori