Speaking instructional materials based on task-based language teaching for the extracurricular activity of the 2nd graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta - USD Repository
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
BASED ON TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
FOR THE EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITY
NDOF THE 2 GRADERS OF SD PANGUDI LUHUR YOGYAKARTA
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
OF THE 2 GRADERS OF SD PANGUDI LUHUR YOGYAKARTA
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsto Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Let the light of your life shine in such a way
that others see your good deeds
and bring glory to your Father in Heaven(Matthew 5: 16) I dedicate this thesis to: My Jesus Christ and Mother Marry
My Beloved Parents and Families
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRACT
Palupi, Lucia Retno. 2010. Speaking Instructional Materials Based on Task-Based
nd
Language Teaching for the Extracurricular Activity of the 2 Graders of SD Pangudi
Luhur Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata
Dharma University.
Considering the importance of mastering English, many schools demand the students to learn English in the earlier age. With an expectation that earlier age will bring improvement for their proficiency levels in speaking English, SD Pangudi
Luhur Yogyakarta held English extracurricular activity. The absence of the speaking
ndmaterials for the English extracurricular activity of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi
Luhur Yogyakarta, the lack of speaking practice and the monotonous drilling method
in the daily class encouraged the writer to design speaking instructional materials
nd
based on Task-Based Language Teaching for the extracurricular activity of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta.
This study was carried out to answer two research questions: (1) how is a set of speaking instructional materials based on Task-Based Language Teaching for
nd
extracurricular activity of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta designed? and (2) what does the designed set of speaking instructional materials look like? To answer the first research question, the writer employed five stages of the
Research and Development (R&D) methodology proposed by Borg and Gall (1986) as the umbrella of the writer’s model which were derived from combining both Kemp’s and Yalden’s models. The writer’s instructional design model included six steps, namely (1) Conducting Needs Survey, (2) Formulating Goals, Listing Topics and Stating General Purposes, (3) Formulating learning Objectives, (4) Listing Subject Content, (5) Selecting Teaching and Learning Activities and Resources and (6) Evaluating the Designed Materials. Based on the evaluation done by distributing post-design questionnaires to 5 respondents, the results showed that the mean of each statement ranged from 3.2 up to 3.6 in the scale of 4. It is considered that the speaking instructional materials were appropriate and acceptable for the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
their speaking skill through the tasks and activities offered. Hopefully, the designed materials give contributions to the teachers and other researchers who are interested in doing further research.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRAK
Palupi, Lucia Retno. 2010. Speaking Instructional Materials Based on Task-Based
nd
Language Teaching for the Extracurricular Activity of the 2 Graders of SD Pangudi
Luhur Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris,
Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Mengingat pentingnya penguasaan Bahasa Inggris, banyak sekolah menuntut para siswanya untuk belajar Bahasa Inggris pada usia dini. Dengan harapan bahwa usia dini dapat meningkatkan kecakapan berbahasa Inggris mereka, terutama terhadap ketrampilan berbicara bahasa Inggris, SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta mengadakan kegiatan ekstrakurikuler Bahasa Inggris. Tidak tersedianya materi berbicara untuk kegiatan ekstrakurikuler Bahasa Inggris siswa kelas 2 SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta, kurangnya praktek berbicara dalam Bahasa Inggris dan drilling yang monoton mendorong penulis untuk merancang materi pembelajaran berbicara berdasarkan pembelajaran berdasar tugas untuk kegiatan ekstrakurikuler siswa kelas 2 SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta.
Studi ini dilaksanakan untuk menjawab 2 masalah penelitian: (1) bagaimana satu set materi pembelajaran berbicara berdasarkan pembelajaran berdasar tugas untuk kegiatan ekstrakurikuler siswa kelas 2 SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta dirancang? dan (2) seperti apakah set rancangan materi pembelajaran berbicara tersebut?
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama dalam rumusan permasalahan, penulis menggunakan 5 langkah metodologi penelitian dan pengembangan yang dikemukakan oleh Borg dan Gall (1986) sebagai payung untuk model rancangan pembelajaran penulis yang menggabungkan dua model desain instruksional dari Kemp dan Yalden. Model rancangan pembelajaran penulis meliputi 6 langkah yaitu (1) melaksanakan survey kebutuhan, (2) merumuskan tujuan, menentukan topik, dan tujuan umum, (3) menentukan tujuan pembelajaran, (4) Menentukan kegiatan pembelajaran (5) memilih kegiatan belajar dan mengajar serta sumber belajar dan (6) merevisi materi. Berdasarkan hasil evaluasi yang dilaksanakan dengan menyebarkan
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Luhur Yogyakarta untuk mengembangkan ketrampilan berbicara mereka melalui tugas dan kegiatan yang di tawarkan. Semoga materi pembelajaran tersebut memberikan kontribusi terhadap para guru dan peneliti yang tertarik untuk meneliti bidang ini lebih lanjut.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My greatest gratitude goes to my One, Jesus Christ, for His marvelous grace, everlasting love and endless guidance throughout my life. Without Him, I could not have passed the hard times in completing my thesis. I would like to express my thankfulness to Mother Mary for wonderful mercy and prayer.
I am particularly indebted to Drs. Y.B Gunawan, M.A, my major sponsor, who has been willing to devote his valuable time reading, correcting and giving suggestions on my thesis. Without his help, I would not be able to finish my thesis.
I owe a great deal to Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd. and Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., for their invaluable assistance to evaluate my materials design. I also thank all of the lecturers and secretariat staffs of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University and all librarians who have assisted me during the completion of my thesis.
My sincere gratitude is sent to SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta for allowing me
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents Bapak Fx. Sukartija and Ibu Modesta Sutimah for the endless love and prayer for me. I owe my elder brother and sisters and their spouses, Mas Toro & Mbak Mar, Mbak In & Mas Gun, Mbak Wahyu and Mas Wawan for sharing their unconditional love and support. They have taught me how to value life in a wonderful way. I love you all ☺
I address my gratitude to my other families for their support both spiritually and financially, Pak Dhe Giyo’s, Om Tijan’s, Om Jodo’s, Om Harto’s, Om Sarwana’s, Om Sabiri’s, Bulek Suti’s and Om Bambang’s. I also thank to Om Jiman’s family (Lek Mur, Yudha, Ade) for always be there for my family.
My special thanks go to my friends. I thank them for coloring my life, sharing laughs and loves. I thank The Fireflies (Kaven, Aldi, Bang’Sat, Ri2s, Esti, and Nita) for the hard work and companionship. I thank my faithful sisters (Ndutz, Tengilz and Lucy) for caring and loving. Dear my best friends in Petra Fortunatus Vocal Group, I am thankful for joy and songs we’ve shared. I do appreciate my faithful friends (Sari for lending me the printer, Cik Puy for the gossiping time and Vita for cheering me up) and all PBI 2006 students for wonderful friendships. I thank my boarding house’s
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PageTITLE PAGE............................................................................................................ i APPROVAL PAGES ............................................................................................... ii DEDICATION PAGE .............................................................................................. iv STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY......................................................... v ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. vii
ABSTRAK .................................................................................................................. ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................... xi TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... xiii LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................... xvii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. xviii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background .........................................................................................
1 B. Problem Formulation ..........................................................................................
5 C. Problem Limitation.............................................................................................
6 D. Research Objectives ...........................................................................................
6 E. Research Benefits ...............................................................................................
7 F. Definition of Terms ............................................................................................
8 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
1) Tasks Provide both the Input and Output Processing necessary for Language Acquisition ...................................... 21 2) Task Activity and Achievement are Motivational ................. 21 3) Learning Difficulty can be Negotiated and Fine-tuned for
Particular Pedagogical Purposes ............................................ 22
c. The Characteristics of Task-Based Language Teaching .................. 22 1) Bring the Real World into the Classroom .............................. 22 2) Focus on Process rather than Product..................................... 23 3) Communicative Interaction ................................................... 23 4) Interesting Activities through Tasks....................................... 23
d. The Task Types................................................................................. 24
e. The Framework of Task-Based Language Teaching ....................... 25
f. Task-Based Language Teaching for Beginners and Young
g. Learners ............................................................................................ 27
3. Teaching Speaking for Beginners and Young Learners ........................... 29
a. Using Video ...................................................................................... 31
b. Using Games..................................................................................... 32
c. Using Songs ...................................................................................... 32
B. Theoretical Framework....................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ................................................................................................ 41 B. Research Participants.......................................................................................... 48 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
E. Data Analysis Technique.................................................................................... 51
1. Data Analysis Technique of the Pre-design study .................................... 51
2. Data Analysis Technique of the Post-design study ................................... 52
F. Research Procedure ............................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. The Elaboration of the Steps of the Writer’s Model to Design Speaking Instructional Materials based on Task-Based Language teaching for the
nd
Extracurricular Activity of the 2 Graders of SD Pangudi Luhur
Yogyakarta ......................................................................................................... 56
1. Conducting Needs Survey......................................................................... 57
2. Formulating Goals, Listing Topics and Stating General Purposes ........... 68
3. Formulating learning Objectives............................................................... 71
4. Listing the Subject Content....................................................................... 74
5. Selecting Teaching and learning Activities and resources........................ 81
6. Evaluating the Designed Materials ........................................................... 82
a. The Discussion of the Results of the Post-design Questionnaire ..... 83
b. Revising the Designed Materials ...................................................... 89
B. The Brief Description of the Speaking instructional Materials based on Task-Based Language Teaching for the Extracurricular Activity of the
nd
2 Graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta .................................................. 94
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 97
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
APPENDIX B: The Observation Checklists ............................................................ 107 APPENDIX C: The Lists of Interview Questions .................................................... 112 APPENDIX D: The Post-design Questionnaire ....................................................... 115 APPENDIX E: The Teacher’s Book ........................................................................ 120 APPENDIX F: The Student’s Book ......................................................................... 215
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 3.1 The Blueprint of the Description of the Respondents’ Background..... 52Table 3.2 The Blueprint of the Results of the First Part of the Post-designQuestionnaire........................................................................................ 54
Table 4.1 The Goal and General Purposes of the Deigned Materials................... 70Table 4.2 The Learning Indicators ........................................................................ 72Table 4.3 The Description of the Respondents’ Background ............................... 84Table 4.4 The Results of the First Part of the Post-design Questionnaire ........... 85
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 The Kemp’s Instructional Design Model .............................................. 15Figure 2.2 The Yalden’s Instructional Design Model............................................. 17Figure 2.3 The TBLT Framework for Beginners and Young Learners .................. 29Figure 2.4 The Writer’s Instructional Design Model.............................................. 40Figure 3.1 The R&D Cycle and the Writer’s Model............................................... 46PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses six major points. Those include research background,
problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits and some definition of terms which will be helpful to understand this study.
A. Research Background
In the globalization era, English plays a significant role as a bridge for people around the world to communicate. In today’s society, English is used in many aspects of human life such as trade, technology, science, education and many other aspects. Knowing the importance of English, the Indonesian government considers English as the first foreign language to teach in the education institutes starting from elementary up to university level. In Indonesia, English as a foreign language has many purposes namely absorbing and developing science, technology, culture and arts which further build relationship with other nations in the world. Further, it will show Indonesians in answering the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2
because it is essential to assist them in accessing knowledge through technology innovation and in being prepared to compete in the globalization era.
Considering the importance of speaking English, many schools in Indonesia demand the students to learn English in the earlier age. In some elementary schools, English is taught starting from the fourth grade. On the other hand, some schools have different policy in determining from what grade English should be taught. With an expectation that the earlier age will bring improvement for the students’ proficiency in mastering English at the next level, some elementary
st
schools offer English extracurricular activity starting from the 1 grade. The policy is taken to give the learners longer time to learn English. Oksaar (1983:147) in ”Language Acquisition in the Early Years” states another reason why English should be taught in the early age. The children in elementary school are in a critical period. The critical period is a period between age 1-13 when the children must learn a language, otherwise it becomes much more difficult to learn after this period.
One of the elementary schools which held English extracurricular activity
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3
Besides, the drilling method which was monotonously applied in the regular English classroom sometimes bored the students.
nd
The 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta were also joining English extracurricular activity. Based on the writer’s experience in teaching English
nd
extracurricular activity for two semesters, the 2 grade students were on a critical age. As the elementary level students, they had short attention spans and they easily got bored. In certain time, it was very difficult to gain their attention as they started to play with each other. Further, they were highly motivated in writing rather than speaking whereas the main purpose of the English extracurricular activity was to develop speaking skill. The lack of the chance to practice their speaking and monotonous drilling method made them not accustomed to producing English words. As a result they could barely speak simple sentence.
Another obstacle was their impression towards English; they assumed that English was difficult. Accordingly, they were afraid of making mistakes and taking risks in learning English. They became less motivated to speak. The other barrier was the absence of the speaking instructional materials for the extracurricular activity
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
4
In this study, the writer offers one approach in language teaching to overcome those problems namely Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT).
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001:223), “Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.” TBLT is a logical development of Communicative approach as it depicts three principles which are included in Communicative approach, those are: activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning, activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning and language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.
Based on the writer’s experience in teaching English extracurricular activity, Task-Based Language Teaching is relevant to conduct in the learning process of
nd
the English extracurricular activity for the 2 graders. Task-Based Language Teaching aims at maximizing opportunities for learners to put their limited language to the real use. Besides, it helps the teacher to manage the classroom interaction as well as to create more effective learning environment (Willis,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
5
tasks. It will make the students to get involved more on speaking rather than writing. Since the students were interested in guessing words, the writer attempts to design interesting and challenging tasks and games to create fun learning environment. It is expected that the students will be confident and more motivated to practice their speaking because designing attractive materials which suit the children’s mental growth will raise their motivation. The pedagogical tasks will be selected based on the results of the students’ needs survey. The topics will be chosen based on their needs and in accordance with the current curriculum, KTSP.
KTSP emphasizes on contextual learning which also offered by TBLT. According to Richard and Rodgers (2001:225), TBLT is an approach for real-world language learning which shares its notion to relate contextual teaching and learning with teacher’s lack of motivating the students to use the target language.
This set of speaking instructional materials is supposed to achieve the goals of the English extracurricular activity. This set of designed materials includes activities which provide the students with more chances to practice their speaking and making the students to be able to communicate simple daily conversation.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
6
2. What does the designed set of speaking instructional materials based on
nd
Task-Based Language Teaching for the extracurricular activity of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta look like?
C. Problem Limitation
The study is aimed at designing speaking instructional materials based on
nd
Task-Based Language Teaching for the extracurricular activity of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta. This study is focused on the materials development which includes the speaking materials and instructions based on Task-Based Language Teaching Approach.
The topics of the materials are arranged based on the needs survey and in accordance with the current curriculum, KTSP. It is aimed at motivating the students with the topics that they need and want to learn. The topics chosen are derived from their interests and needs as the results of participant observation and interview. At the end of the study, the designed materials are presented without implementing them to find out their effectiveness.
D. Research Objectives
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
7
E. Research Benefits
This study is conducted to bring benefits for those who are mentioned below:
nd
1. The 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta
nd
The speaking materials are proposed to make the 2 graders of SD
Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta able to start as well as respond to simple daily
conversation and provide more chances to practice speaking through the tasks based on Task-Based Language Teaching. Task-Based Language Teaching allows them to do real world tasks which make them use the simple daily conversation utterances. Besides, the students will be interested to learn since the topics presented based on their needs and interests. Various tasks types motivate the students to practice speaking in forms of creative games, singing songs, matching, and others.
2. English extracurricular teachers This study is aimed at offering the teacher with a different approach in teaching speaking in the extracurricular activity. Besides, it gives the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
8
extracurricular activity. Therefore, they can use the design materials as the guidance to design other speaking materials in different levels.
F. Definition of Terms
This section will discuss some definition of terms used in this study to avoid misunderstanding during the reading. They are elaborated below:
1. Design
According to Kemp (1977:8), design is a plan which is applied in every level of education and it has three essential and important elements namely objective of the learning, the activities and recourses and evaluation. Closely related to Kemp’s definition, Hutchinson and Waters (1994:106) define designing as creating a new set of materials that fits the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learners. In this study, the term design is closely defined as those two proponents’ definitions where design considers a new set of English speaking instructional materials as the subject area and Task-Based Language Teaching as the approach of
nd
determining the activities. Further, the 2 graders of extracurricular class in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
9
which include activities involving speaking which can be used by the teacher or instructor in teaching the English extracurricular class in SD
nd Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta for the 2 graders semester 1. The speaking
instructional materials include some utterances used in a daily conversation which allow the students to improve their speaking skill.
3. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)
According to Nunan (2004:4), Task-Based language Teaching is an approach involving pedagogical tasks transferred from real-world tasks where the learners comprehend, produce, or interact with the target language. Pedagogical tasks involve communicative language in which the user’s attention is focused on meaning rather than grammatical form. In this study, the definition of Task-Based Language Teaching is close to Nunan’s definition where it uses tasks as vehicle to fulfill the communicative purpose and offers the learners with the real life needs and activities. This study refers to Task-Based Language Teaching which particularly focuses on beginners and young learners as the target learners.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
10
language, art and sport. In this case, the extracurricular activity includes additional class for English language mastery especially in accelerating English speaking skill. The additional knowledge and new elements are given by providing the students with the communicative utterances used in the daily conversation of the society.
In this study, extracurricular activity includes the English teaching and learning as the extra lesson which is aimed at giving a broader chance for the learners to practice speaking and make them able to start as well as respond to simple daily conversation. The extracurricular activity is expected to develop the students’ capability in speaking skill in both transactional and interactional functions of language.
5. The 2nd Graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta
nd
The 2 graders students are the students of SD Pangudi Luhur
nd Yogyakarta who are in the 2 level of elementary school. SD Pangudi nd
Luhur Yogyakarta has five classes of the 2 graders. In this study, the target nd learners are the 2 graders who are taking English extracurricular activity.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter includes a discussion of the related literature. This chapter is
divided into two major parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. In the theoretical description, the writer attempts to present some related literature, which are needed to design the materials, as the basis to conduct the study.
Further, the theoretical framework makes use of some theories mentioned in the theoretical description as the basis to design the speaking instructional materials based on Task-Based Language Teaching for the extracurricular activity
nd
of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta.
A. Theoretical Description
In this section, several related literature of the study will be explained. The related literature includes some theories which are involved in designing materials. This section covers the descriptions of 1) Instructional Design Models,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
12 speaking instructional materials based on Task-Based Language Teaching for the
nd extracurricular activity of the 2 graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta.
a. Kemp’s Model (Kemp, 1977)
Kemp argues that there are three questions which are needed to answer, namely “what must be learned?” (Objectives), “what procedures and resources will be best to reach the desired learning level?” (Activities and Resources), and “how will we know when the required learning has taken place?” (Evaluation).
The instructional design plan stated by Kemp includes eight elements, those are:
Step 1. Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Ordinarily, instructional design planning begins with the introduction of the board goals of the institution or school system which can be derived from the society, students and subject areas. After defining the goals, the designer then selects major topics within the content area. The next step is expressing general purposes from each of the chosen topics.
Step 2. Discovering Leaner’s Characteristics
In order to make sure the success of the learners in their educational
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13 should also involve are learning conditions and learning styles. Kemp (1977:19) states that “learning conditions refer to groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information.”
Step 3. Specifying Learning Objective
Learning objectives must be stated in forms of activities that will best promote learning. According to Kemp (1977:24), there are three categories of objectives; those are cognitive, psychomotor and affective. The cognitive is mostly used in educational program which consist knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The designer formulates the specific instructional objectives that should be achieved based on the observable and measurable students’ attitudes. The designer should also consider the action verb in specifying each of the learning objectives because action verb relates to certain level of objectives.
Step 4. Organizing Subject Content
Subject content should be related to the student’s learning experiences. The content should be related to the objectives that have been chosen and the student’s
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
14 pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims to know whether the students have the appropriate background preparation for the topic while pretesting aims to determine which of the objectives students may already have achieved.
Step 6. Planning the Teaching / Learning Activities and Resources
Kemp (1977:55) states In order to achieve good learning, the designer must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials which provide learning experiences that will associate with each of the objectives. The designer selects teaching learning activities and instructional resources that can be applied to achieve the specific instructional objective appropriate for accomplishing each objective.
Step 7. Organizing Support services
Identify support services of facilities which are required to implement the design plan such as funds, facilities, equipment, etc. The designer should be able to manage the support service carefully, especially with the budget. The budget can be divided into two sections; the first one is the budget during the development which covers all the budgets during the program preparation and the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15 development and tryouts while inversely the summative evaluation is done at the end of the course. Kemp states (1977:98) that there are several ways of evaluating the developed program, (1) test result, (2) reactions from the students, (3) observations of students at work, (4) suggestions from colleagues. The steps of Kemp’s model are illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Goals, topics
and General
Purposes
Learner characteristics Evaluation
Supports Learning services
Objectives Revision
Teaching/ Subject Learning Content Activities, Pre- Resources
assessment
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16 Step 1. The Needs Survey Yalden argues that conducting needs survey can gather a great deal of information about the learners (1987:101). Further, this step is very important considering the learners’ needs. The need survey can show who the learners and it is aimed at establishing realistic and acceptable objectives. Therefore, the needs survey include the identification of the communication requirements, personal needs, motivations, relevant characteristics and resources of the learners.
Step 2. The Description of Purpose
The results of the needs survey will be used as the basis in developing the purpose of the program. After the designer does needs survey, the designer clarifies the purpose of the language program and “this will establish the foundation for the major decision facing the language course designer when he or she goes on the next step” (1987:105).
Step 3. The Choice of a Syllabus
“There is no single model of syllabus design which is universally agreed
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
17 Step 5. Production of Pedagogical Syllabus In this stage, the designer chooses words and phrases based on the function and the topics. The designer also develops teaching, learning and testing approaches.
Step 6. Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedure
It includes the selection of the exercise type and teaching techniques, preparation of the lesson plans and weekly schedule.
Step 7. Evaluation of Students, Program and Teaching Process
Yalden states that evaluation covers two significant aspects. Firstly, evaluating or testing the students in the program and secondly, evaluating the teaching as well as the over-all design of the course. This is the recycling step because the whole cycle can begin again at this point or stage.
The Yalden’s instructional design model is described in Figure 2.2.
Needs survey
Description of purpose Selection/ development of syllabus type Production of a-proto syllabus
Production of a-pedagogical syllabus Development and implementation of classroom Evaluation
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
18 Characteristics of TBLT, d) The Task Types, e) The Framework of TBLT and f) TBLT for Beginners and Young learners.
a. Task
Task plays important roles in Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) approach. Because of that reason, the next discussion elaborates the meaning of the term “task” and presents some definitions of task. The task’s definitions will be used as basic consideration to determine the content of the designed materials.
According to Willis (1996:23), in her book titled “A Framework for Task-
Based learning, the definition of tasks deal with activities where the target
language is used and experienced by the language learner for a communicative purpose or goal in order to achieve an outcome. It can be concluded that the language learners directly use the language as a tool to finish the task; they directly experience the language and indirectly learn how the target language is meaningful to them.
Nunan (2004:4) defines task as a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
19 tasks”. Real-world task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. The examples are painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out form and others. Therefore, it is also called non-technical, non- linguistic one. Secondly, pedagogical task means an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language or response. The examples are drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening instruction and performing command. Tasks are defined as what the learners do in the classroom.
b. Theory of Language and Learning
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001:223), “Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.” Task-Based is a logical development of Communicative Approach as it depicts three principles which are included in Communicative Approach, those are: activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning, activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning and language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. Supported by the Hong
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
20 Further, Krahnke (1987:57-58) explains that Task-Based Language Teaching enforces students to do the activities for non instructional purpose outside of the classroom as the chances for language learning. Tasks are different from the other activities to the degree non instructional purpose and a measurable outcome and they bring the real world into the classroom. Therefore, the intent of Task-Based Language Teaching is to use the real-life needs and activities as learning experiences.
Nunan (2004:12) argues that the experiential learning is the basis of TBLT where the learner’s immediate personal experience involved. The active involvement of the learner is also central as it allows students to have “experiential learning” in the process of “learning by doing”. Experiential learning theory provides the basic view of learning as personal growth which enables the learners to be self-directed and responsible for their own learning.
As a logical development of Communicative Approach, TBLT put its focus on the language use where the students actively practice their speaking ability in the language. The theory of language emphasizes on making meaning because
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
21 Rodgers in “Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching” there are three learning principles which include:
1) Tasks Provide both the Input and Output Processing necessary for
Language AcquisitionCanale, as cited by Krahnke (1987:59), states: Linguistic and sociolinguistic competence is acquired through the comprehensible input as the student processes the information necessary to perform the task (plus whatever instruction in language form that accompanies it); discourse competence is acquired through experiencing the various discourse types called for by the tasks; and strategic competence or the ability to use communicative strategies, is acquired through the need for understanding during the interaction required to accomplish the tasks. From the acquisition theory above, TBLT becomes a strategic approach as it offers both input and output. The input appears when learners process the information each other which they have as their linguistic and sociolinguistic competences. They attempt to acquire discourse and strategic competence in the process of doing the tasks through using the language. Finally the outcome of the process is the tasks accomplishment. Through the process of doing the tasks, the learners attempt to acquire many competences. Therefore, TBLT is said to focus
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22 include physical activity, involve partnership and collaboration, tolerate and encourage a variety of communication styles and call the learners past experience.
3) Learning Difficulty can be Negotiated and Fine-tuned for particular
Pedagogical PurposesLong and Crookes, as cited by Richards and Rodgers (2001:229), states tasks are seen as vehicles to present appropriate examples of the target language and for delivery of comprehension and production chances of negotiable difficulty.
Further supported by Larsen and Freeman (2000:144), TBLT offer the learners with natural context for language use. The learners work to complete the task and allow them to have the opportunity to interact. Natural context of language use will enable the learners to start and respond the daily conversation which usually happened in their environment.
c. The Characteristics of Task-Based Language Teaching
There are some characteristics of Task-Based Language Teaching stated by some experts to support this study and shown below:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23 TBLT classroom, the learners will experience real-world situation by doing pedagogical tasks. Therefore, it supports the contextual learning.
2) Focus on Process rather than Product
According to Nunan (2004:1), TBLT focuses on the process of the language learning rather than product. The goal is not merely the task’s accomplishment but the process when the learners use the language to finish the task.
3) Communicative Interaction
Nunan (2004:7,19) argues that the basis view is that language as a tool for communication rather than a set of grammatical to be memorized. According to Halliday, as cited by Nunan (2004:19), there are three functions in general level, namely exchanging goods and services, socializing with others and for enjoyment.
Since the focus is on the language use in doing the tasks, TBLT provides a great chance for learners to improve their speaking English ability as a major skill used in communication.
Further explained, TBLT encourages the learners to participate actively in small, collaborative groups. TBLT allows the learners to learn language by
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
24 There are several task types according to Prabhu (1987:46-47), Pattinson (1987) and Richards (2001:162) which may vary the task types.
d. The Task Types