Task-based english speaking instructional materials for the students of management major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta - USD Repository
TASK-BASED ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE STUDENTS OF MANAGEMENT MAJOR OF DUTA WACANA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
TASK-BASED ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE STUDENTS OF MANAGEMENT MAJOR OF DUTA WACANA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
TASK-BASED ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR
THE STUDENTS OF MANAGEMENT MAJOR
OF DUTA WACANA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
Prepared and Presented by Ria Franciska
Students Number: 031214031 Approved by
TASK-BASED ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR
THE STUDENTS OF MANAGEMENT MAJOR
OF DUTA WACANA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
By RIA FRANCISKA
Students Number: 031214031 Defended before the Board of Examiners on June 25, 2008 and Declared Acceptable
Board of Examiners
Chair Person: A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A. _______________ Secretary : Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd. _______________ Member : Y. Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum. _______________ Member : F.X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. _______________ Member : Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd., M.Hum. _______________
IT'S UP TO YOU
One song can spark a moment One moment can wake the dream, One tree can start a forest, One bird can herald spring,
One smile begins a friendship, One handclasp lifts a soul, One star can guide a ship at sea, One word can frame the goal,
One vote can frame the nation, One sunbeam lights a room, One candle wipes out darkness, One laugh will conquer gloom,
One step must start each journey, One word must start each prayer, One hope will raise our spirits, One touch can show you care,
One voice can speak with wisdom, One heart can know what's true, One life can make the difference, You See, It's Up To You!!!
STATEMENTS OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that the thesis, which I wrote, does not contain the works or part of works of other people, except those cited in the quotations and references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, June 3, 2008 The writer
Ria Franciska 031214031
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sana Dharma: Nama : Ria Franciska Nomor Mahasiswa : 031214031
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
TASK-BASED ENGLISH SPEAKING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR THE STUDENTS OF MANAGEMENT MAJOR OF DUTA WACANA
UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to give my greatest gratitude to my Lord, Jesus Christ, for His endless love, blessings, and grace. I thank Him for always being by my side, giving me strength and guiding me throughout my life.
My deepest gratitude is addressed for my major sponsor, Y. Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum. and my co-sponsor, F.X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. for their kindness and willingness to help me in writing this thesis. I believe that I would have not been able to finish this thesis without their guidance, supports, and patience.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved father for always motivating and supporting me both of spiritually and financially. I would like to thank David for supporting me when I was down, encouraging me, and accompanying me almost all the time. I thank my cute brother, Kevin, because he always supports me, cheers me up, and makes me happy.
I sincerely thank all of the respondents of my survey research. Their opinions, suggestions, evaluation, and feedback are very precious for me. My
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................ i
................................................................................ ii
PAGE OF APPROVAL
PAGE OF DEDICATION ............................................................................ iv
.............................................. v
STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY
ACKNOWLEDMENTS ............................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. viii
........................................................................................ xii
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... xiii
.............................................................................. xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... xv
ABSTRAK....................................................................................................... xvi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background .......................................................................
1
Page b. The Definition of ESP ..............................................
8 c. The Criteria of ESP ..................................................
8 d. Categorization ..........................................................
9 2. Task-Based......................................................................
10 a. Defining Task ...........................................................
10 b. The Roles of the Learners .........................................
11 c. The Roles of the Teacher ..........................................
11
d. The Characteristic of the Teaching-Learning Processes ..................................................................
12 e. Language Use in the Tasks ......................................
13 f. Types of Task ...........................................................
13 g. The Teacher’s Respond to the Students’ Errors .......
15 h. The Accomplishment of Evaluation .........................
15 3. Speaking .........................................................................
16
Page
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method .................................................................
28 B. Research Participants ............................................................
29 1. Participants of the Pre-Design Survey ..........................
29 2. Participants of the Post-Design Survey ..........................
29 C. Research Instruments ...........................................................
30 1. Questionnaires ................................................................
30 2. Interview ........................................................................
31 D. Data Gathering Technique ...................................................
31 a. Data Gathering Technique of the Pre-Design Survey ....
31 b. Data Gathering Technique of the Post-Design Survey ..
31 E. Data Analysis Technique .....................................................
32 a. Data Analysis of the Pre-Design Survey .......................
32 b. Data Analysis of the Post-Design Survey .....................
32 F. Research Procedures ...........................................................
34 1. Finding Research Problem ............................................
34
Page a. The Participants of the Pre-Design Survey ..............
37 b. The Data of the Pre-Design Survey .........................
37 2. Deciding Goals, Topics, and General Purposes .............
41 3. Specifying the Learning Objectives ...............................
42 4. Selecting Syllabus Type .................................................
44 5. Listing the Subject Content ............................................
44 a. Pre-task .....................................................................
44 b. Task Cycle ................................................................
44 c. Language Focus .......................................................
45 6. Selecting Teaching-Learning Activities .........................
45 7. Evaluating the Designed Materials ................................
45 a. Participants of the Post-Design Survey ....................
46 b. The Data of the Post- Design Survey .......................
46
c. Participants’ Comments and Suggestions on the Designed Material ....................................................
47 8. Revising the Designed Materials ...................................
48 B. The Discussion on the Designed Materials ..........................
48
Page
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 : The description of Participants of the Pre-Design Survey ............. 29Table 3.2 : The Description of Participants of the Post-Design Survey .......... 30Table 3.3 : The Analyzed Data of the Pre-Design Survey ............................... 32Table 3.4 : The Analyzed Data from the Post-Design Survey ......................... 32Table 4.1 : The Description of Participants of the Pre-Design Survey ............ 37Table 4.2 : The Results of the Pre-Design Survey (Questions no. 1-5) ........... 37Table 4.3 : The Result of the Pre-Design Survey (Questions no. 6-8) ............. 38Table 4.4 : The Result of the Pre-Design Survey (Question no. 9) .................. 39Table 4.5 : The Result of the Pre-Design Survey (Question no. 10) ............... 39Table 4.6 : The Result of the Pre-Design Survey (Questions no. 11) .............. 40Table 4.7 : The Result of the Pre-Design Survey (Questions no. 12) ............. 40Table 4.8 : The Basic Competencies ................................................................ 42Table 4.9 : The Learning Objectives/ Achievement Indicators ...................... 42LIST OF FIGURES
Page Figure 2.1: The Branch of English Language Teaching .................................... 10 Figure 2.2: The Yalden’s Instructional Design Model ....................................... 22 Figure 2.3: The Kemp’s Model .......................................................................... 23 Figure 2.4: Steps in Designing the Materials ...................................................... 27
Page
LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Pre-Design Survey Questionnaire ...........................................
58 Appendix B Post-Design Survey Questionnaire .........................................
60 Appendix C General Description of the Materials ......................................
64 Appendix D Syllabus ....................................................................................
67 Appendix E Students’ Handout ...................................................................
81 Appendix F Teacher’s Manuals .................................................................. 135
ABSTRACT
Franciska, Ria.2008. Task-based English Speaking Instructional Materials for the
Students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta . Yogyakarta:
English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.This study was aimed to design a set of English speaking instructional materials for the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University
Yogyakarta using Task-based Learning. There were two problems discussed in this
study. The first problem dealt with how a set of English speaking instructional materials for the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University
Yogyakarta is designed. The second problem dealt with what the designed materials
look like.The research method employed in this study was Research and Development (R&D). There are ten steps in the R&D. The writer only applied the first five steps of the R&D steps. They were research and information collecting, planning, developing preliminary form of product, preliminary field testing, and main product revision.
In order to answer the first problem, the writer adapted Yalden’s and Kemp’s instructional design models. There were eight steps conducted by the writer: 1) conducting a needs analysis, 2) deciding goals, topics, and general purposes, 3) specifying the learning objectives, 4) selecting syllabus type, 5) listing the subject content, 6) selecting teaching-learning activities, 7) evaluating the designed materials, and 8) revising the designed materials. These eight steps reflected the first five steps of the R&D steps above.
In order to answer the second problem, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials. The designed materials consist of eight units. They are
Making and Receiving Telephone Calls, Making a Deal, Buying and Selling,
Handling Complaints, Having an Overseas Business Trip, Presenting Products,
ABSTRAK
Franciska, Ria.2008. Task-based English Speaking Instructional Materials for the
Students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta . Yogyakarta:
English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.Studi ini bertujuan untuk merancang seperangkat materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris untuk mahasiswa Program Studi Manajemen Universitas Duta Wacana Yogyakarta menggunakan Task-based Learning. Ada dua permasalahan yang dibahas dalam studi ini. Permasalahan yang pertama adalah bagaimanakah seperangkat materi pelajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris untuk mahasiswa Program Studi Manajemen Universitas Duta Wacana Yogyakarta dengan menggunakan Task-
based Learning dirancang. Permasalahan yang kedua adalah seperti apakah
rancangan materi tersebut.Metode penelitian yang dipakai dalam studi ini adalah Research and Development (R&D). Terdapat sepuluh langkah dalam R&D. Penulis hanya menerapkan lima langkah pertama. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, perencanan, pengembangan produk awal, pengujian awal, pelaksanaan revisi produk utama.
Untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama, penulis mangadapatasi model instruksional Yalden dan Kemp. Ada delapan langkah yang diterapkan oleh penulis, yaitu: 1) melaksanakan analisis kebutuhan, 2) merumuskan tujuan dan topik, 3) membuat spesifikasi tujuan pembelajaran, 4) mengembangkan silabus, 5) mengembangkan isi materi, 6) menyeleksi aktivitas belajar mengajar, 7) mengevaluasi materi, dan 8) memperbaiki materi.
Untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua, penulis mempersembahkan versi akhir dari rancangan materi. Rancangan materi tersebut terdiri dari delapan unit. Unit-unit tersebut adalah Making and Receiving Telephone Calls, Making a Deal, Buying and
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the introduction of this study. This covers the
background of the study, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
The globalization demands a better quality of English since many working fields involve people from other nations. It is essential that Indonesia as one of developed countries starts to socialize English early to its society. English is needed in order to compete with other countries and to survive in this globalization era.
Based on the needs of learning, English is divided into two kinds; they are English for general purposes and English for specific purposes. “English for general purposes is English whose contents and aims are given in general ways. English for
2 doctors who needed to keep up with the developments in their fields and a whole range of students whose course of study included textbook and journal only available in English”, the study of English for particular reason connected with people’s studies or their job. They realize that English is meaningful to support their ability in field of work. One of them is the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta.
As stated before, within the upsurge of globalization waves, it cannot be denied that many companies dealing with international business have no choice but to acquire human resources with the ability to communicate in English. The students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta are closely connected to the business and economic world. Their management skill should be supported by English mastery if they want to get a good job.
The writer conducts a study which is aimed at designing English speaking instructional materials for students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta because their speaking ability is still weak and they do not
3 freely. They are given a lot of chances to say what they think or feel by using whatever words and phrases in the target language without any afraid of making mistakes since task-based learning more emphasizes the meaning than the form.
B. Problem Formulation
In this study, the two problems are formulated as follows:
1. How is a set of English speaking instructional materials for the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta designed?
2. What do the designed materials look like?
C. Problem Limitation
This study is limited to the discussion on the material development and it is not meant to be developed into experimental research. The design focuses on the development of speaking instructional materials for the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta by using Task-based.
4 E. Research Benefits The result of this study should be beneficial for:
1. The students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta
The result of this study hopefully may function as a source of English speaking instructional materials for the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta to deepen their understanding of some communicative functions and to improve their abilities to use the language expression appropriately.
2. English Teachers
This study hopefully may useful for the English teachers who will conduct an English training for the students of Management Major. This study may provide them with English speaking instructional materials that fulfill the learners’ needs, so that, by using these materials, the teachers could use their teaching time effectively.
3. Other Researchers
This study is expected to be useful for the other researchers to get more knowledge about how to design and how to develop the appropriate speaking
5 the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learners” (Hutchinson and Water, 1994). In this study, designing refers to creating a set of English speaking materials that fit the needs of the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University Yogyakarta.
2. Instructional Materials
Dick and Reiser define that “instructional materials are materials planned by the teacher for instruction” (Dick and Reiser, 1989:3). In this study they are meant as a set of materials which are planed by designers, to be used by the teachers and learners as the focus of the discussion in the teaching learning process in order to achieve the objectives.
3. Speaking
Widdowson (1979: 58) says that “speaking is a kind of active and productive interaction that makes us use aural mediums”. Aural mediums are mouth, lips, tongue, and other oral cavities. Widdowson also emphasizes face-to-face interaction including dialogue or other forms of verbal exchange as a fact of communication. If people use non-verbal language in face-to-face interaction, then it is not speaking. In
6
5. Task-based Learning
Skehan (1998: 95) defines task as: an activity in which meaning is primary: there is a communicative problem to solve; there is some sort of relationship to compatible real-world activities; task completion has some priority; and the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome. “Task-based provides the learners with a natural context for language use. Task-based learning is not just about getting learners to do one task and then another task and then another. If that were the case, learners would probably expert at doing tasks, but they wouldn’t be able to communicate fluently” (Willis, 1996:40). As Willis (1996:40) states, “the task cycle offers learners the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve that language, under teacher guidance, while planning their reports of the tasks”.
The teaching techniques required for task-based learning are not very different to those of ordinary mainstream language teaching. The differences lie in the ordering and weighting of activities and at the fact that there is a greater amount of student activity, and less direct, up-front teaching (Willis, 1996: 40).
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter discusses the theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description discusses of some descriptions of the theories related to
this study. The theoretical framework concerns with the theories discussed in the descriptions used by the writer in this study.
A. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION
1. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
a. The Origin
It is believed that ESP grew as a phenomenon out of a number of converging trends. There are three mains reasons of the increasing growth of ESP (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:6). Those reasons will be discussed briefly below:
1) The demands of a Brave New World
“There was an expansion in scientific, technical, and economic activity on an international scale. This expansion called a world unified and dominated by two
8
3.) Focus on the learner
“New development in educational psychology also contributes to the rise of ESP, by emphasizing the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners were seen to have different needs and interest, which would have an importance of their learning” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:8).
All three factors seemed to point towards the need for increased specialization in language learning.
b. The Definition of ESP
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 21) define that “ESP is an approach to language teaching, which aims to meet the needs of particular learners.” ‘This means in practice that much of the work done by ESP teachers is concerned with designing appropriate courses for various groups of learners’. ‘To create successful performance, ESP design should be based on the learners’ need to develop particular English course, which later can determine the kind of syllabus and material instruction’. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:18) show the definition of ESP as:
First, ESP is not a matter of teaching “specialized varieties” of English. The fact that language is used for specific purpose does not imply that it is not a
9
d. Categorization
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16-17), ‘the categorization of ESP is according to whether the learner requires English for academic study or for work and based on the general nature of the learners’ purpose and specific needs or specialization’.
There are two main types of ESP differentiated according to whether the learner requires English for academic study or for work. The first type is English for Academic Purposes (EAP).The examples of EAP are English for Medical Studies, English for Economics, and English for Psychology. The second type is English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). EOP is also known as English for Vocational Purposes (EVP), and Vocational English as a Second Language (VESL). The examples of EOP are English for Technician, English for Secretaries, and English for Teaching.
There are three large categories identified based on the general nature of the
Figure 2.1: The Branch of English Language Teaching, taken from ESP
by Hutchinson and Waters (1987:17)
English for Teaching English for Medical
Studies English for Technician English for
Economics English for Secretaries English for
Psychology English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) EAP
EOP EOP EAP English for Science and Technology (EST)
English for
Business and
Economics
(EBE)
English for Social Sciences (ESS) English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) General English (GE)
English Language Teaching (ELT) English as a
Second Language (ESL) English as a Mother Tongue
(EMT)
10
2. Task-Based
11 based are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.
b. The Roles of the Learners
Richard and Rodgers (2001: 235) state that there are three roles for learners in Task-based Learning. The first role is the learners as group participants. Many tasks will be done in pairs or small groups therefore the learners play a role as group participants. The second role is the learners as monitors. The learners should notice how language is used in communication. The third role is the learners as risk-takers and innovators. “The learners will be required to create and interpret message for which they lack full linguistics resources and prior experience. The skills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification, and consulting with other learners may also need to be developed” (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 235).
c. The Roles of the Teacher
The central role of the teacher is as the selector and sequencer of tasks. “The teacher selects, adapts, and/or creates the tasks themselves and then form these into
12
d. The Characteristic of the Teaching-Learning Processes
The class activities have an explicit purpose and a clear outcome. They are goal oriented. The emphasis is on understanding and conveying meanings in order to complete the task successfully. “While learners are doing tasks, they are using language in meaningful way” (Willis, 1996:24). According to Willis (Willis, 1996:40) the activities are divided into three phases:
1) Pre-task
In the pre-task, the teacher will introduce the topic and define the topic and tasks to the learners, present what the students are going to do in the task phase, provide the students with key vocabulary or grammatical constructs. The teacher may also present a model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task. In short, in this phase, the teacher brainstorm the topic to the students in order to make they think clearly and sensibly.
2) Task Cycle
“In the task cycle phase, the learners have a chance to use whatever language
13 activities are planned to be done in pairs or group because it has a number of advantages. It gives learners confidence to try out whatever language they know, or think they know, in pairs or small groups without fear of being wrong or being corrected in front of the class. Besides, it gives learners experience of spontaneous interaction while listening to what is being said. It also gives all learners a chance to notice how others express similar meanings.
e. Language Use in the Tasks
The language which used in spoken and written is different. Willis (1966: 32) states that “when speaking spontaneously, we compose in real time and often resort to lexical phrases, rather than building complete sentences word by word.” It follows that in task-based, the learners should not expected to speak in full sentences when doing tasks in small group.
f. Types of Task
Willis 1996:26-28 categorizes six types of tasks. The first is listing. This task tends to make the learners produce a lot of talks while explaining their ideas. “The
14 actually similar but from different sources or version. They have to identify the common points or the differences. “The processes in the comparing task are matching to identify the specific points and relate them to each other, finding the similarities and things in common and finding the differences” (Willis, 1996:27).
The fourth is problem solving. Willis (996:27) explains: Problem-solving task made demands upon people’s intellectual and reasoning powers, and, though challenging, they are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The real life problems involve expressing hypotheses, describing experiences, comparing alternatives and evaluating, and agreeing on solutions. The process and the time will vary depending on the type and complexity of the problem. The fifth is sharing personal experiences. This task encourages learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. The result of this task is casual social conversation. The last is creative tasks. These tasks are often called project and involve pairs or groups of learners in some kind of free creative work. They have stages than other tasks, and can involve combination of task types: listing, ordering, and sorting, comparing, and problem solving. Doing
15 contains. They then discuss how it all fits together. “The final product is either the reassembled text or a new piece containing the synthesized information written by the group or presented orally” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:234). The second is information-gap task. In this task one student or groups of students has one set of information and another student or group has a complementary set of information. In order to complete an activity they must negotiate and find out what the other’s student information is. The third is problem solving task. Here, the students are given a problem and a set of information. They must find the best solution to the problem. There is only one resolution of the outcome. The fourth task is decision–making task. In this task the students are given a problem which has a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion. It makes the students think critically and cooperatively to find the best solution. The last task is opinion-exchange task. Learners will be encouraged to discuss and exchange the ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Each of them just should tell what their
16
3. Speaking
Speaking is the concern of this study, therefore the writer assure that the theory of speaking must be discussed here.
a. The Characteristics of Successful Speaking Activities
According to Ur (1996:120), there are some characteristics of successful speaking activities. The first characteristic is learners talk a lot. Bushman (1986:25) states that the general purpose for speech study in English class is to develop learners who can participate satisfactorily in everyday situations that demands oral work.
Therefore, the teacher should give many opportunities for the students to speak in the speaking class. The teacher should provide the speaking activities which encourage the students to talk a lot. The class is dominated by students’ talk not by teacher’s talk.
The second one is participation is even. The classroom discussion is not dominated by talk active students. All of the students must have the same
17
b. The Problems Occur in Speaking Activities
Ur (1996:121) states that there are four problems in speaking activities. The first one is inhibition. The speaking activities require some degree of real-time exposure to an audience. The learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom. They are often afraid of making mistake. They feel shy to speak. They are also afraid of criticism. The second is nothing to say. The learners cannot think anything to say. The third is low or uneven participant. The students get a very little talking time or none at all. This happens because some students dominate the class. The fourth is the mother- tongue use. The students often use the mother tongue in the classroom rather than the target language, especially when most of them share the same mother tongue. They tend to use the mother tongue because it is easier than the target language.
c. The Solutions of Speaking Problems
Ur (1996:122) offers some solutions to overcome the problems in speaking activities. The first solution is use group work. The use of group work lowers the
18 are not suitable and interesting will make the students unable to perform well and will make the students uninterested and get bored”.
The forth is give some instructions or training in discussion skills. The teacher should give clear instruction to the learners before doing the activities. It is important to make sure that the learners understand the activity and know what they have to do in the activity.
The last one is keep the students speaking in the target language. The best way to keep the learners speaking in the target language can be done simply by the teacher. The teacher must speak the target language as much as possible, reminding the students and modeling the language use him/herself.
4. Instructional Design Models
Instructional design is an integral part of instructional program design. As state by Gagne and Briggs (1979: 3), “instructional is a set of event, which affects learners in such a way that learning is facilitated”. Choosing the appropriate design
19 There are two models of instructional material designs that are discussed.
They are chosen because their models support this study and easier to understand.
a. Yalden’s Model Yalden (1987:88) proposes eight stages in a language program development.
The first stage is the needs survey. “When needs survey is being undertaken, there is a potential great deal of information to be gathered. The information includes communication requirement, personnel needs and motivations, and relevant characteristics of learners as well as those of their partners for learning” (Yalden, 1987:88). According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:54), there are two elements in needs analysis; target needs and learning needs. Hutchinson and Waters define target needs as what the learner needs to do in the target situation. The target needs include necessities, lacks, and wants. Necessities is “the type of need determined by the demands of the target situation, that is, what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation”, Hutchinson and Waters (1987:55).
Lacks, according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:56) is the gap between the target
20 said that understanding the learners’ purpose will guide the teacher to design the instructional materials that is suitable in learners’ field.
The third stage is selection/ development of syllabus type. “A syllabus is defined as a document or statement of what will (or at least what should) be learned and taught” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994: 80). Yalden (1987: 108) describes the syllabus as an instrument by which the teacher can achieve a degree between the needs and aims of the learners and activities that will take place in the classroom. “Syllabus is very crucial for teachers because syllabus is a plan of work used by a teacher as a guideline for teaching content” (Robinson, 1991: 35). Besides, a syllabus gives the teacher idea of what the course will be and to what direction it should be brought and done. Yalden (1987: 114) proposes a communicative syllabus which consists of six types. The first type is structural-functional syllabus. This type maintains a separation of forms and communicative function. It suggests that the linguistics forms precede the communicative functions. The second type is structure and function syllabus. It enables the learners to study the linguistics forms and
21 fully communicative syllabus. It is also called a learner-generated syllabus. The learners can be called as the source of input.
The fourth stage is production of a proto syllabus. Selection and combination of contents are conducted according to the type of syllabus. The description of language and language use will be covered in this program. “The teacher has to start mapping out the syllabus content, which is usually inventing a list of topics and functions. The result of mapping out will serve as the guidelines for the teacher in preparing and compiling the syllabus for the learners easier” (Yalden, 1987: 139).
The fifth stage is production of a pedagogical syllabus. “The pedagogical syllabus provides a repertoire of words and phrases chosen as exponents of function and suitable to the topics identified as important to the learners” (Yalden, 1987: 144).
The sixth stage is the development and implementation of classroom procedure. The communicative syllabus brings a significant change in the teachers’ role. The teachers should regard themselves as a facilitator than a leader. The classroom procedures, therefore, are conducted based on the learners’ activities
22 The last stage is the recycling. It is intended to determine the harmony between goal set and students’ performance to reassess the content and to revise the materials and the methodological procedures used in the course.
These stages are presented in the following figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: The Yalden’s Instructional Design Model (1987:88)
Needs Description Selection/ Production Production Development and Evaluation
Survey of Development of a of a Implementation of Proto Pedagogical of Classroom PurposesSyllabus Type Syllabus Syllabus Procedures
b. Kemp’s Model
Kemp (1977:4) says that instructional design plan is important since it will help the instructional designer get familiar with the design. Kemp’s instructional design model is offered to supply answers to the three questions. The questions are what must be learned, what procedures and resources will work best to reach the designed learning levels (activities and resources), and how will we know when he
23 objectives must be unambiguous and measurable. The fourth step is listing the subject content in order to clarify the learning objectives since subject contents support the objectives.
The fifth step is developing pre-assessment which plays the same role with criterion reference test which purpose is to determine students’ present level of knowledge. The sixth step is selecting teaching and learning activities and instructional resources. The activities and resources help the students to accomplish the learning objectives through the subject content. The seventh step is supporting services such as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules should be coordinated in order to put the instructional materials into effect. The last step is giving evaluation to the students toward their accomplishment of objectives, which lead the instructional material designer to revise any phrases of the plan that need improvement.
Kemp’s model has flexible process since it allows the designer to start from any elements and move back to any steps.
Figure 2.3: The Kemp’s Model
24 B. THEORICAL FRAMEWORK Based on the general nature of the learners’ purpose and specific needs or specialization, ESP can be categorized to three branches; English for Science and
Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE), and the last is English for the Social Sciences (ESS). This categorization is made based on the assumption that people can work and study simultaneously, and it is also possible that the language learnt for intermediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to a job. Task-based English Speaking Instructional Materials for the Students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University belongs to the second category of ESP, English for Business and Economics (EBE) since the students of Management Major of Duta Wacana University learn the language for intermediate use in a study environment will be used later when the students enter the work field.
The writer uses the speaking theory proposed by Ur (1996) because Ur provides clear explanations about the characteristics of the successful speaking
25 personal needs and motivations, level proficiency, and their education background can be obtained through needs analysis. This needs analysis is conducted using questionnaires and interviews. The second step is deciding goal, topics, and general purposes. It is adapted from Kemp’s model. It describes the requirements of ability the students are supposed to have, so that both of the teacher and students will know how the learning- teaching processes will be and how the progression has done. The third step is specifying the learning objectives. It is taken from Kemp’s model. The aim is to specify the learning objectives on each topic to be achieved in terms of measurable of students’ behavior outcomes. The fourth step is selecting syllabus type. It is adapted from Yalden’s model. Yalden (1987: 114) proposes a communicative syllabus which consists of six types. Here, the writer uses the functional syllabus because the objective that is stated in this type of syllabus is in term of communicative function. The linguistics form, however, are not abandoned.
The fifth step is listing the subject content. This step is adapted from Kemp’s model.
26 natural language use. The seventh is evaluating the designed materials. This step is adapted from Yalden’s and Kemp’s model. It is done in order to get feedback, suggestions, criticism on the designed materials by distributing questionnaires to some of the lecturers of English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University and some lecturers of Management Major of Duta Wacana University.
The last step is revising the designed materials. It is purposed to revise and improve the developed materials after having feedback from the respondents in order to produce the final version which is more complete and better and for the students.
Learning methodology is evidently important for learners to acquire the target language. Task-based Learning (TBL) is a method of instruction in the field of language aquicition. It focuses on the use of authentic tasks using the target language, such as conducting an interview, calling customer services for help, and presenting product. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (ie: the appropriate completion of tasks) rather than simply accuracy of language forms. This
Figure 2.4: Steps in Designing the Materials Conducting a needs analysis Deciding goal, topics, and general purposes
Specifying the learning objectives
Selecting syllabus type
Listing the subject content Selecting teaching-learning activities
27
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY In this chapter, the writer would like to discuss the methodology used in this
study. This study involves research method which deals with the method carried out by the writer, research participants, research instruments, data gathering techniques, data analysis, and research procedures.
A. Research Method
This research is a Research and Development (R&D). According to Borg (1963: 772), R&D is a process used to develop and validate educational products.