English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta - USD Repository

  

ENGLISH READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

BASED ON RECIPROCAL TEACHING STRATEGY FOR THE TENTH

GRADE STUDENTS OF SMA STELLA DUCE 1 YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  

By

Reni Yuliana Kusuma Astuti

Student number: 021214118

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

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  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  First of all, I would like to dedicate my gratitude to God, Allah SWT, for the blessing, love, and the kindness in my life so that I finally finished my thesis. I realize that all of these happened because of His grace.

  I would like to show my great thanks to my major sponsor, Gregorius Punto Aji, S.Pd., M.Hum. and my co-sponsor, C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for always giving me a lot of advice and attention in the process of finishing my thesis as well as giving detailed corrections to improve my thesis.

  Next, I would like to address my gratitude to the English teachers in SMA

  

Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta, Fransisca Awan Tyaswati, S.Pd. and Sweet Suzi

Maria, S.Pd. , for their willingness to give valuable suggestions for my designed

  materials. I also address my thanks to the tenth grade students for their help in filling in the questionnaires.

  Special appreciation also goes to all lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program for their kindness and patience. They have given me a lot of enjoyable experiences during my study in this university. I would also like to say thanks to PBI staffs, mbak Tari and mbak Danik, for giving me nice services.

  My deeply gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Bapak Joko Riyanto,

  S.Pd . and Ibu Suharsi, for their love, care, understanding, patience, and prayers.

  The same gratitude also addresses to my lovely sisters and brother, dik Rina, dik wonderful friendship. I thank them for their support, help, care, and laugh during our golden era moments.

  With all my love, I give my thanks to Taufik Kumara for his love and for being my everything. He will always be my shoulder to cry on and I am thankful to him for always being here whenever I need help. I also thank him for his care, patience, support, and laugh during all this time. The same appreciation also goes to Bapak, Ibu, and Citra for their love and warmth.

  I never forget my magnificent friends in PBI 2002: mbakyu Ikas, Regina,

Nce’, Aray, Sisil, Ayu, Agus “Genjik”, Dani, Galih, Ila, Niken, Dedy , and Gabo.

  These people always supported and encouraged me to accomplish my thesis. They gave me valuable inputs to make my thesis better. I also thanked them for all happy and sad moments that we shared during our study in English Language Education Study Program. I will never forget our lovely time together.

  Last but not least, I would also express my appreciation to those who have given me a hand, whom I have not mentioned.

  Reni Yuliana Kusuma Astuti

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

  Page TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................................ ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ................................................. iv DEDICATION PAGE ...................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... xiii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ xiv ABSTRACK ..................................................................................................... xv

  

ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xvi

  

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1

A. Research Background ..............................................................................

  1 B. Problem Formulation ............................................................................... 4 C. Problem Limitation ..................................................................................

  4 D. Research Objectives ................................................................................

  5 E. Research Benefits ....................................................................................

  5 F. Definition of Terms .................................................................................

  6 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .........................

  9 A. Theoretical Description ...........................................................................

  9 1. Curriculum Based Materials Development ..........................................

  9 a. Curriculum ........................................................................................

  9 1) Curriculum as content .................................................................... 10 2) Curriculum as product .................................................................... 10

  a. The Nature of Taba’s model ............................................................. 15

  b. The Nature of Kemp’s model ............................................................ 18

  3. Theory of Reading ................................................................................ 20

  a. The Nature of Reading ...................................................................... 20

  b. The Models of Reading Processes .................................................... 21 1) Bottom-up model ........................................................................... 22 2) Top-down model ............................................................................ 22 3) Interactive model ............................................................................ 23 4) Interactive-compensatory model .................................................... 24

  c. The Levels of Comprehension .......................................................... 24 1) Literal meaning .............................................................................. 24 2) Interpretive reading ........................................................................ 24 3) Critical evaluation .......................................................................... 25 4) Creative reading ............................................................................. 25

  d. The Teaching Reading Skills ............................................................ 27 1) Pre-reading activity ........................................................................ 27 2) While-reading activity .................................................................... 28 3) Post-reading activity ...................................................................... 29

  4. Cognitive Strategy Instruction .............................................................. 30

  5. Reciprocal Teaching ............................................................................. 31

  B. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... 34

  

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 40

A. Research Method ..................................................................................... 40

  1. Pre-design Study ................................................................................... 41

  2. Material Development .......................................................................... 42

  3. Post-design Study ................................................................................. 43

  B. Research Participants .............................................................................. 43

  2. Post-design Study ................................................................................. 47

  D. Data Gathering Technique ....................................................................... 48

  1. Pre-design Study ................................................................................... 48

  2. Post-design Study ................................................................................. 48

  E. Data Analysis Technique ......................................................................... 49

  1. Pre-design Study ................................................................................... 49

  2. Post-design Study ................................................................................ 50

  F. Research Procedure ................................................................................. 52

  

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............... 54

A. The Material Development ...................................................................... 54

  1. Conducting Diagnosis of Needs ........................................................... 54

  a. The Results of the Interview with the English Teacher .................... 55

  b. The Results of the Questionnaire Distributed to the Tenth Grade Students .................................................................................. 56

  2. Determining the Competency Standards, the Basic Competencies, and the Topics ....................................................................................... 58

  3. Formulating the Indicators .................................................................... 59

  4. Determining and Organizing Contents ................................................. 59

  5. Determining and Organizing Teaching Learning Experiences ............ 59

  6. Designing the Materials ........................................................................ 60

  7. Determining What to Evaluate, the Ways and Means of Doing It ....... 60

  8. Evaluating the Designed Materials ....................................................... 61

  9. Revising the Designed Materials .......................................................... 61

  B. The Designed Materials ........................................................................... 61

  1. The Competency Standards, the Basic Competencies, and the Topics ....................................................................................... 61

  2. The Indicators ....................................................................................... 63

  4. The Teaching Learning Experiences .................................................... 65

  5. What to Evaluate, the Ways and Means of Doing It ............................ 65

  6. The Evaluation of the Designed Materials ........................................... 66

  a. The Results of the Post-design Questionnaire .................................. 66

  b. Participants’ Comments and Suggestions on the Designed Materials ...................................................................... 68

  7. The Revision of the Designed Materials .............................................. 69

  a. Responses to the Participants’ Evaluation ........................................ 69

  b. The Presentation of the Designed Materials ..................................... 70

  CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

  ............................ 71

  A. Conclusions ............................................................................................. 71

  B. Suggestions .............................................................................................. 73

  REFERENCES

  ............................................................................................... 74

  APPENDICES

  ................................................................................................. 76 Appendix A : Letters of Permission ............................................................. 77 Appendix B : Interview Guideline, Pre-design and Post-design Questionnaires ....................................................................... 79 Appendix C : The Results of the Interview .................................................. 87 Appendix D : The Results of the Pre-design Questionnaire ......................... 91 Appendix E : The Competency Standards and the Basic Competencies ..... 95 Appendix F : The Indicators ........................................................................ 98 Appendix G : The Topics, the Reading Texts, the Sections and the Sub-sections of the Designed Materials ..... 102 Appendix H : The Time Distribution of the Designed Materials ................. 109 Appendix I : The Syllabus .......................................................................... 112

  

LIST OF FIGURES

  Page

Figure 2.1 Taba’s Instructional Design Plan .................................................... 17Figure 2.2 Kemp’s Instructional Design Plan ................................................... 19Figure 2.3 The Relationship among Four Interrelated Levels of

  Comprehension Skills ...................................................................... 26

Figure 2.4 The Design Model Conducted in the Study .................................... 39

  

LIST OF TABLES

  Page

Table 4.1 The Choices of the Topics and the Reading Texts ........................... 62Table 4.2 The Sample of Competency Standards and the Basic

  Competences...................................................................................... 62

Table 4.3 The Sample of the Indicators............................................................. 63Table 4.4 The Description of the Participants ................................................... 66Table 4.5 The Results of the Post-design Questionnaire .................................. 67

  

ABSTRACT

  Astuti, Reni Yuliana Kusuma. 2008. English Reading Instructional Materials

  

Based on Reciprocal Teaching Strategy for the Tenth Grade Students of SMA

STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta

  . Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University. The success of reading determines the success of learning (Nunan, 2003:

  72). Therefore, the ability of the students to gain the meaning of what is being read becomes the significant factor to determine their learning achievement. On the other hand, reciprocal teaching provides the students four skills which support their reading comprehension mastery. They are predicting, questioning, summarizing, and clarifying. Based on the research conducted by Brown and Palinscar (1984), the application of four skills of reciprocal teaching in reading class showed the improvement of comprehension mastery of the middle school students. Thus, the introduction of reciprocal teaching in our local content area needs to conduct in order to increase the students reading comprehension.

  This study was conducted to design English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA

  DUCE 1

  Yogyakarta. This study had two research questions: 1) How are English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta designed? and 2) What do English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta look like? To answer two questions above, the writer employed five steps of R & D cycle. The steps were: (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Main Product Revision.

  In order to answer the first question, the writer adapted Taba’s and Kemp’s instructional design models. The writer employed nine steps. The steps were: (1) Conducting diagnosis of needs; (2) Determining the competency standards, the basic competences, and the topics; (3) Formulating the indicators; (4) Determining and organizing the subject contents; (5) Determining and organizing the teaching- learning experiences; (6) Designing the materials; (7) Determining what to evaluate, the ways and the means of doing the evaluation; (8) Evaluating the materials; and (9) Revising the materials. Based on the result of the evaluation analysis, it was signified that the mean was 4.04 on a scale of 1-5. It is concluded that the designed materials are good and acceptable. In order to answer the second question, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials after conducting some revisions based on the feedbacks, comments, and suggestions from the post-design participants. The final version of the designed materials consists of eight units and each unit consists of three sections, that is, Before Reading, While Reading, and

  

ABSTRAK

  Astuti, Reni Yuliana Kusuma. 2008. English Reading Instructional Materials

  

Based On Reciprocal Teaching Strategy for the Tenth Grade Students of SMA

STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta

  . Yogyakarta: Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Keberhasilan membaca menentukan keberhasilan pembelajaran (Nunan,

  2003: 72). Oleh karena itu, kemampuan siswa dalam memperoleh makna bacaan menjadi faktor penting yang menentukan keberhasilan mereka dalam belajar. Di satu sisi, reciprocal teaching menyediakan empat strategi yang mendukung penguasaan pemahaman menbaca bagi siswa. Keempat strategi tersebut adalah

  predicting

  , questioning, summarizing, dan clarifying. Berdasarkan studi yang dilaksanakan oleh Brown dan Palinscar (1984), penerapan empat strategi dalam

  reciprocal teaching

  di kelas membaca menunjukkan adanya peningkatan penguasaan pemahaman bacaan pada siswa sekolah menengah. Pengenalan

  reciprocal teaching

  pada siswa di Indonesia perlu dilakukan demi meningkatkan pemahaman membaca mereka. Studi ini dilaksanakan untuk merancang materi pembelajaran reading berdasarkan strategi reciprocal teaching bagi siswa kelas sepuluh SMA STELLA

  DUCE 1

  Yogyakarta. Studi ini mengemukakan dua pertanyaan: 1) Bagaimana materi pembelajaran reading berdasarkan strategi reciprocal teaching bagi siswa kelas sepuluh SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta didesain? dan 2) Bagaimanakan bentuk materi pembelajaran reading berdasarkan strategi reciprocal teaching bagi siswa kelas sepuluh SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta? Untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan tersebut, penulis menggunakan lima langkah dari metode siklus R & D

  (Research and Development)

  . Lima langkah tersebut adalah: (1) Mengumpulkan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal dari produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan (5) Perbaikan produk utama.

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengadaptasi model pembelajaran dari Taba dan Kemp. Penulis menerapkan sembilan langkah: (1) Mengadakan diagnosis kebutuhan; (2) Menentukan standard kompetensi, kompetensi dasar, dan topik; (3) Merumuskan indicator; (4) Menentukan dan mengatur kegiatan pembelajaran; (5) Menentukan dan mengatur kegiatan belajar mengajar; (6) Merancang materi; (7) Menentukan apa yang dievaluasi, cara dan alat untuk mengevaluasi, (8) Mengevaluasi materi; dan (9) memperbaiki materi. Berdasarkan hasil dari analisa data evaluasi, diperoleh nilai rata-rata 4.04 dari skala 1-5. dari hasil tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa materi yang dirancang ini sudah baik dan dapat diterima. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, penulis menyajikan versi akhir dari materi yang dirancang berdasarkan revisi dari masukan, komentar, dan saran dari responden. Versi akhir dari materi yang dirancang terdiri dari delapan unit dan masing-masing unit terdiri dari tiga bagian, yaitu, Before Reading,

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the writer will discuss six major points. They are research

  background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and some definition of terms to help understanding this study.

A. Research Background

  Reading is one of the important skills that the students master. The success of reading determines the success of learning (Nunan, 2003: 72). Reading is complex.

  It is far beyond saying out words or citing the information from the text. As it is stated by Osman (1986: 4), the essential purpose of reading instructions is to develop the students’ ability in comprehending what they read. The ability of the students in decoding the words in the text is not sufficient for them to acquire the meaning of what they read. They have to relate new information from texts with their prior knowledge in order to construct meanings.

  According to Resnick (1987: 9-10), there are four kinds of knowledge which help the readers construct meaning from the written text. They are linguistic, topical, inference rule, and rhetorical knowledge. These four skills are interconnected each other. Linguistic knowledge helps the readers understand the structures of the sentences where it is used to connect the agent, the action, and the already known to make inference. Rhetorical knowledge facilitates the readers to construct inference. Inference rule knowledge introduces the readers the knowledge on how to draw conclusion from what they read.

  In 1980s, many educators were trying to find the appropriate strategies to develop the readers’ comprehension (Resnick, 1987). They focused their attention on cognitive strategies. Paris and Jacob (1984), cited by Resnick (1987: 24), conducted a research on the effect of using skimming, using context to guess the meaning, and note taking for the elementary students. The result showed that there were some students called skilled-readers who could increase their understanding, and some students called unskilled-readers who could not. Then, the concern moved to the way of improving the understanding of the unskilled readers. Some researchers suggested developing self-monitoring skills where the students could monitor their own comprehension achievement. Thus, Brown and Palincsar (1984) introduced a reading approach called reciprocal teaching that enables the students to develop their interpretations on the written texts. This approach establishes some strategies: predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing. Based on the research conducted by Brown and Palincsar, the application of reciprocal teaching strategies for middle-school children showed the improvement of reading comprehension of the readers even the unskilled readers (Resnick, 1987: 12).

  The existence of the skilled and unskilled readers also happens in a local context, that is SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta. In personal communication class were monotonous. The teacher asked the students to read the passage and answer the comprehension questions provided. Then, the teacher and students discussed the answers together. If the students could not find the appropriate answers for the comprehension questions provided, the teacher would supply the correct ones.

  It is important to know that the reading skill mastery is essential for the senior high school students in view of the fact that there are many information sources written in English, such as journals, textbooks, magazines, and articles. Due to the implementation of the monotonous English reading activity, it appears that the teaching of comprehension ability in the tenth grade is not developed at the optimum rate. Thus, it is hard for the students to understand the English references. Moreover, the time to practice reading comprehension skill in the classroom is limited.

  To sum up, there is an urgent need to conduct a study. It is important for the students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta to be introduced to a new approach since there are numerous handbooks written in English and the need of comprehension mastery is crucial to determine their success of learning. This study focuses on the reading area as previous researchers tried to develop.

  Furthermore, the writer tries to introduce one learning activity to facilitate the students comprehend English written texts, that is, reciprocal teaching since this approach can impart reading comprehension skills to enhance students’ chooses this approach as it is an effective means to equip the students with some basic strategies to comprehend the English written texts, namely: predicting, generating question, summarizing, and clarifying. Moreover, by applying four strategies of reciprocal teaching in the reading class, the students will learn to monitor and be responsible for their own learning. Therefore, this study mainly concerns with designing English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategies to improve students’ reading comprehension.

  The writer chooses the tenth grade of senior high school students since they need to build strong basics of English to undergo the next levels successfully.

  Moreover, they need to study English continuously in order to acquire English well.

B. Problem Formulation

  According to the problems stated in the background of the study, the formulated questions are as follow:

  1. How are English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta designed?

  2. What do English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta look like?

  STELLA DUCE 1

  Yogyakarta improve their reading comprehension. This study is limited to the development of the materials. Therefore, in order to achieve the objectives of the study, the writer introduces one reading approach that can lead the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta to better comprehension named reciprocal teaching.

  In this study, the writer would present English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy to improve the comprehension of the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta.

D. Research Objectives

  There are two main objectives proposed by this study:

  1. To develop English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta.

  2. To present English reading instructional materials based on reciprocal teaching strategy for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta.

E. Research Benefits

  This conducted study hopefully brings benefits for:

1. The senior high school students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta

  It is hoped that the designed materials help the students improve their and to be responsible for their own learning achievement. The students may also develop their reading skill not only in English area but also in other subject areas.

  2. English teachers of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta The designed materials hopefully help the teachers monitor and improve the

  English mastery of the students. This design may also be used as an input for the teachers to determine the appropriate strategies for the reading lesson. Moreover, this design can aid the students do the English reading test in the National Examination (UN) successfully. In addition, this design may help the teachers to be more creative in providing English reading materials for their students.

  3. Other researchers This study may motivate other researchers who would like to focus their study on the reading area. Moreover, the designed materials can be used as the guidance to design other reading materials for further educational level.

F. Definition of Terms

  To avoid misunderstanding, below are some definitions of terms:

1. Design

  According to Kemp (1977: 8), design is a plan which is applied in every level of education and it has three essential elements. They are objective of the learning, the activities and resources, and evaluation. In this study, design is a plan

  2. Instructional Material According to Dick and Reiser (1989:3), instructional material is a set of materials which is used to deliver instructions to the learners. In this study, instructional materials means a set of materials provided for the students where it enables the students to gain specific skills in comprehending the English reading texts.

  3. Reading Nunan (2003:68) stated reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. In other word, reading is an active process of gaining knowledge. The success of the students in reading is indicated when they have been able to gain the meaning of the reading text they face and they can get the information from it.

  4. Cognitive strategy Cognitive strategy deals with the interpretation of the written text where it is supported by the background information possessed by the readers and the way the information is organized within the text (Simanjuntak, 1998:6). In this study, cognitive strategy is a strategy which is used to assist the students to organize their thinking to search for meaning whenever they deal with any educational tasks.

  5. Reciprocal teaching read. These strategies focus on the development of the students’ self-monitoring toward their learning. Furthermore, these strategies help the students to be aware of their used strategies to comprehend the written texts.

6. The tenth grade of Senior High School Students

  The tenth grade students are the students about 15-16 years old. Grade is a school level where students gather in the group of the same ages. The writer chooses to conduct the research in the tenth grade since they need to be facilitated the foundation to gain knowledge as soon as possible since it can be used as their means for their learning processes.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE There are two major points that will be discussed in this chapter. The first is

  about the theoretical description of related theories to the study and the second point is on the theoretical framework where it will be used as the guideline in designing the materials.

A. Theoretical Description

  In this section, there are five topics to discuss. They are Curriculum Based Material Development, Instructional Design Models, Theory of Reading, Cognitive Strategy Instruction, and Reciprocal Teaching.

1. Curriculum Based Material Development

  Since this study is conducted in educational institution, the concern of this study is drawn into the curriculum. In this discussion, there are two points to consider. They are curriculum and school-based curriculum.

a. Curriculum

  Kerr, as it is stated by Smith (2000: 1), viewed curriculum as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school. These learning may take place inside or outside school and the application of the learning may involve groups or individual. From the definition, it is vivid that curriculum is a school product and the curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product, curriculum as process, and curriculum as praxis.

  As it is explained previously, there are four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice. The further explanation will be discussed as follows:

  1) Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted – content

  When viewing curriculum as a body of knowledge/ content to be transmitted, people still consider curriculum as a syllabus. Smith viewed a syllabus as a concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures (2000: 2). Furthermore, people who tend to compile a syllabus follow the traditional approach of an order of contents. When they still equate curriculum with syllabus, they limit their planning only on the contents of knowledge that they intend to transmit.

  Therefore, the main concern when approaching curriculum theory and practice on syllabus is on its contents. On the other hand, curriculum is a body of knowledge/ contents and these contents have to be transmitted to the students by the most effective way (Blenkin et al, 1992: 23).

  2) Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product

  Nowadays, the focus of describing and managing education is on its productive form since education is seen as a technical exercise. In other word, the curriculum is seen as the product of systematic study. In this approach, the stating of objectives becomes a significant factor to develop a planning. By stating clear

  According to Bobbitt (1918), education is one of the means in preparing life whereas the life itself consists of performance of specific activities. Hence, the role of curriculum is to state objectives that show abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that people need. This stating of objectives will be resulting in numerous, definite, and particularized objectives. (Smith, 2000: 3-4).

  In viewing curriculum as a product, the emphasis is on the formulation of behavioral objectives. The concern of this approach is on the outcomes of the students in the form of desired performance. As it is stated by Tyler (1949: 44), the purpose of education is to bring changes in students’ behavior. Therefore, the statement of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes on the students’ performance (Smith, 2000: 5).

3) Curriculum as process

  When viewing curriculum as process, the focus is on the interactions among teachers, students, and knowledge. As it is stated by Smith (2000: 7), curriculum is what actually happens in the number of elements in constant interaction. Stenhouse (1975: 142) said that curriculum is a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. It is far beyond covering materials or syllabus. It is a way of translating any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice. Moreover, it invites critical testing rather than acceptance. Curriculum is a matter of possibility and then it moves to be a subject of experiment. On the other hand, curriculum as involves testing. The contents and means will develop as teachers and students work together and share their thinking and, then, bring it into action. The students become the subjects of the learning since they take part actively in every session. The process curriculum brings about interpretation and meaning making. The expected outcomes in this approach are thinking and action.

4) Curriculum as praxis

  Smith (2000: 12) said that this approach is the development of the process curriculum. In this approach, the activity is situated upon the experience of both teacher and student where they share their ideas through dialogue and negotiation to solve occurred problems toward their existence and relationships. They also try to make an explicit commitment to human emancipation (Grundy, 1987: 105). The outcome of this approach is praxis: informed and committed action.

  In addition, the development of this approach depends on the dynamic interaction between action and reflection in which a curriculum is seen as an active process and planning, acting, and evaluating are related and integrated in the process (Grundy, 1978: 115). When practicing this approach, the attention is on the collective understandings and practices and on the structural questions. We need also to look for certain values especially action which is emphasized on human emancipation. There is a practice in which people share ideas about what makes for good and also its related theories. bring about certain changes toward the students performance. In this approach, curriculum is arranged to meet the desired objectives through series of experiences.

  The product approach focuses on its behavioural objectives in the planning and it becomes the foundation to determine the contents and the methods of the teaching learning processes. When determining the objectives, the planner has set series of competencies to be achieved as the results of the outcomes. As it is stated by Smith (1996: 2), competencies are series of discrete activities that the people possess the necessary skills, knowledge and understanding to engage in effectively. The competency is part of the planning and it turns into the foundation to determine the content and method. Furthermore, the competency is also used to determine the evaluation of the planning. Therefore, the product approach will be used as the guideline in designing the materials.

b. School Based Curriculum

  According to Kerr (Smith, 2000: 1), curriculum is defined as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school where the learning process can be carried on in groups or individually. Therefore, the discussion of the curriculum cannot be separated from the school role since the school is one devise to implement the curriculum. In this study, the curriculum used as the guidance in designing the materials is curriculum 2006, Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan

  

(KTSP) . One essential reason for choosing this curriculum is that this is the newest

  The discussion of the curriculum 2006 is limited to the Senior High School area since this study is conducted in a private senior high school. The private school chosen to conduct the study is SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta for the reason that this school has applied the use of the Curriculum 2006 in its teaching learning processes. As mentioned in the curriculum 2006, the senior high school students need to undergo three educational levels in order to graduate where there are some requirements to fulfill. It is stated in the curriculum 2006, for each level, the students have to achieve some standards at the end of their study and these standards are called graduate competency standards which determine the success of the students to experience the next levels. Whereas, these graduate competency standards are supported by competency standards and basic competencies which are ruled on every subject learnt at school. In order to achieve the graduate competency standards, the students have to approach the competency standards and the basic competencies which are required for each subject. On the other hand, when the students have succeeded in achieving the competency standards and the basic competencies of each subject, they have succeeded in achieving the graduate competency standards.

  Since this study mainly concerns in English reading skill, the discussion will be limited to the discussion of the graduate competency standards of English lesson especially for the tenth grade students. Moreover, the competency standards

2. Instructional Design Model

  In this research, there are two instructional designs to discuss. The writer employs Taba’s and Kemp’s models in order to answer the questions presented in the previous chapter. The models of Taba’s and Kemp’s designs are explained as follows:

a. The Nature of Taba’s Model

  Taba (1962: 12) offers planning in which it is suited to view curriculum as product. The main concern of this planning is on the students’ outcomes; therefore, the stating of objectives becomes the main focus of the planning. There are seven stages in this planning. The explanation is as follows:

1) Diagnosis of Needs

  The function of diagnosis of needs is to analyze the problems, the conditions, and the difficulties of the students as they come from different background of knowledge. Furthermore, the diagnosis of needs is conducted by drawing together the existing knowledge with the new information to get the new improvement for the new approach. In this study, the data analysis results are used to design the suitable reading instructional materials for the tenth grade students of SMA STELLA DUCE 1 Yogyakarta.

2) Formulation of Objectives

  The formulation of specific objectives is determined by the results of the needs analysis since it will give clear direction to which aspects to emphasize and from the general objectives of the school. determine which aspects to put emphasis on. This stage encompasses three steps. The first step is the selection of topics. The second step is the selection of basic ideas. The last step is the selection of specific content. 4) Organizing of Content

  The aim of organizing the content is to arrange the content according to the feasible learning sequence. The topics, the basic ideas, and the specific contents should be arranged from the known to unknown, from the concrete to the abstract, or from the easy to the difficult.

  5) Selection of Learning Experiences The important rule in selecting the learning experiences is that each learning experience should provide some definite functions. Therefore, it is important to visualize what the students need to do or experience in order to achieve some behavioural competencies and what the order of these experiences should be.

  Furthermore, the success of the students achieving the objective depends on the learning experiences which are used in the study.

  6) Organizing of Learning Experiences The next stage to conduct is to organize the learning experiences. The most important point in organizing learning experiences is that it follows a sequence to create continuous and accumulative learning. This learning sequence should include the generalization and abstraction, the development of central ideas, and the appropriate steps to attain concepts and attitudes. components is important to do in order to correct some errors which may occur. Furthermore, it can be used to re-examine the total plan to see that there are no serious inconsistencies among the components. The results of the evaluation can be used to revise and make improvement on the designed materials. By establishing the suitable means of evaluation, the designer may design appropriate reading materials in this study.

  The seven steps of Taba’s design model are as follows: Diagnosis of need

  Formulation of objectives Selection of content

  Organization of content Selection of learning experiences

  Organization of learning experiences Determination of what to evaluate and of what ways and means of doing it The seven steps above derive from the way of approaching curriculum theory and practice. The choice of the sequences is organized and systematic where the focus of the instruction is on the formulation of the objectives. Furthermore, the determination of objectives may promote the outcomes of the students and support the formulation of the contents, the method of teaching, and the evaluation.