A set of content-based english instructional materials for junior level of bright education center Yogyakarta - USD Repository

  

A SET OF CONTENT-BASED ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

FOR JUNIOR LEVEL OF BRIGHT EDUCATION CENTER YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By

  

A SET OF CONTENT-BASED ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

FOR JUNIOR LEVEL OF BRIGHT EDUCATION CENTER YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  Helen Keller (1880 - 1968)

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Most of all, I would like to give my praise and greatest gratitude to Jesus

  

Christ, who always stays awake and accompanies me during my study at Sanata

  Dharma University, both in my ups and my downs. My gratefulness is worth giving to Mother Mary, to whom I go whenever I feel burdened.

  My sincere gratitude also goes to my beloved father and mother, Agustinus

  

Sahid and Lucia Marwati, who have given me financial support, love,

  encouragement, and prayer. Also, I would like to express my appreciation to my sisters, mbak Vera, her husband, mas Susilo, my younger sister Monic and Putri for all their support, love; kindness and warmth. My greatest thank goes to my sweetheart, Laurensia Andina Atika Wardani, who always encourages and helps me to accomplish my thesis. Her love, care, and smile mean a lot for me.

  I am greatly indebted to Pius Nurwidasa my former sponsor, for giving me attention, suggestions, guidance, and motivation during the constructing process

  

Mr. Purwanto and Miss Agatha. Their willingness and support encourage me so

  much to the accomplishment of my thesis. I owe a debt of gratitude to all the junior level students of BEC for spending time to give me precious data.

  My gratefulness goes to my Ex-Seminari friends, especially Wiwid, Ardi,

  

Dani Winantoro, Bangun, Febri, Andri, Toni, Lukas, Jempol, Yuli, Kebo,

Jampes, my friends of PBI ’03, especially Dame, Ipad, Ozzie, Nina, Lukas,

Iyas, Mirta, Bayu, Bagong, Q-yer, Gabo, Ratri, Puntet, Neti, Melanie, Timur,

Nita, Fifi, Ayu, Yessi, Emil, Titin, Suki for friendship, discussion, joy, and

  support we have ever had.

  God bless them all.

  Joh. Baptis Satrio Nugroho

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL PAGES ....................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION PAGE ....................................................................................... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .............................................. v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ............................ vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. ix

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................. xv

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... xvi

ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xvii

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ................................................................................ 1

  b. Yalden’s Model ..................................................................................... 13

  2. School-Based Curriculum 2006.................................................................. 17

  a. The Nature of English Language Based on School-Based Curriculum . 17

  b. The Goals of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-Based Curriculum...................................................................... 18

  c. The Scopes of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-Based Curriculum...................................................................... 18

  d. Standard Competencies and Basic Competencies for Elementary Level of School-Based Curriculum .................................... 19

  3. Theory of Children’s Cognitive Development ........................................... 20

  a. Sensorimotor Stage................................................................................. 21

  b. Preoperational Thinking Stage ............................................................... 21

  c. Concrete Operation Stage ....................................................................... 21

  d. Formal Operation Stage ......................................................................... 22

  4. Content-Based Instruction ......................................................................... 24

  a. Definition and Rationale of CBI ............................................................ 24

  b. Principles of CBI .................................................................................... 26

  c. Theme-Based Model .............................................................................. 34

  d. Sheltered Model ..................................................................................... 34

  e. Adjunct Model ........................................................................................ 34

  6. Theme-Based Model ................................................................................... 35

  a. Definition and Features of Theme-Based Model ................................... 35

  b. Implication for Theme-Based Model ..................................................... 36

  7. English Skills .............................................................................................. 36

  a. Listening Skill ........................................................................................ 37

  b. Speaking Skill ........................................................................................ 40

  c. Reading Skill .......................................................................................... 43

  d. Writing Skill ........................................................................................... 46

  B. Theoretical Framework .................................................................................. 47

  CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Method ........................................................................................................... 53 B. Participants of the Study ................................................................................. 55 C. Setting ............................................................................................................. 56 D. Research Instruments ..................................................................................... 56

  3. Formulating Objectives ............................................................................. 71

  4. Selecting and Organizing Contents ........................................................... 73

  5. Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Resources ............................ 74

  6. Designing Materials .................................................................................. 74

  7. Materials Evaluation ................................................................................. 75

  8. Revision .................................................................................................... 77

  B. The Presentation of the Final Design ............................................................ 77

  CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions .................................................................................................. 83 B. Suggestions .................................................................................................. 86

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 88

  

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 SBC Standard and Basic Competencies of Elementary Level ............ 19Table 2.2 Capabilities of Young Language Learner in Age 10-12

  Years Old ............................................................................................ 23

Table 2.3 Teachers’ Roles in CBI ...................................................................... 31Table 3.1 Participants of the Post-Design Survey Study .................................... 56Table 4.1 The Results of the Questionnaire for Students .................................. 65Table 4.2 The Result of Document Analysis ...................................................... 70Table 4.3 Description of Goals, Themes, and General Purposes ........................ 71Table 4.4 The Objectives of the Course .............................................................. 72Table 4.5 The Result of Evaluation Survey ........................................................ 75

  

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ................................................. 13Figure 2.2 Language Program Development of Yalden ..................................... 16Figure 2.3 Content Based Language Teaching: A Continuum of

  Content and Language Integration .................................................... 35

Figure 2.4 The Writer’s Instructional Design Model .......................................... 52

  

LIST OF APPENDICES

  Appendix A : Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ............................................. 90 Appendix B : Surat Keterangan........................................................................ 91 Appendix C : Questionnaire for Students ........................................................ 92 Appendix D : Interview Transcription ............................................................. 94 Appendix E : Document Analysis Checklist .................................................... 99 Appendix F : Evaluation Questionnaire ........................................................... 101 Appendix G : The Syllabus .............................................................................. 103 Appendix H : The Designed Materials .............................................................. 119

  ABSTRACT

  Nugroho, Joh. Baptis Satrio (2008). A Set of Content-Based English Instructional

  

Material for Junior Level of Bright Education Center Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta:

  English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.

  The Content-Based Instruction (CBI) approach has grown into the current world trend in English teaching-learning activities because of its benefits. Some of the benefits are raising students’ motivation, exposing students to authentic language and content discussion, improving interpersonal interaction, and growing all English skills simultaneously. It enables the English teaching-learning activity to have twofold values, not only learning the language itself, but also developing the students’ knowledge on the subject matter discussed.

  This study attempted to design the integrated-skills instructional material, which is the Content-Based Approach applied to Junior level students of Bright Education Center (BEC). There were two problems addressed: 1) how a set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the junior level students of the Bright Education Center is designed, and 2) what the set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the junior level students of the Bright Education Center looks like.

  The writer employed Research and Development Method (R & D Method) which consisted of ten steps. In the study, the writer only employed the first five steps of R & D Method. Those steps were (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) develop preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field- testing, and (5) main product revision.

  To answer the first question, the writer applied eight stages of instructional design model, which were adapted from Kemp’s and Yalden’s models. The stages were (1) conducting needs survey, (2) specifying goals, themes, and general

  ABSTRAK

  Nugroho, Joh. Baptis Satrio (2008). A Set of Content-Based English Instructional

  

Material for Junior Level of Bright Education Center Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta:

  Program Studi Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Pendekatan Content-Based Instruction (CBI) dalam kegiatan belajar- mengajar bahasa Inggris menjadi trend yang berkembang belakangan ini karena manfaat-manfaatnya. Pembelajaran semacam ini membawa manfaat seperti menumbuhkan motivasi belajar siswa, membuka wacana bahasa dan isi yang otentik kepada siswa, mengembangkan interaksi antar individu di kelas, dan mengembangkan semua ketrampilan dalam berbahasa, khususnya bahasa Inggris secara bersama-sama. Hal ini membuat pembelajaran bahasa Inggris mempunyai nilai ganda, tidak hanya mempelajari bahasa itu sendiri, namun juga mengembangkan pengetahuan siswa mengenai isi yang dibicarakan.

  Studi ini ingin menerapkan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris yang terintegrasi, yaitu pembelajaran bahasa Inggris menggunakan pendekatan Content-Based yang diaplikasikan kepada siswa level Junior di Lembaga Pendidikan Bright Education

  

Center (BEC). Ada dua masalah pokok yang dirumuskan sebagai berikut: 1)

  bagaimana mendesain satu set materi intruksional pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan pendekatan Content-Based untuk siswa level Junor di BEC, dan 2) seperti apakah bentuk dari satu set materi instruksional pembelajaran bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan pendekatan Content-Based untuk siswa level Junior di BEC.

  Penulis mengimplementasikan Research and Development Method (R & D

  

Method ) yang terdiri dari sepuluh langkah. Namun dalam penelitian ini, penulis

  hanya mengimplementasikan lima langkah pertama dari R&D Method. Langkah- langkah tersebut adalah (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3)

  

develop preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field-testing, and (5) main rancangan materi pembelajaran tersebut cukup bagus dan bisa diterima serta digunakan bagi siswa level Junior di BEC.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the background of the study, problem formulation,

  problem limitation, objectives of the study, and benefits of the study. Definition of terms is provided to avoid misconception.

A. Background of the Study

  The world-trend of English learning follows the rise of integrated- approach. It means that the combination of reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing are taught together as students pursue interesting problems or topics (Grisham, 1995 cited in Gavelek, Biondo, Raphael, & Wang, 2000). This approach believes that the success of English learning is determined by the mastery of all skills together (Oxford, 1996 cited in Oxford, 2001). It is implied that no every single skill is regarded to be more important than another. All skills

  2 in the coverage of desirable competency for junior high school students, that is competency to comprehend and/or produce written and oral texts in four language skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing integratively to achieve functional literacy level (SBC, 2006). The literacy level covers performative, functional, informational and epistemic. At the performative level, people can read, write, listen and speak with the symbols used. At the functional level, people can use language to fulfill their daily needs such as reading newspaper, manual or instruction. At the informational level, people can access knowledge with language skills, while at the epistemic level; people can express knowledge in the target language (Wells, 1987 cited in SBC, 2006).

  Bright Education Center or BEC is one of the non-formal education institutions, growing in Yogyakarta, which provides English-learning service in accordance to the government movement. This institution commits to provide attractive, applicable, integrative, and meaningful English-learning services for children, teenagers, and adults. Some efforts to do so have existed, such as

  3 learn with the materials and learning models which are similar to the materials in junior high school. Furthermore, it is necessary for them to be accustomed to the materials and learning models so they, somewhat, are not shocked at the junior high school materials and learning models which they will get. BEC views that it would be a great chance to introduce and to make students in elementary grade familiar with the material and learning model in junior high schools, which are integrative, in order to prepare them entering junior high school. For this reason, it is necessary to conduct a study to design the integrated-skill approach for Junior level, which functions as a preparation level for junior high school, in BEC.

B. Problem Formulation In this study, the problems are formulated as follows.

  1) How is a set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the Junior level of the Bright Education Center designed? 2) What does the set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the

  4 Junior level, which seeks to prepare the elementary school students to enter junior high school, in Bright Education Center. Besides, it offers the designed materials applying CBI principles for the Junior level students in Bright Education Center.

  D. Objectives of the Study

  This study is undertaken to achieve two objectives, which are: 1) to find out how a set of content-based English instructional materials for the Junior level students of the Bright Education Center is designed.

  2) to present a set of content-based English instructional materials for the Junior level students of the Bright Education Center.

  E. Benefits of the Study

  Hopefully, this research gives advantages for teachers, students, and future researchers. The clearer explanation is as follows.

  1. Teachers

  5 This thesis may serve as a base of conducting further research of

  Integrated-skill language teaching and learning. Hopefully, the research results can provide helpful information and give a stimulus for the further researchers.

  Hence, better and more various activities through Content-Based Instructional design will be found.

F. Definition of Terms

  To avoid misconception of further discussion, some terms are clarified as follows.

  1. Instructional Design Instructional design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction (Applied Research Laboratory, 1996). It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities;

  6

  3. Content-Based Instruction Content-Based Instruction (CBI) refers to the teaching of language through exposure to content that is interesting and relevant to learners (Nunan, 2003).

  While Brinton (1989) define content-based instruction as the integration of content learning with language teaching aims. More specifically, CBI refers to an approach to second language teaching, emphasizing the concurrent study of language and subject matter, rather than the form and sequence of language presentation. In this study, CBI is an approach to foreign language teaching that makes use of subject matter to language teaching purpose.

  4. Theme- Based Instruction Brinton (1989) defines the Theme-Based Instruction as one type of

  Content-Based teaching models in which the language class is structured around topics or themes, with the topics forming the backbone of the course curriculum.

  In this study, Theme-Based Instruction refers to the involvement theme or topics organization to provide the content that can be extracted to language learning

  7

  6. Junior Level Junior Level is one level in BEC which consists of students in fifth and sixth grade of Elementary School who have the same proficiency of English. This level employs School-Based Curriculum 2006 for Elementary Level. In this study, Junior level covers students of level five and six of Elementary School.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter, the writer discusses some theoretical concepts that are

  relevant to the major concern of this study, i.e. how to design Content-Based English Instructional materials for Junior level of Bright Education Center. This

  chapter is divided into two major parts. In the first part, the writer discusses the theoretical description and in the second part, the writer explains the theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

  This section mainly involves theories related to the study. The major areas are instructional design model, theory of young children’s cognitive development, content-based instruction, theme-based instruction, and English skills.

1. Instructional Design Model

  9

  1) Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes

  Kemp (1977:14) states that goals derive from three sources: society, students, and subject areas. After establishing the goals, the planner should list the major topics related to the content area. In order to signify what the teacher wants to accomplish in the topic, the teacher uses initial expressions. Those expressions usually express the planner’s own aims for the topic or unit. According to Kemp (1977: 16), the planner clarifies the statements of purpose with the teacher and also helps the teacher to translate them into details. Then, from the details the teacher can plan learning experiences. Furthermore, the teacher can also derive objectives from general purposes.

  2) Finding Out Learner Characteristics

  In teaching-learning process, the students are regarded as individuals and groups. In order to serve both individuals and groups, we must obtain information about the learners’ characteristics. According to Kemp (1977:19), there are two factors that should be considered in finding out the learners characteristics; those

  10 designing process. According to Kemp (1977: 19), learning conditions refer to “groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information.”

  3) Specifying Learning Objectives

  Learning objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. The objective states what to teach and determine later whether the objectives are accomplished or not.

  Kemp (1977: 24) states the three categories of learning objectives; those are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. However, cognitive domain is mostly used in educational program. Cognitive domain includes objectives concerning knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In planning process, the planner should consider the action verb that will be used in specifying the learning objectives because each verb relates to certain level of objectives.

  4) Organizing Subject Content

  11

  5) Developing Pre-assessment

  Pre-assessment is used to check the students’ readiness to study the topic and their competence level of the stated objectives (Kemp, 1977: 50). Pre- Assessment will answer these questions: (1) is the student prepared to study the topic or unit? And (2) is the student competent in some of the stated objectives?

  There are two kinds of tests, namely prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims to gain information whether the students have appropriate preparation for the topic. The results of prerequisite testing will let the teacher know who are ready to learn the topic, who needs the remedial or even who are not ready yet and should start from the beginner level. Pretesting is usually used to find out the objectives that have already been achieved by the students.

  6) Planning the Teaching/Learning Activities and Resources

  The teacher must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content

  12 appropriate medium or combination of media for communicating content or providing student experiences, in terms of an objective within the chosen teaching/learning pattern.

  7) Support Services

  The support services include funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel whose time should be scheduled for participation in instructional plan. Budget or funds can be divided into two sections. Those are budget during development, which covers all budgets that the planner needed during the preparation of the program, and budget during implementation which covers all budgets needed when the planner implements the program.

  8) Evaluation In evaluation step, the teacher should determine standards of achievement.

  The measurement can be in the form of evaluation. There are two kinds of evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation takes place during development and tryouts, while summative evaluation takes

  13

  Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Learner

  

Evaluation Characteristics

e is ev R

  Learning Support Objectives Services

  Teaching/ Subject Learning Content

  Activities, Resources Pre- Assessment

Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)

  Kemp has given important information in constructing the instructional

  14 identification of the communication requirements, personal needs, motivations, relevance, characteristic of learners, and physical resources of the learners.

  2) Description of Purpose

  This step is to clarify the purpose of language program based on the needs survey. The description sometimes entirely stems from the needs assessment.

  Other elements that might not directly come out of the needs survey may be added. Yalden (1987: 105) stated that “the more accurately one can predict the learners’ need will be, the more clearly the content of a syllabus can be described”.

  3) Choice of Syllabus

  The election of which the syllabus will be carried out in the program appears in this step. In this sense, the determination regards the learners’ needs and characteristics.

  In most CBI courses, the syllabus is derived from the content area, and these widely vary in detail and format (Richard and Rodgers, 2001:212).

  15 language itself, and language use to be covered in a certain program, which is developed.

  5) Production of Pedagogical Syllabus

  Pedagogical syllabus represents a plan to implement the content of the language teaching/learning at the classroom level. The language program designer, at this stage, should realize the syllabus in the form of teaching-learning materials and testing approaches.

  6) Development and Implementation of Classroom Syllabus

  In this step, the program designer organizes the learning activities within the lesson plan and develops the teaching materials. Yalden (1987:139) suggests that the teacher should deal with the teaching techniques and realize the syllabus in the form of teaching materials.

  7) Evaluation

  The step is intended to evaluate all components in the language program, i.e. the students, the instructional program, and the teaching.

  16

  Description Production Development Selection/ Need of purpose Production of a and development survey of a proto- pedagogical implementation Evaluation of syllabus of classroom syllabus syllabus type procedures

Figure 2.2 Language Program Development of Yalden (Yalden, 1987: 88)

  From the two instructional models above, the writer will not use all of those steps, however some steps will be used and the others will not be used. The writer will combine from the two instructional models. From Yalden’s model, the writer takes first step, namely Needs Survey. This is one strength of Yalden’s Model. This aids to explore and understand the learners’ need to learn English. Hence, the foundation of language program can be well established. Kemp’s second step, which is finding out learners’ characteristics, is not be used because it can be included in need analysis. The writer combines this step with Kemp’s first step, because Goals, Topics, and General Purposes determine the track of Content-Based Instructional (CBI) Program. Kemp’s third step is used for determine learning objectives of the materials designed based on CBI. The

  17 Subject Content is used for the next step because this step determines the application of CBI principles in instructional design materials. The next step is taken from Kemp’s sixth step, which is Planning the Teaching/Learning Activities and Resources. The main activities in this materials design are applying techniques and activities which are commonly found in CBI classrooms suggested by Brinton (2003:209) which are pair and group work, information gap, jigsaw, graphic organizers, discussion and debate, role-play, survey tasks, process writing, problem solving, sequencing, ranking, and values clarification. The final step is evaluation. Both Kemp and Yalden use evaluation as the final step for their model. The writer takes this step because it is used for measuring the outcome of the materials designed. It is very important to obtain evaluation values in order to revise the materials designed.

2. School-Based Curriculum 2006

  The School-Based Curriculum (SBC) is the newest curriculum from the

  18 to communicate in heuristic meaning is the ability to comprehend and/or produce verbal and/or written texts which is realized in the form of the comprehension of four language skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Thus, English subject is proposed to develop the skills accordingly that the students are able to communicate in English in the current literacy level (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional , 2006: 277).

  Literary level consists of performative, functional, informational, and epistemic. In performative level, people are able to read, write, listen, and speak using symbols. In functional level, people are able to use language to fulfill their daily needs such as reading newspaper, and manuals. In informational level, people are able to access knowledge with their language ability while in epistemic level people are able to express knowledge into the target language (Wells, 1987).

  

b. The Goals of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-

Based Curriculum

  19

  c. The Scopes of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School- Based Curriculum

  According to Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2006: 278) there scopes in English lesson based on 2006 curriculum is the ability to communicate verbally in a simple form in the school context, which includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing aspects. Writing and reading aspect is directed to support the verbal communication learning.

  d. Standard Competencies and Basic Competencies for Elementary Level of School-Based Curriculum

  English Subject for Elementary students has specific Standard and Basic Competencies. Regarding the study, below is the presentation of Standard and Basic Competencies based on School-Based Curriculum for the sixth grade of Elementary School as shown in Table 2.1

Table 2.1. SBC Standard and Basic Competencies of Elementary Level (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional , 2006)

  20

Table 2.1 Continued

  Standard Competencies Basic Competencies 2.3 asking for things, and giving things.

  2.4 Converse to ask/give information appropriately using the expressions of thank offering, apologizing, giving apology, forbiding, blessing, and inviting. Axpress politeness appropriately using the thank you, sorry, please, and excuse me expressions.

  Reading At the end of the course, students are able to comprehend very simple short functional and descriptive texts in the classroom context.

  At the end of the course, students are able to:

  3.1 Read loudly by pronouncing the words, phrases, and simple sentences correctly.

  3.2 Comprehend simple sentences and simple written messages . Writing At the end of the course, students are able to write very simple short functional texts in the classroom context

  At the end of the course, students are able to:

  4.1 Pronounce simple English utterances correctly and appropriately using correct punctuation including words, phrases, and simple sentences.

  4.2 Rewrite simple English text correctly and appropriately like greetings and written messages.

3. Theory of Children’s Cognitive Development

  Considering the fact that learners in the Junior level of Bright Education Center (BEC) are young learners, the next discussion appears to be the discussion

  21 Thinking stage, Concrete Operations stage, and Formal Operations stage. Each stage is discussed as follows.

  a. Sensorimotor Stage

  The Sensorimotor stage occupies the period from birth to about 2 years old children. This stage is characterized by the absence of language. Because the children don’t have words for things, objects do not exist when they are not dealing directly with them. In this stage, children’s interactions with their environment deal only with the here and now. Toward the end of this stage, they come to realize that objects exist even when they are not experiencing them (Hergenhahn et al., 1997: 286).

  b. Preoperational Thinking Stage

  The preoperational stage starts from the children at about two years old to about seven years old. During the preoperational stage, children acquire language skills and become able to deal with the world symbolically instead of directly through motor activities (Watson et al., 1973:72). They begin to classify things in

  22 classes in some series and with number concepts. During this stage, children can perform rather complex operations on problems as long as the problems are concrete and not abstract.

d. Formal Operations Stage

  Formal operations stage begins at eleven or twelve and extends for about two more years. Children in this stage are able to handle abstract relationships, deal with hypothetical situations, understand and use probability, and deal with other complex problems involving logic and reasoning (Watson et al., 1973: 72).

  Piaget (1980), as cited in Ginn (2005), promotes a child-centered educational curriculum to create optimal conditions for learning. Thus, he supports active discovery learning environments in schools. Children need to explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out answers for themselves. However, this does not mean that children should be allowed to do whatever they want. This is teachers’ role to be able to assess the children’s present cognitive level. Piaget (1980), as cited in Ginn (2005), emphasizes that

  23 BEC is in the range of those ages. As Phillips (1993:19) concludes, young learners in ten years old to twelve years old have capabilities that should be considered in teaching English language. These capabilities are shown by the Table 2.2 below.

Table 2.2. Capabilities of Young Language Learner in age 10-12 years old (Phillips, 1993:19)

  Characteristics Implication Need Longer attention span Greater range of activities possible in class

  Opportunities to engage in tasks that require focus and commitment Knowledge of the world growing more topics can be addressed Stimulation e.g. information from internet or cross-cullicular

  Taking learning more seriously can be given responsibility chance to be independent Still children have need for security and pleasure Techer sensitive to their needs and moods

More cooperative with peers can do more group work Variety of grouping in class

i.e. work on own, in pairs, in group, as class

  Intellectual, motor and social skills developing can be challenged more Activities that challenge them

  Developing own learning strategies

children won’t all react in

the same way to the same task/topic Chance to personalize their learning experience

  24

• Their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they see and hear and, crucially, have a chance to touch and interact with.
• They generally display an enthusiasm for learning and curiosity about the world around them.
• They have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher.
• They are keen to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom.

  To design the materials, the designer has to consider children interests, to make the learning interesting and motivating. Hurlock (1980) promotes some children interest at the age of six old years to twelve years old, such as constructive games, adventuring, hobby, games and sports, and entertainment. Hurlock (1980) also denotes that interest can be function as powerful reinforcement.

4. Content-Based Instruction

  The next section discusses Content-Based Instruction (CBI). The

  25 (Brinton et al, 1989). Snow (2001:303) states the definition of “content” in this discussion, which is the use of subject matter for second language teaching purpose. Brown (1989) mentions five conditions that are fulfilled by this approach. First, the content-based language curriculum takes into account the interests and needs of the learners. Second, it incorporates the eventual uses the learner will make through the target language. Third, it builds on the students’ previous learning experiences. Fourth, it allows a focus on use as well as on usage. Fifth, it offers learners the necessary conditions for second language learning by exposing them to meaningful language in use. Derived from these conditions, this approach assumes that language is best learned when it is used as a medium of instruction for learning something else, such as academic content (Snow, 2001:304).

  There are five rationales for integrating CBI with the teaching of language, as Brown (1989:3) states. First, proponents of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) note that for successful language learning to occur, the language syllabus

  26 than on fragmented examples of correct sentence-level usage. Fifth, most recent researches suggest that a necessary condition for successful language acquisition is that the “input” in the target language must be understood by the learner (Krashen, 1985, cited in Brown, 1989). Since input must also contain new elements to be acquired, comprehension is accomplished with the help of cues from the situational and verbal context. This process requires that the learner is focused on meaning rather than on form.

b. Principles of CBI CBI is based on two central principles (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 207).

  The first principle is a belief that people learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself. Supporting this belief, Brinton (in Nunan, 2003: 207) states that central to CBI is the belief that learning occurs not only through exposure to the teacher’s input but also through peer input and interaction.

  Accordingly, students assume active, social roles in the classroom that involve

  27 and teaching as quickly as possible, and the processes through which such learning and teaching are realized, are a central priority.

c. Theory of Language of CBI

  A number of assumptions about the nature of language underlie CBI (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 208). The first assumption is that language is text- and discourse-based. In this assumption, CBI addresses the role of language as a vehicle for learning content. The focus of teaching is how meaning and information are communicated and constructed through text and discourse. The textual and discourse structure of written texts are such as letters, reports, essays, description, or book chapters, or of speech events such as meetings, lectures, and discussions. The second assumption is that language use draws on integrated skills. In this assumption, CBI views that language is used in involving several skills together. Students are often provided by activities that link the skills integratively, because this is how the skills are generally involved in the real world. Hence students might read and take notes, listen and write a summary, or

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d. Theory of Learning of CBI

  It is described earlier that one of the principles of CBI is that people learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 209). Considering models of CBI that is used, Brinton et al, (1989:17) writes that successful language learning occurs when students are presented with target language material in a meaningful, contextualized form with the primary focus on acquiring information. As cited in Richard and Rodgers (2001: 209), some studies support the above principle (Scott, 1974; Collier 1989; Grandlin, 1993; Wesche, 1993). These studies support the position of second languages in formal education setting, which are best learned when the focus is on mastery of content rather than on mastery of language per se. This distinguishes CBI from traditional approaches to language teaching in which language form is the primary focus of the syllabus and of classroom teaching.

  Some additional assumptions are derived from the core principles of CBI.