silesr1999 008.
Northern Songhay Languages in Mali and
Niger
A Sociolinguistic Survey
Michael J. Rueck and Niels Christiansen
SIL International
2001
[A slightly abbreviated hard copy is to appear in: Trends in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics (Proceedings of the 1998 Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Conference), ed. by Norbert Cyffer (norbert.cyffer@univie.ac.at). Republished by permission.]
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Contents
Abstract
1 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Appreciation 1.3 Background
2 Demographics and description of the peoples 2.1 Ingalkoyyu (Tasawaq-speakers)
2.2 Igdalen and Iberogan (Tagdal-speakers) 2.2.1 Igdalen (Tagdal-speakers) 2.2.2 Iberogan (Tabarog-speakers) 3 Methodology
3.1 Choice of test sites 3.2 Choice of translators 3.3 Interview schedules 3.4 Word lists
3.5 Dialect intelligibility testing 3.5.1 The nominal method 3.5.2 Deviations in this study 4 Results
4.1 Dialect intelligibility testing 4.2 Adaptation potential
5 Conclusions 5.1 Tagdal 5.2 Tasawaq Appendices
Appendix A. 380 item word list from each site Appendix B: Intelligibility test texts
Appendix C: Intelligibility test data
Appendix D: Results of the Northern Songhay RTT References
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Abstract
Inherent intelligibility between Tadaksahak (Dausahaq), Tasawaq (Ingelsi), Tagdal and Tabarog was measured using the Recorded Text Test developed by the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Language attitudes of the speakers of the Northern Songhay varieties in Niger were also investigated using group interview schedules and by observation.
It was found that Tagdal and Tabarog are mutually intelligible and that speakers of both of these varieties consider that they speak the same language, for which all accept the name Tagdal. Also, Tadaksahak is not inherently intelligible to speakers of Tasawaq or Tagdal, and Tasawaq and Tagdal are not mutually inherently intelligible either. Although many speakers of Northern Songhay languages are bilingual to some extent, it is pragmatic concerns which drive them to use languages of wider communication and they reserve a more positive attitude toward their own languages.
1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
From May to June 1998, the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) conducted a sociolinguistic survey among speakers of Tasawaq, Tagdal, and Tabarog in Niger. The research team consisted of Michael J. Rueck, Niger survey coordinator, and Niels Christiansen, working in Menaka, Mali among the Idaksahak (who speak Tadaksahak) since 1992. Some of the goals of the survey were: 1. to collect some basic demographic and cultural information on the speakers of the target
languages,
2. to measure the level of inherent intelligibility between the speech varieties in Niger, 3. to evaluate the potential for these groups to use written material produced in the
Tadaksahak language in Mali. 1.2 Appreciation
We wish to express our gratitude to the Minister of Interior of the Republic of Niger, the Prefects of the arrondissements of Tahoua and Agadez, the Sub-Prefect of Abalak, and the Chief of the Administrative Post of Ingal for facilitating this study. We would also like to express our appreciation to the Chief of the 7th Group of the Tamajaq People of the Azawagh and the Village Chiefs of Tamaya, Tofabayogh, and Ingal for their permission to study their peoples’ languages and for calling people together to work with us.
1.3 Background
Robert Nicolaï identifies Northern Songhay (songhay septentrional) as a subdivision of the Songhay language group of the Nilo-Saharan language family (1981a). (See Figure 1.) These speech forms are also referred to as “mixed languages” since they have adopted phonological and prosodic features and lexical items from Tamajaq, the Berber language spoken by the Kel
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Tamajaq or Tuareg (Lacroix, 1968). Nicolaï claims that intercomprehension “is possible” within the Northern Songhay group.
Northern Songhay
/ \
Nomadic Sedentary
/ \ / \
Tadaksahak Tihishit Tasawaq Korandje
/ \ / \
Tagdal Tabarog Ingelsi Emghedeshie (extinct)
Figure 1 Northern Songhay dialects according to Nicolaï
Northern Songhay language names are related to the names of the peoples who speak them in Berber fashion. Tadaksahak is spoken by the Idaksahak; Tagdal is spoken by the Igdalen; Tabarog is spoken by the Iberogan; and Tasawaq is spoken by the Issawaghan who also call themselves the Ingalkoyyu.
2 Demographics and description of the peoples
Three of the Northern Songhay speech varieties are unique to Niger. Tasawaq is spoken in Ingal, and Tagdal and Tabarog are spoken in a more widespread area centered around Abalak (see Map 1). A fourth variety, Tadaksahak (also known as Tadawsahaq or Dausahaq) is mainly spoken in the Menaka Circle of Mali, but individuals of this group can also be found in Niger and other neighboring countries.
We have found no reference to these people groups as distinct entities in official statistics, where the Igdalen and Iberogan tend to be grouped with the Tuareg. In the civil administration, they belong to the 7th Group of Tamajaq People of the Azawagh. The civil administrator in Ingal (chef de poste) reported that the people of Ingal claim to be “Songhay” on identity papers, while people in Teguidda-n-Tessoumt write “Tamajaq”. He took this to mean that they see themselves as part of these two linguistic communities.
Our demographic statistics are tentative. Most of them come from responses to our questionnaires which were estimates or are a result of our observations on the field.
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2.1 Ingalkoyyu (Tasawaq-speakers)
Tasawaq is spoken by the Ingalkoyyu [Lords of Ingal] (sg. Ingalumboro [person of Ingal]). This was the name they gave when we asked what they call their people group. We also heard them refer to themselves informally as “Bingali” (meaning the people of Ingal). Ingelsi / Ingelshi (“language of Ingal”) is another term for the language, used in literature, and some use the term Issawaghan for the people. When we asked about the term “Issawaghan”, they said this term came from Tamajaq. However, Issawaghan is also apparently the name of their most populous clan. As far as we know, this is the only Tasawaq-speaking community in the world. From official figures and their own estimate, we set the number of Tasawaq speakers at about 8,000. The Ingalkoyyu cultivate date palms and vegetable gardens along the wadi where the town of Ingal is situated. They also exploit the salty springs of Teguidda n-Tessoumt, about 80 km to the north, where they evaporate salt which is used mainly by herders to keep their livestock healthy. Money from the sale of this salt is used to buy millet and other necessities. Finely woven and colorfully decorated mats of palm leaves are another source of cash income.
The Ingalkoyyu also play host to the nomads of the region (Tuareg, Arabs, Fulani, and Igdalen) for the annual Cure Salée in early September, when herds are driven to the area around Ingal to profit from the salty water and grass found there.
2.2 Igdalen and Iberogan (Tagdal-speakers)
The Igdalen and the Iberogan have for many purposes been treated as one group, and their speech forms are closely related. Nicolaï uses “tihishit” as a common designator for these two speech forms (1981b:306); however, this term is ambiguous. “Tihishit” is a term of Tamajaq origin meaning “the language of the blacks”. The Igdalen and Iberogan used it to refer to all Northern Songhay speech forms. The Tuareg near the Niger River expand the term to include all Southern Songhay dialects as well. We observed that the Iberogan sometimes refer to their language as “Tagdal”, which indicates that they think of Tabarog and Tagdal as the same language; thus, we have chosen to use “Tagdal” as a cover term for both speech forms. We will use “Tabarog” to designate the speech of the Iberogan in particular, and let context indicate when “Tagdal” refers to the speech of the Igdalen particularly.
The relationship between the Igdalen and the Iberogan on a daily basis is not clear to us from our short visit. It is often said that the Iberogan were formerly the slaves of the Igdalen; however, the apparent existence of a noble class of Iberogan makes this seem unlikely. There does seem to be a tendency for the Igdalen to want to speak for the Iberogan as well, without this necessarily being accepted by them.
Both the Igdalen and the Iberogan reported that there were individuals and villages of their ethnic groups living north and west of Tchin-Tabaradene who no longer spoke Tagdal. On Map 1, we have shown the approximate areas where the Northern Songhay varieties are spoken today. 2.2.1 Igdalen (Tagdal-speakers)
Tagdal is spoken by the Igdalen, a fair-skinned people, as well as by the descendants of their former slaves. Their territory centers around the three important sites with an Agdal (sg. of
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Igdalen) as chief, Tamaya, Mazababu and Tiguirwit, and extends to the north of Ingal. A total of 1,500 households (perhaps 6,000 individuals) was reported for the area around Tamaya. Tripling this number for a total, we estimate that there are 10–20,000 Igdalen. As far as we know this includes the black population of descendants of their former slaves. We mention the
distinction here only because it seems important to the people themselves.
The Igdalen used to be primarily herders living a nomadic lifestyle, but some have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle in exchange for small-scale commerce and gardening around water holes as alternative sources of income. Those with substantial herds still drive them to the salty springs in the area of Ingal for the Cure Salée . The Igdalen also help to fill the role of Koranic experts in the greater Tuareg society. They are conservative Muslims.
The Igdalen use the Arabic script or the Tamajaq script, Shifinagh, for writing those languages -or Tagdal! A French primary school was established four years ago in Tamaya, and some Igdalen children are attending.
According to a man from the Tabaho family of Idaksahak in Mali who had contact with an Igdalen family on the border of Niger, the Igdalen have a common ancestor with the Idaksahak. The Igdalen themselves wouldn’t tell us about their history; however, although they would never intermarry with the Tuareg, they do consider the Idaksahak marriageable. Even this is very rare though because, according to the Tabaho man, the Idaksahak women would never accept the isolated life expected of them among the Igdalen.
2.2.2 Iberogan (Tabarog-speakers)
Tabarog is spoken by the Iberogan, a group of black origin, possibly also with associated descendants of former slaves. This group seems to be economically inter-dependent with the Igdalen, but only marry within their own group. In the past they also were mainly herders, living a nomadic life, but now they have become sedentary and live from subsistence farming.
The homeland of the Iberogan is mainly in the area southeast of Abalak where rainfall normally is sufficient to support extended fields. They are spread over an area organized around nine villages, each with its chief, where they are the majority (>90%), and sporadically elsewhere, usually where farming is possible. We estimate their population at 7000.
Livestock still form an important part of their economy, for milk and cash income. The Iberogan are also the sole producers of a particular kind of sleeping mat, made of thin, straw-like sticks woven together with thin strips of leather. These mats usually form the sleeping surface on the portable wooden beds used by many nomadic peoples in the area (Tuareg, Igdalen, Fulani and others).
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3 Methodology
3.1 Choice of test sites
Tasawaq is spoken only in Ingal and Teguidda-n-Tessoumt. The Bernuses (1972) indicate that most of the inhabitants of Teguidda-n-Tessoumt are just there seasonally to work the salt pans and have their permanent residences in Ingal. So, we went to Ingal.
Since we wanted our samples of Tagdal and Tabarog to be as pure as possible, we looked for villages which were inhabited only by Igdalen or Iberogan, but not both. Ideally, we would have chosen villages which were not on a main road (limiting their contact with other speech forms) and which had primary schools (for ease of test administration). However, we were constrained by the insecurity of the region between Abalak and Agadez to choose a village on the main road for our Tagdal sample. Tamaya was suggested to us by the Sub-Prefect of Abalak, and we had the good fortune to meet the village chief the following day in Abalak. A primary school was established there four years ago. The Igdalen chief, in turn, recommended Tofabayogh to us as an Iberogan village. Its relatively isolated location should ensure a stable linguistic community. There is no public school in any Iberogan village.
3.2 Choice of translators
Since no team members spoke any of the dialects in question, we had to rely on translators in order to accomplish this study. There are many young men in Ingal who have completed at least a primary education, so we had no trouble finding native Tasawaq speakers to translate from French for us. The chef de poste assigned one young man from his staff to help us during our stay, and other local men were available when we needed them.
The very conservative Igdalen and Iberogan, however, have resisted sending any of their children to public schools until very recently, so very few of them speak French. The
Representative of the Chief of the 7th Group of Tamajaq Peoples in Abalak was able to call upon Alassane Ntinicar, a young ( approximately 25 years old), black Agdal (Kel Amdit) who had grown up in Agadez and had completed three years of middle school. He and his younger cousin, Abdoulaye Islamane, translated for us in Tamaya and Tofabayogh. We can’t be sure whether their youth or their race influenced the data we collected. We did observe that, between
themselves, they spoke more Hausa than Tagdal. Christiansen’s knowledge of Tadaksahak also helped in the translation process.
3.3 Interview schedules
In each village we visited, we interviewed a group of people which was either called together by the chief or formed out of curiosity. In this way, we hoped that the answers and opinions
expressed would be the consensus of the group rather than the beliefs of just one person. In Ingal, the chief invited 5 men and 5 women, all more than 40 years old, to the interview. In Tofabayogh, about 20 men, ranging in age from 16 years to more than 50, with the majority being around 30 years old, participated in the interview. In Tamaya, a group of men, aged approximately 25-55 years, assembled around the village chief to answer our questions. The size of the group varied between 6 and 15 during the course of our interview. The group interaction in Tamaya was restrained, and after the first day, the chief forbade us to return to work there unless
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he was present. Whether this was because he felt we would find people uncooperative without his support or because he wanted to control what we heard, we cannot be sure.
We asked questions from both a general demographic and a general sociolinguistic interview schedule. The answers to the former told us about nearby schools, markets, and government services; the latter dealt with perceived dialect differences, language attitudes, bilingualism and language use. The information gathered in this way provided a context for interpreting the results of the dialect intelligibility testing, and furnished background information.
3.4 Word lists
Christiansen, who has been living among the Idaksahak and studying their language,
Tadaksahak, since 1992, elicited a 380-item word list in each test site. The list is a combination of the Swadesh 200-item list, the SIL Africa Area 200-item list, and the SIL Burkina Faso 270-item list. The glosses and data are presented in Appendix A.
3.5 Dialect intelligibility testing 3.5.1 The nominal method
Dialect intelligibility testing (Casad, 1974) essentially involves recording a 3 to 5 minute text in each of the speech forms of interest and testing comprehension of the text among speakers of the other speech forms. It is used primarily to measure the degree of intelligibility between various dialects inherent in their linguistic similarity. Below is a brief description of the steps in the preparation and administration of the test:
1. Two texts are elicited from a native speaker of Dialect A: one is a very short text used to “teach” the testing method and weed out unreliable subjects; the second is longer,
approximately 3 to 5 minutes in length. It should be autobiographical in nature and rich in details. It should also be as free as possible from objectionable or predictable subject matter, proper nouns, and borrowed words. The longer text is transcribed and translated phrase-by-phrase into a language the test administrator understands.
2. A group of 15 or more basic comprehension questions in various semantic domains are developed based on the text and recorded. A test tape is made containing the text, in segments, with the questions inserted just after the portion of the text containing the appropriate response. Thus, a subject’s performance will not depend on his ability to remember the details of the text, but rather on his comprehension of the text.
3. Ten native speakers of Dialect A, preferably including both men and women, listen individually to the text and respond to the questions so that any badly composed or misleading questions can be isolated and removed. Ten questions to which native speakers have responded with correct answers are chosen for the final form of the test. These three steps are repeated at each test site to produce a test in each dialect.
4. Before administering the tests in Village B, the comprehension questions for all of the texts are recorded in Dialect B and inserted into their respective texts. Thus, Village B test subjects will hear the texts in other dialects, but the questions in their own dialect,
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ensuring that their ability to respond is not impeded by a lack of comprehension of the questions themselves.
5. At least 10 native speakers of each target dialect, preferably including both men and
women, are tested. They are screened against contact with the other dialects in question and then listen individually to the shorter “learning text” and the longer text in their own
dialect. If they are able to perform well, they then listen to the texts in the other dialects and respond to the questions as they listen. They listen to each text only once, though they are allowed to listen to a section a second time if there was some distraction. Their responses are written down and scored as “right”, “wrong”, or “half-right”. Their scores are
interpreted as an indicator of the level of the inherent intelligibility of the other dialects. A given speech form will be inherently intelligible to some degree to speakers of a related speech form simply because both forms have sprung from the same linguistic stock. As a property of the language itself, the level of inherent intelligibility of a given dialect to speakers of a second dialect should be constant throughout the entire population of the latter. Thus, it is not necessary to obtain a random sample to measure inherent intelligibility. Any ten speakers who have mastered their own dialect will suffice. Certain individuals, however, will normally have had contact with speakers of other dialects, and thus, will have learned to understand them better. This “learned intelligibility” could be considered a type of bilingualism, a related but separate phenomenon which naturally varies within a population. Test subjects are screened to eliminate those which have had much contact with the other dialects in question.
3.5.2 Deviations in this study
Christiansen recorded and transcribed a Tadaksahak text in Menaka as described in Step 1 above; however, circumstances beyond his control prevented him from completing the hometown validation of comprehension questions (Step 3 above) before we used the Tadaksahak test in Niger. We compensated for this by having all test subjects attempt to answer all 16
comprehension questions which Christiansen devised for the Tadaksahak text. Then, after we were able to return to Menaka and play the test for native Tadaksahak speakers, we knew which questions to discount and what range of answers to consider acceptable in scoring the
Tadaksahak test.
While playing the Tadaksahak test for native speakers in Menaka, one person commented that the person asking the questions spoke better Tadaksahak than the person recounting the story. This could throw a shadow of doubt on the validity of the Tadaksahak test; however, all ten Idaksahak who listened to the test were able to answer 10 of the questions without any trouble, so we believe that the test is valid.
In all groups, but especially among the Igdalen and Iberogan, we were met by village leaders who were cautious of outsiders. In Tamaya, we were denied permission to speak with Igdalen women. The chief pointed out that no women were even visible in the village. On the last day of the survey, however, we did get to interview a young black woman there. The chief of
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got the impression that this hesitation was due to the women generally being guarded against contact with outsiders. Perhaps a female surveyor would be able to interview them.
After we had recorded the Tagdal text and questions in Tamaya, we were not able to seek out ten people to validate the test. Only three of the men who had come to the tree under which the chief hosted us were willing to listen to the test, and at least one of them had been present when the story was recorded. All three of these fair-skinned men answered nearly all of the questions correctly, but we could not consider that they formed a big enough or naive enough sample to validate the test questions. We had to continue validation of the Tagdal text questions with Tagdal-speaking subjects as we found them, in Abalak, all black. Some of these referred to themselves as Iberogan, although our translator tried to assure us that this was due to the common misconception among outsiders that all Igdalen are fair-skinned and all Iberogan are black. A number of our validators were from Abouraya, a village inhabited by both Igdalen and Iberogan. Thus, it is possible that questions which might have distinguished between Tagdal and Taberog were excluded from the test.
When we returned to Tamaya to administer the test, we had the good fortune of drawing the interest of five 15 to 16 year-old students who were on their lunch break and who became willing and capable test subjects. About half of these were black, and since the Igdalen tend to pay close attention to race, once again we cannot be sure our testing did not obscure any differences in intelligibility that may exist between the Tagdal- and Tabarog-speaking groups. We were able to develop a valid test in Tofabayogh, but every time we went to this village it rained in the evening. The Iberogan are subsistence farmers rather than nomadic pastoralists as we had expected, so, of course, the day following a good rainfall, every able-bodied person among them went out to his fields to plant millet. We are glad that after two years of below-average rainfall, Niger has received abundant rains this year, but it meant that people were only available to work with us after
nightfall. We were also able to test some boys early in the morning before they were called away to other duties. Depending on the testing conditions and how well a subject catches onto the method, it can take from 40 to 60 minutes to administer the test in four dialects. After spending two nights in the village, we had completed testing with only seven subjects, but we judged this was as good as we were going to be able to do, and we didn’t want to wear out our welcome.
4 Results
4.1 Dialect intelligibility testing
The Northern Songhay texts used in this study are shown in interlinearized form in Appendix B along with their related comprehension questions.
The results of our Northern Songhay dialect intelligibility testing are summarized in Table 1 below. The columns correspond to the village test sites, and the rows correspond to the texts in each speech form. Demographic information on all subjects and individual test scores are tabulated in Appendix C. Means, standard deviations, and sample sizes are tabulated in Appendix D.
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Table 1 Summary of results of the Northern Songhay Recorded Text Test Mean Scores (%)
Test Site: ->
(Speech form)
Ingal
(Tasawaq)
Tofabayogh
(Tabarog)
Tamaya
(Tagdal)
Tasawaq 94 73 62
Tabarog 40 93 93
Tagdal 49 88 89
Tadaksahak 25 54 50
In Ingal, the subjects averaged 94% on the Tasawaq text, showing that they understand their own form of speech very well, of course. However, they scored only 40% and 49% on the Tabarog and Tagdal texts respectively, indicating insufficient intelligibility of these speech forms to suggest they could easily use Tabarog or Tagdal literature. Their comprehension of the Tadaksahak text was even lower at 25%.
For the seven subjects we were able to test in Tofabayogh, the Wilcoxon t-test shows no
significant difference between their scores on their hometown text (Tabarog) and the Tagdal text. The Iberogan and the Igdalen seem to live in such close contact that it may not be possible to find a significant number of Iberogan men who do not have regular contact with Igdalen men. We certainly weren’t able to work with any during our brief visits to Tofabayogh. Two of our test subjects identified the Igdalen story-teller by name! This means that it was practically impossible for us to measure the inherent intelligibility of Tagdal to Iberogan men because they could be considered bilingual in Tagdal. Perhaps there are Iberogan women who do not have contact with Tagdal speakers, but no women were willing to talk with us. Our best attempt for the moment is to consider only the scores of our four youngest Iberogan subjects, who were between 10 and 16 years old. It may be that they have not had extensive contact with Igdalen simply because of their youth. Their mean score, however, is also 88%. Thus, Tagdal appears to be inherently intelligible to the Iberogan.1 The Iberogan subjects averaged only 73% on the Tasawaq test, which is too low to suggest that they could profit from development of the Tasawaq language. Their average score of 54% on the Tadaksahak test shows clearly that this language is not inherently intelligible to them.
In Tamaya, once again, there is no statistically significant difference between our nine subjects’ scores on their hometown test (Tagdal) and the Tabarog test. It appears that Tagdal and Tabarog are mutually intelligible. The Igdalen appear to understand less Tasawaq (62%) than the
1
Several difficulties in preparing and administering the Tagdal and Tabarog tests (see section 3.5.2) may have masked any difference in intelligibility between these two populations; however the Igdalen and Iberogan claim to have the same language, and we have not been able to show any lack of comprehension between them.
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Iberogan. Their score of 50% on the Tadaksahak test shows unequivocally that Tadaksahak is not inherently intelligible to them.
4.2 Adaptation potential
While we have not attempted to build adaptation tables showing the consistent phonological and morphological changes between any of these dialects, we did find a Tasawaq text transcribed and glossed by P. F. Lacroix (Bernus, pp. 109-114). Christiansen studied this text and estimated that by simply making regular sound changes and morphological substitutions, one would have a good Tadaksahak text. Although we did not try the reverse, we assume that a Tadaksahak text could easily be adapted to yield a good draft of a Tasawaq text.
Christiansen’s observations while using Tadaksahak for limited communication with Tagdal-, Tabarog-, and Tasawaq-speakers, and test subjects’ comments about the texts they listened to indicate that among the dialects studied, Tadaksahak has borrowed the most Tamajaq features and Tasawaq the least. Since Tagdal and Tabarog are in the middle of this spectrum, we assume that if Tadaksahak texts could be adapted into Tasawaq, they could also be adapted into Tagdal and Tabarog.
5 Conclusions
5.1 Tagdal
Intelligibility testing results show clearly that neither Tadaksahak nor Tasawaq are inherently intelligible to the Igdalen or the Iberogan. The isolation of their women makes it unlikely that they are highly bilingual in any other language. We observed that there were many monolingual Iberogan men. Both groups reported that Tamajaq was the most widely-spoken second language in their villages, but their attitude toward Tamajaq seemed to be one of acceptance by force of necessity rather than eagerness to use it. This rather negative attitude towards Tamajaq may have been accentuated by a dispute between the Tuaregs in the 7th Group and the Igdalen and Iberogan at the time of our survey (Jeff Woodke, personal communication). Both the Igdalen and the Iberogan are proud of their language and it appears that it will continue to be their primary language for the
foreseeable future. Thus, it appears that the Igdalen and Iberogan could benefit from the development of a Tagdal literature in a way that development of another language would not afford them.
As noted in section 4.2, there appears to be great potential for adaptation of literature from other Northern Songhay languages (Tadaksahak or Tasawaq) into Tagdal.
5.2 Tasawaq
Intelligibility testing results show clearly that neither Tadaksahak nor Tagdal is inherently intelligible to the Ingalkoyyu. However, since the economy of Ingal depends to a large extent on interacting with non-Tasawaq-speaking peoples, one has to assume that at least certain segments of the community must be bilingual at FSI Level 3 or higher in the other languages of the region (Hausa, Tamajaq, and Tagdal). Contrary to our test results, the Ingalkoyyu reported that they and the Igdalen/Iberogen understood each other very well. Regardless, since this has been the
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situation for several generations at least, this is clearly a case of stable bilingualism, where the use of other languages is not a threat to the vitality of the primary language.
The Ingalkoyyu have a very positive attitude towards Tasawaq. Their language is one of the main things which distinguishes them as a people and they are proud of it. Tasawaq seems likely to remain the primary language of the Ingalkoyyu as long as the town of Ingal survives, and the prospects for this seem good since the Ingalkoyyu appear to be a happy, healthy, and industrious people.
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Appendices
Appendix A. 380 item word list from each site
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
1 œil PR PR Po PR
2 oreille Kn1ªJn Kn1ªJn Kn1ªJn ªKn1Jn
3 nez ªWLÄ=(5 ª6LQ=(5 ª=LQ=(5 ªQLÛQH
4 bouche ªPLMn PH PH PH
5 dents ªL6nQnQ ªL6(ÛQnQ ªL6(ÛQnQ ªLV(ÛQnQ
6 langue ªLÛOV ªLÛOV ªLÛOV ªLÛOV
7 lèvres nªGnO(M nªGnO(M nªGnO(M ªWDGON VªGOnN
8 menton WnÛ ª Pn5W ¡ WnPÛn5 ¡ WnPÛn5 NnÛªE(M
10 visage WDªJRÛPDVW ªWXÛGXPserif” ¡ Po PR ªnVPXW ªnVPXÛGnQ
WLÛGXP
11 tête E41ªJX En1ª¦R En1ª¦R ªEn1¦R
12 cheveux K4ÛªE(Q KnÛªE(Q KnÛªE(Q KnZªMR
13 cou G=LQªG= L =LQªGL =LQªGH ªJLQGH
14 épaule ª(Û]n5 ªn=(5 ªn]n5 ªnÛ]5
15 sein ªnÛInI ªNn1NnP ªNn1NnP ªNn1NnP
16 lait KXÛªZn KXªZn KXÛªZn ªKXZn
17 poitrine ªLGPn5nQ ªLGPnÛ5nQ ªLGPnÛ5nQ ªLGPnÛ5nQ
18 ventre JX1ªJX JX1ªJX JX1ªJX JX1ªJX
19 nombril nªEXWX WnªEXÛWXW WnªEXWXW ]XÛªWX
20 dos nª5XÛ5X nª5RÛ5L nª5RÛ5L nª5RÛ5L
21 fesse WnªWRÛ¦RVW ª]L]XN(Q IX Ûª QX VJªEDV
22 hanche LªVJEDV ªW(ÛJn]H ªVJEDV WHVHªJn
23 cuisse ªWn¦Pn Wn¦Pn Wn¦Pn Wn¦Pn
24 genou ªnIXG ªnIXG ªnIXG ªnÛIXG
25 pied F(L 6H 6H VHL VH
27 coude ªWn¦PX5W ªWn¦PX5 ªWn¦PX5 WXªPÛn5
28 main NnPªEn NnPªEn NnPªEn ªNnPEn
29 doigt ªnÛGG ªnÛGnG ªnGnG ªnÛGG
30 ongle ªn6Nn5 ªn6Nn5 ªn6Nn5 ªnVNn5
31 corps ªWnÛ¦Vn ª(ÛOnP ª(ÛOnP ª(ÛOnP
32 peau NXÛª5X NXÛª5X NXÛª5X NXÛª5X
33 os ELÛªGL ªnÛGI ELª=L ELª=L ELª]L
35 sang NXªG(Q NXÛªGX NXÛªGX NXÛª]L
36 salive WnªORG(LW LªOLGnZnQ LªOLGnMnQ LªOGnZnQ
(15)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
38 cœur ZXO ZO ZLO ZXO ZXO
39 foie WnÛª6n ªWVn ªWVn ªWnVÛn
40 intestins ªnÛGnQnQ ªnÛGnQnQ ªnÛGnQnQ ªnÛGnQnQ
41 maladie ªK(1NXQn ]n1ª¦nL ]n1ª¦nL GRÛª5L
42 fièvre ªWQnGn ªW(ÛQ n GH ªW(ÛQ n GH ªW(ÛQ n GH
43 toux ªWL6LW WXVXW WXVXW ªWXVXW
44 personne ERª5n ERÛª5n ERÛª5n ERÛª5R
45 homme 4Ûª5X nÛª5X nÛª5X ªnÛ5X
47 femme Z(L Z(L Z(L Z(L
49 père EnÛªEn nª¦nPEn ªnEÛn ªE4ÛEn
50 mère QnÛªQn nª¦nÛQLQn QLªQn ªQnÛQn
51(grand)frère E(5 E(5 E(5 ªE(5H
52 célibataire nªV(ÛOJ nªPDV5DL ªnPnV5nL ªnPnV5nL ªnPnV5n
54 oncle maternel n¦PnWªPn En6nªQn EnE(5n ªnO=nGn ªn1ZnWPnV
55 enfant ªL](L ªL]H ªL]H nVnªEL
56 chef nPnªQRÛNnO nQnªPRÛNnO nQnªPRÛNnO NRªNRL
58 propriétaire NRL NRL NRL NRL
59 voisin nªQnÛ5nJ nªQnÛ5nJ nªQnÛ5nJ nªQnÛ5nJ
60 étranger nªQnIWn¦ nªPnJn5 nªPnJn5 nªPnJn5
61 ennemi ªnÛ]n1JR nªPnNVnQ nQªPnQVn¦ nªPNVnQ nªPNVnQ
62 voleur nªE(LGRJ nªE(LGnJ nªE(LGnJ ](LªNRL
63 forgeron =(ÛªPL =nÛªPX ]nÛªPX ](ÛªPX
65 Dieu nª¦n1 NRL nª¦n1 NRL nª¦n1 NRL nª¦n1 NRL
66 nom P4Q PnQ PnQ PnQ
67 clan ªWnZ6nW ªWnZ6LW ªWnZ6LW ªWnZVLW
68 langue ªWnÛZnOW =H =H VL
69 animal ªW¦Vn ªW¦VL ªW¦VH ªWn¦VL
70 chien K 4 6L ªKn 6L ªKn 6L ªKnQVL ªK n Q6L
71 rat nªNRÛW(L DªNRÛW(L DªNRÛW(L DªNRÛW(L
72 chauve souris I5GªGH nªIn5WnWn nªIn5WnWn nªIn5WnWn
73 éléphant ª(ÛOnZ ª(ÛOnZ ª(ÛOnZ ª(ÛOZ
74 chèvre KLQFLªQL KLQ6LªQL KLQ6LªQL KnQVLªQL
75 vache KnªZX K(ÛªZL K(ÛªZL KnÛªZL
76 âne In5ªNn In5ªNn In5ªNn In5ªNn
77 lion ªnÛKn5 ªnKn5 ªnKn5 ªn5LªE(5L
78 oiseau ªFLÛGnZ ª6LÛ5nZ nJGnG ªV(5nZ
(16)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
80 pintade
81 tortue
82 lézard
83 serpent
84 ver de terre
85 poisson
86 pou de tête
87 fourmi
88 araignée
89 scorpion
90 corne
91 aile
94 queue ! !
95 œuf
96 viande "
97 graisse "
98 arbre #
99 écorce ! # ! ! !
100 feuille
101 bâton ! ! ! !
102 racines $ $
105 graine ! ! ! !
106 herbe ! ! ! !
107 petit mil
108 riz %
109 arachide &
110 endroit
111 champs
112 village
113 marché ! &! &! &!
114 maison #1 !
115 toit ! #
117 chemin '
118 chose
119 vêtement ! ! !
120 corde
(17)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
122 sel
123 calebasse
124 marmite
125 nourriture
126 trou
127 fer
128 or
129 couteau
130 lance
131 tamtam
132 guerre
133 feu
135 fumée
136 cendre(s)
137 nuit
138 obscurité !
139 lune ! "
140 étoile # # # #
141 soleil
142 jour
143 demain $ %
144 hier
145 ciel &
146 nuage
147 vent ! ! !
148 pluie
149 eau !
150 rosée #1 '
151 fleuve !(
152 lac, mare
154 montagne '
155 pierre '
156 terre
157 sable &
158 poussière
159 an, année
(18)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
161 deux
162 trois
163 quatre
164 cinq
165 six
166 sept
167 huit
168 neuf
169 dix
170 vingt
171 cent
172 chaud
173 froid
174 long
175 court
178 grand
179 petit !
182 large
183 étroit
184 rond "
185 lourd
186 lisse ""
187 rugueux
188 bon (de bonne qualité)
189 mauvais # $
190 droit %
192 à droite
193 à gauche
194 nouveau
195 vieux & & &
196 le tout "
197 beaucoup
200 rouge
201 jaune
(19)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
203 noir
204 blanc
205 sale
206 sec
207 plein
208 pourri
209 aigü (point)
210 tranchant
211émoussé
212mouillé
213 je dis
214 tu dis
215 il dit
216 nous disons
217 vous dites
218 ils disent
219 qui/qui?
220 quoi/quoi? ! !
223 où " "
224 ici " " "
227 près #
228 loin
229 dans
230 comment? $$ %
232 et
233 si % "
234 quand? ! !
236 s’assoir
237 se lever
238 se coucher ! "
239 dormir
241 avoir faim $ "
242 mordre
243 manger %
244 boire
(20)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
246 tousser
247 sucer
248 cracher
249 souffler
250 siffler
251 chanter
252 danser !
253 rire ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
254 pleurer
255 aboyer " " "
256 dire
257 demander
258 voir ! ! ! !
259 montrer
260 entendre
261 sentir avec nez
262 savoir
263 compter
264 penser !
265 aimer
266 prendre
267 tenir
268 donner
269 voler prendre " " " " "
270 cacher
271 épouser !
272 enfanter
273 mourir
274 tuer
275 vivre
276 partir
277 venir
278 envoyer
279 voler !
280 nager
(21)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
282 courir
283 tomber
284 se tourner
285 gratter
286 frotter
287 verser
288 laver
289 balayer
290 fendre
291 couper
292 percer
293 frapper
294 lancer
295 pousser
296 tirer
297 presser
298 lier
299 faire
300 coudre
301 chasser
302 cultiver
303 enterrer
304 brûler
305 gonfler
306 garçon !" "
307 fille
310 ancien #
311 guerisseur #
313 mur $
314 grenier
315 pagne
316 boubou %
317 sandales
318 bague $ " "
319 collier $
(22)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
321 flèche
322 arc
324 panier
325 graisse
326 daba
327 hache !!! " "
328 gros mil # # # #
329 gombo $ # #
331 fonio "# "# "# "#
332 maïs # # #
333 forêt
335 branche
336 cheval #% #% #% # #%
337 mouton
338 hyène
339 porc &
340 termite
341 sauterelle !!
342 singe
345 âme
348 matin ' ' ' '
352 vérité " " "
353 mensonge ' ' '
375 chat
379 sauce !!! $
380 lièvre
350 fort ( & &
351 faible # &
354 vendre
356 être courbé ' '
359 regarder $ $" $" $
360 finir # # # # #
361 monter
363 casser #) #) )
364 parler "
365 recevoir
(23)
Tadaksahak Tagdal Tabarog Tasawaq
369 construire
370 creuser
371 tisser
374 être debout
376 chercher
377 trouver
378 répondre
(24)
Appendix B: Intelligibility test texts
Texte de Tamaya (tagdal) [field transcription]
LUL =D¦D=D ¦R DUDPEDUD GD¦R L6LPDJDUDQ LEVHVWHQ LUHQ HQGD DOTHVWL DOTHVHWL IRGD D¦DWHGL VD VD DGRV LULVD LUL \L[VHV =DQGD D¦R NDQ D=D¦D=R¦R DNRV WHPHUZHQ QDZDWD\ DPD\ HQGD
1 2
3
ZDU DGD LPLJLU LGD LULQJDQ HQGD LIDQDQ L=LGD LPD\ LQ DQDPRNDO DP PDQ L\REL DQJD GD4
VHOHTDZ QDIR D¦R PHJHU QL D VHQGD DUDEXQH KD=L HPEDQGD DWXPNDW LULQ NDUD LWXZDQJD XI LNDRNDW L LNDZNDW ERUHQ =LKXU NDVR DXJR =L
KD=L KD=LQ DOTJDQ DGRV D¦D\ VD D¦D6LZXNR\ D¦D]HUHJNDW DNRVWHUQHUZLQ QNLOR ZDQL GD¦R
D¦D ]HUHJNDW \DZHQ DEULN QWDJDUD ML=L VD¦D PHIHNXUL NDW DUHQHNDQ DOIX]XV DIXV D¦D\ D
¦VHJUHNDW DEULN QD¦D]DU D¦D VH QHOHNXLL LQ LQ NHQL L\LEHW D¦D\ WDPDUDJD DUD ZD DVD¦DWH
Q EDUDG D¦DOVNHUL WDPDUD JDD¦DQHIL NDW D¦DQH NDQ D¦DQH GD ZDOD KDIR D¦D\LIRL NDW WDND
VVD D\D \LIRU NDW \DZDQ ¦R VD D¦D\LONDQ LVHJHO D¦D\ NDQ D¦DNHQLQDQ WDUD NDQ DU=D¦=
L D¦R ID\GD VD D¦D \LGZD DVHJHQ D¦DPEDQ¦R DKDZ10
Traduction du texte de Tamaya (tagdal)
Aujourd’hui nous avons des étrangers qui nous demandent des histoires. Je vais raconter la seule histoire qui nous est arrivée. Nous habitons ici il y a quarante-six ans, et il y avait une grande bataille entre nous et les peuls.2 Un peul était mort dans le bataille.3 Quelques uns de nous étions arrêté pour cela, et ils ont fait des années en prison,4 à cause de ce peul. Après qu’ils ont sorti de prison, nous nous sommes bagarrés avec les peuls encore. Ils avaient leur chef qui s’appelle Yobi.5 Un des hommes qui a fait la bataille était blessé jusqu’à la mort, mais il est revenu en vie. On nous a convoqués à Agadez, et on a arrêté quelques uns. Le chef s’est rendu à Agadez et il les a fait sortir de prison.
Après cela, il m’est arrivé de devenir éleveur. Je suis parti à quarante kilomètres pour donner de l’eau.6 Je suis parti dans la forêt de Abrik. J’ai quitté la maison la nuit, et j’ai continué jusqu’au matin et je suis arrive à la mare de Abrik. Je suis parti à la maison quand les animaux ont bu. Le sommeil m’a pris sur ma monture.7 J’ai fait trois heures à dormir sur la monture.8 Je ne me suis pas réveillé, je ne me suis pas tombé, je n’ai rien fait jusqu’à ce que je me sois réveillé le soir.9 Lorsque je me suis réveillé, les
2
Qu’est-ce qu’ils on fait avec les peuls? bagarrer
3
Qui est mort? un peul
4
Où est-ce qu’ils sont allés? en prison
5
Qui est Yobi? le chef des peuls
6
Il devait aller combien de kilomètres pour trouver l’eau? quarante
7
Où est ce qu’il a dormi? sur le chameau
8
Il a dormi pendant combien de temps sur le chameau? 3h
9
(25)
chamelles que je suivais étaient perdues. Je dormais en brousse.10 Jusqu’au jour où je suis retourné chez moi, j’étais désorienté.11
Texte de Tofabayogh (tabarog) [field transcription]
¦D\ NDOD ¦D PXNDO NLPD¦D\ OHEHULJLQH NXPD DQD QVOPQ1WDUD NDQ NXPD =,5 =,5 N,Q
D WL WL¦D V(QL PL ZH,QGD 6DGRDQND ¦D\ ¦DED5D $EDODN VD¦DWL ,WL ¦DGN¦D]D ¦DG,JODD] D ¦DG,JODD] ¦D VNPDGD PD]N PD KRUD DEH\G,J,Q ],J,QD QGU] ,5, GQ LQNHW ¦D NR\
KDUDQ WXULQ J(QGD VQDW WXPUZQ QDKDW QGD KRJQ ¦D NPT(W QL V(O(Q ¦D WL6(I DKR (W ODUDD 6LQ VLELQ =D¦=L D5XEXKX5L L5L NX JLGDQ JLGDQ DQGX XUXKXQ L5L NR\ WDJOQ WJO
(O LUL GX D NDQ KD LUL WL D Q(Q NXUX KDQD WDNV2NXUX KDQD VX5X WLDQDQD DUD V8VW,QDQ OE
H\G,N JGD¦R NDQ DEXU3DZDQ LUL WH QQ QJX=D6,Q LVG ED\D DPDGDO NRQGD VKUN LUL VL
QV LUL PDGD DJQD D5DKQ WDQDPQL4DQJD NLUL GD EDX¦RIRGD KD=LQ ELQL DNR HQDUD XKDUR
VD PXVD DEDUD GD¦R VH LUL =HQNDW D LUL KDQJD HQGD VDPDQ GD¦R LUL ]L]LEHWD LUW(QDQ DED\ GDJ D]D¦DQ(Q HQVDUD\HQ LQHPDZD LJXPD LUL DVHGHUDJDQ LUWHQHQ LUJRUD LUHE LULE ¦HOL¦HOL D¦LZDQ LUQHJXQ VL ZD\ HQGD DUX ¦DV ZD\VHQG DUD LVLQLJL DUD¦VL LVHED\D DPDGDO VLQ LVHE D\D DPGDO NLQGD LUHE ¦HOL¦HOL LQ¦X VHGD KDU LJDQ HQ DPPDV DPPDV DGRV LUL VH LULJXXD D UHE ¦HOL¦HOL DPPDV ZHGD VD LUJXQ ERUD IR NDQ GD¦R NDQ DODKX ZLUVD HQ VDD LUL KDV DQD
P D ERUD IR NHQ DQJD GD QDPPDV DP \HNHU NDQ5 DE¦HOL¦HOL DND6ZDV D DNDV6ZDV D¦DV ¦
DOL¦DOL ]D¦HQ KD¦DZ6DED\GDJ HQGD DLJX VDUD\ LEDUD D¦D\ DNLG 6(I LUNR\QLQ KRZDU VLUL Q
JLUL LULNXOX NHOXPXOH LUL VHUDU VD¦R 6HI HQ DQ GL]HQ NHUDG HQGD D¦D\ HQGD NDPD6L LULVERU DW PDP HQGD PXVD GD¦R D¦R NDQ DED\GDJ KHV PRWD NHQ DGD= NHQ DND6ZDV ND D]XUX LUL NXQ DVH LUL ND GD 6HI LUL ]LUL GULQ6LQ 6(I DQGD DQGD PXVD LEDUD PRWD VHUHI WDQ NDUWDJR DN D6ZHU DGD DGDNDW KXQR D¦R PXVD HQGD 6(I NDPEDQ LUL PL]L HQGD LUHE ND\WD VHUHP DQD H
QGD HNL 6HI XVXDQD QDIRVD 6HI LGD DVH WRQGDEH NDUDG7DED\GDJR ID6HNHUR 6HI LGD DVH WRQ
GDEH NDUDG DZULQ V(W(NL DVXZDQDQ IR VD D¦UD IR ZDQPL LPX ZDJDGDQ LZDQVL WXZD¦DVH
DVLVLV LPGLV NDPED LZDQVL WDZH¦D8 DQJDGH] LQGDULQ ]L VLUWLQD ]LQHEHUH ]HG FRPR QDQD
VH]L QWL NDQ NDUDG D]DZNDWL9LUL \HG NHW NXUDKDO D¦UHP DU \HGNDO WLJDOHO WLJDOHO LUL \LG
PDNDW DND LUL NR\ WLDQ DEDODN DEDOND DVHVHND\ HQGD 6LQWDEDUDGHQ KDU DGD NDV ZNDQ =LUL
KLQND10D ZDWD\ DGDNDQ LJODVDQ DKDPNDWD DWH ¦DV D WDOD¦D LGD GDNRUND
Traduction du texte de Tofabayogh (tabarog)
Un jour j’ai eu un problème. Les voleurs ont eu mon père12 dans la brousse. Ils l’ont frappé. Lorsque je suis venu on l’a amené à Chadouanka, je suis à Abalak. Quand je suis venu, il est là. J’ai marché, j’ai marché, j’ai marché, j’ai eu le temps d’y arriver. J’ai suivi leurs traces. J’ai suivi leurs traces jusqu’à
10
Où est-ce qu’il a dormi? en brousse
11
Il était comment? désorienté 12
(26)
Turigan. Pendant vingt jours j’ai suivi leurs traces et je les ai eus. Je suis venu chez le chef de la gendarmerie avec Moussa et je lui ai dit, “Ghasingid (nom de chef), revenir après sept jours.” Les sept jours sont venus Mercredi et le jour de Samedi ils les cherchent. Nous avons quitté Gidan Andou, on a quitté pour Tagalal. Nous sommes revenus de Tagalal à Kuruhan le soir.13 Quand on est venu à Kuruhan, on a demandé là où les voleurs sont.14 Ceux qui sont là ils ne connaissent pas le voleur. Ils nous n’ont pas dit la vérité. Ils nous ont dit de partir à l’ouest.15 Ils ont regroupé leurs têtes. Après cela je suis parti chez Moussa. Nous sommes venus avec eux, nous les avons amenés, nous les descendons, on est venu. Les voleurs ont vu leurs amis. Ils nous ont vus, ils se sont échappés. On est venu pour encercler la maison. On n’a vu qu’un homme et une femme. L’homme et la femme ont dit qu’ils ne connaissent pas le voleur. Ils ont dit qu’ils ne le connaissent pas. On est là en train de circuler, et on a vu son chameau. Le chameau nous avons vu. En train d’encercler le chameau, on a vu un homme. Que Dieu nous a donné la chance. On a vu quelqu’un, que lui aussi, on a volé son chameau.16 On a vu le voleur qui se cachait derrière un rocher.17 Le voleur, lui et son ami sont là. Moi et le chef, on est parti, nous tous, avec notre groupe, nous trous, moi Kamashi, nous sommes huit avec Moussa. Quand les voleurs ont vu notre voiture, ils ont quitté le rocher, ils ont couru. On les a suivis, moi et le chef et Moussa dans la voiture. Lorsqu’ils ont quitté le rocher, ils ont rencontré Moussa. Nous n’avons pas les laissés s’échapper. Il s’est arrêté. Le chef a fait trois tires.18 Lorsque le chef les a donnés trois tires, il a refusé de s’arrêter. Il a dit aux Haoussas de l’arrêter. Ils ont refusé de l’arrêter. Il les a demandés de l’aider à attraper le voleur et ils ont refusé.19 Le chef a attrapé les deux Haoussas et le voleur. Nous avons amené les trois Haoussas.20 On a retourné à Kurahan, à Tegala, à Abalak. D’Abalak, on les a envoyés à Tchin-tabaradene. Il a fait deux ans en prison.21 Il a fait un an, un an pur. Après avoir revenu, il est parti à Dakoro.
Texte de Ménaka (tadaksahak*) [field transcription]
D\ZD DGDZDQD D¦DED¦ VD D¦WDGD DQGL VH ZLML WDQIXVW DGDZDQD D¦DGD MH GD¦D\EH D¦D\ HQ GD D¦DQJD LGD D6LNHO HVNDOD DULGD ZLML D6LNHO QL6LQD KH HEVDZD HQGD D6LNHO WDJPDUW HVNDO
D DULGD D¦D\ HQGD D¦DP DQHVOHP1DUDKXQD NDW KLMHQ LEDUD 6LQWLWDOLZHQ DUH GDNDW KD\GD
DUH GH KD\GD KDU DUH NHQL HGDJ LIHOHQ=HGDQ LEDUD2DUXUX D¦R VHQGD D \LWUDP HMDI D¦RQNH
QL VH DFL DMD\ D¦DQL]DFH QLE JXQD HGDJ LIHOHQ=DGDQ LEDUD HVNDOD VDUH NHQ DND ]D¦UL DWHG D WDJDVW NDPLO DE\XGX QHGD ND LGD WDJHUVW HGDJ D¦R LIHOHQ=HGDQ LEDUD DQJD WDJDVW DEDUD
DED¦DD KXOHQ XQ DULNHQL QHGD ND DUH LPDQDV LQJL KLQND HQGD KDQ6L3D¦DP EDED DPD\
KDQ6L DPD\ WD\WD D¦RGD DJ DGHQ LPDPD\ LGD DQJXND MLQ D¦D EDOH DJLPDV DQJD GD DEKDP
JQD DPGLVNDWD WHULWH GDZHQGD MLQLQ4DQJX ND PR D¦DP EDED QDOEHUDG VD DWXZD KDU DE \
13
Quand est-ce qu’ils sont venu à Kuruhan? le soir 14
Qu’est-ce qu’ils ont demandé à Kurahan? “Où sont les voleurs?”/les voleurs 15
Ils ont dit de partir en quelle direction? à l’ouest 16
Qu’est-ce qu’il a volé? un chameau 17
Où est-ce que le voleur s’est caché? derrière le rocher 18
Qu’est-ce que le chef a fait? tirer trois fois 19
Qui a refusé d’arrêter le voleur? des Haoussas 20
Qui est-ce que le chef a arrêté? les Haoussas et le voleur 21
Qu’est-ce qu’il a fait à Tchin-tabaradene? 2 ans de prison
*
(27)
VDUD IRZ WD\WD D WHNND HVNDNHV DJDU D¦D EDED DZL KH DWH\HQL6WDJD D\X MHUDND HVNDNHV D JDU DVLKLJD D¦DPEDED DWHVHNHQD DVH QDMH DPGLP DVH VLD ZLML D¦DFL QDQD DUHWDZ HGDJ D¦ R VHQGD DUHNHQL DOD KHU ]D¦UL DGD HV ]D¦UL DGD LQDUDQ QLQD LGDPDQ QLQD DZL LGDPDQ KLQ ND HQGD LQDUDQ NDUDG HGDJ D¦R VHQGD DUH MLMLD KDU DUHWDZ DEDKDJD IR PD\ DJDUGDKDQ EHU L D¦DPEDED DER\ D\X DPJLQ D\X WDVDNORW KRVH DUH VHJHQ VHQGD ND DUH \HFLL DUH KLQL LQ
5 6
DFL D¦D\ DMLO7D\ZD D¦DFL DVH D¦WHJRUD D¦DJRUD QHG
D ND D¦DEHUD QHGD D¦DEHUD QHGD ND D¦D\ HQGD D¦DQ KDQ6L DULKLQND GD VD DUH PR VH DGD V
L NHUHQ NDUDG8KDQ6L DVRW DNR\D VD DJHUDQD DZL LQL\DO KLQND DVLKLJ DIR9ZLML ]D DNR\NDW
KDU DWHQ D¦D\GDZ DUHJXQJDQD DUH MLML\DP DUHQ LQDUDQ NDUDG HQGDQ LGDPDQ D¦RQGRQ KLQ ND KDQJD QHGD KDU DUHWDZ QH ND LQL\HO D¦RQGR DVHQGD DUH VHJHQ VHQGD ND WRODVW DUH ND L Q MLQHQ DUHEDUH QH\GD DUHEDUD QH\GD KDU DUHNDZD LQL\DOR EH KDUEHQ D\H]DL DNDZ PDQL
KR EHUD PDQL ND NDDPLO DNDZD10
Traduction du text de Ménaka (tadaksahak)
Je voudrai vous raconter quelque chose qui n’est pas un conte; je vais parler seulement d’une chasse. Je n’ai jamais fait une chasse semblable a la chasse que j’ai faite une fois avec mon père.22 Nous avons quitté le campement de Chintitliwen et nous sommes allés jusqu’à ce qu’on ait dormi là ou l’ifelenjedan (un type d’herbe) se trouve.23 Au côté ouest se trouve un chêne des dunes. Mon père dit, mon fils, tu vois là ou se trouve cette herbe, c’est là que là que le gibier va se rassembler quand il fera jour. Parce que pendant la saison froide le gibier se trouve parmi cette herbe, comme ils l’aiment beaucoup. Bon, nous avons dormi là-bas avec nos deux chameaux et avec le chien de mon père.24 Mon père a eu un chien avec beaucoup de sagesse parce qu’il suivait mon père au lieu où il chassait. Mon père le laisse à côté de la selle et des bagages.25 Il prend le fusil, et quand le chien entend le bruit, il court pour arriver là-bas. Jamais les gens n’ont vu un chien comme ça, j’ai dit qu’il a beaucoup de sagesse. Quand il trouve que mon père a tué quelque chose, il reste à côté; quand il trouve que mon père a blessé quelque chose, il va le lui montrer seulement pour qu’il le prenne pour lui.
Je dirais, nous sommes arrivés là-bas où nous avons dormi jusqu’à ce qu’il fasse jour. Quand il faisait jour, les inaran (type de biche) et les idaman (autre type de biche) étaient là. Il a tué deux inaran et trois idaman à cet endroit. Nous les avons portés jusqu’à la forêt ou il y avait un grand arbre que mon père connaissait. Nous restons là jusqu’à ce que nous les avions dépouillés et préparé leur cœur-et-foie.26 Nous avons passe la journée là et y sont restes jusqu’à midi.27 Mon père m’a dit, bon, maintenant tu vas rester ici, moi, je vais aller là-bas pour trouver ce qui deviendrait sauce. J’ai dit, sauce, c’est quoi? Il m’a dit,
22
Avec qui est-il allé chasser? avec son père
23
Où est-ce qu’ils ont dormi? à un endroit avec ifelenjedan (un espèce de broussaille)
24
Il y avait combien de chameaux? deux
25
Où est-ce qu’il a laissé le chien? à côté de la selle et des bagages
26
Qu’est-ce qu’ils ont fait avec le gibier? les dépouiller et préparer les cœur-et-foie
(28)
c’est le graisse de l’autruche.28 Bon, je le disais, je vais rester, je vais rester ici. J’étais là, moi et le chien, nous étions deux là. Nous avons entendu qu’il faisait trois coups de fusil.29 Le chien sautait et allait à lui, et il trouvait qu’il a tué deux autruches et en a blessé un.30 Il est revenu à moi et nous avons porté les trois inaran et deux idaman vers là-bas. Nous sommes arrivés là ou se trouvait les autruches et nous sommes enfin assis là avec notre bagage. Nous restons là. Quand nous sommes arrivés aux autruches, il les a dépouillés et a enlevé la graisse qui était là; toute la graisse a été enlevée.31
Texte d’Ingal (tasawaq) [field transcription]
JH LUL KXQX LULNR\ WDUD JD LULWo\QD
WDUD LULE=LGD JH LULE=LGD VL\DZ WXQNDW JHKL\D =L DWXQ NDW DELELEL VDL WDUH\ VLUL LULNXQD JD WDUHL VLUL NXQD PD WD GD VDL LUL NHL LUL NDL LQGD LUL PRWD PDUGD JDL LUL NDL LQGD LUL P RWR LUL ED6HL PHUL NDQ NR\ NXQD KX JDQGD DQNROOH LNR\H NXPDNDW LUL6L WDUH LQGD LUL NR\ \ JD DGZDN IRGDQ YX QL NXPD WDUH JDQ LULQL JRXPD WDUH H]L VDL LUL GLGL ]XPEX LUH KXUWX JXUL LQVLGDL JD LUD KXU WXJXG=L LQVLGDL LUL EHUD WXJXG=L LQVLGDL VDL JD DOJDVHUGDQ DOJDVDU
]L JD DGDQ P(UDL LUL NDZD WDIDUR NLWD JD LUL NXPD WDID\ NLWD VDL LUL \DGD WDQWDQ PDQ JX
QD JD LUL WDQWDQ PDQJXQD ]DJQL GR¦R LUL KXQX QDZ GD LUL \DNDWH NDOD LULE \DJOD\D NDOD
LULE \DJOD\D NDOD LULE \DWD\D VDL JD PDLUDL IDUJD GD LUL IDUJD JD LUL IDUJD LUL JX EDQ LUL
PRWD NXQD LUL \DNDW GDQ ]LGD LUL \D GD JRUR LUL EDUD QDZ JD NDUIH WDPDQLD GDQ LUL KXU
NDWPHUDL VL\DZ DEDQ PHUDL JD KL\DX D=L EHQD LUL ND\ NDW LUL QLWR NDW JD DUL HUH QDL LUL
EHUDQHZ DUL GLML GDNXQD LULE MXUFH DUH GDQ NXQD VDL JD DQJR\ IDLUH LUL6L WDJH\WH DJDQ GD Q LUL WR NDW GRNXQD LUL EDND P(UL JD LUL WRNDW GRQ NXQD LUL EDUD LUL NRZ LULQ GDEGH LUL G
DULLUL NDL LQGD LUL NXUX KXJXPDL NRQD DEHUQRV 6LQUL QJX LENDUD LUL EDUD KDJX LQPDV LUL E
DUD QDZ GD JD LUL EDQDZ GD LULQ GDEGH ND LEWD\ LUL NRPD JD LUL NDL GDQ LUL QL PDL KDND PDUDGD LUL NDZL PLG=LGD LUL EDUD KHJX LQD PDV LULEJRUR VDL JD 6LUHQJX EDQ JD 6LUJX EDQ
LUL KDLR LULQ GDEGH DOIX=XUIXU LUL NR\ NDW DJURZD
Traduction du texte d’Ingal (tasawaq)
C’était un jour de dimanche qu’on est sorti avec notre chef.32 Quand on est sorti, nous sommes sortis en brousse.33 Arrivés en brousse en marchant en marchant il y a le vent qui vient. Quand le vent est venu, il faisait noir. On s’est désorienté. Quand on s’est désorienté, on s’est arrêté. On s’est arrêté avec notre véhicule. Maintenant qu’on a arrêté avec notre véhicule, on regarde auprès de Dieu pour aide, pour que le bon Dieu nous trouve la route, là où on va retourner pour aller au village. On est là; on a attendu débout jusqu’à ce qu’il soit tard. Il fait tard et on n’a pas retrouvé la route. Quand on n’a pas eu la route, on est
28
Qu’est-ce qu’il voulait chercher? la graisse d’autruche
29
Qu’est ce il a entendu? trois coups de fusil
30
Qu’est-ce que le père a fait? tué deux autruches et en blessé un
31
Qu’est ce qu’il a enlevé? (toute) la graisse 32
Nous sommes sortis avec qui? notre chef 33
(29)
descendu pour rester sous un arbre.34 On était sous l’arbre et on y est resté jusqu’au soir.35 Le soir il y avait encore un peu de lumière.36 Quand on a eu un peu de lumière, on est allé devant. Quand on a continué devant, on est revenu là òu on a quitté.37 On fait le tour, on fait le tour, jusqu’à ce que nous nous soyons fatigués. Quand nous étions fatigués, l’essence dans notre véhicule était finie. Donc, on est revenu à le même endroit pour s’asseoir.38 On est là. Quand il est 8 heur on est rentré.39 Maintenant le vent est fini. Maintenant que le vent est fini, on est retourné. On n’est même pas arrivé quand il a commencé à pleuvoir.40 On est là, on continue dans la pluie jusqu’à ce que Dieu nous ait donné la chance de retrouver notre chemin. On est arrivé là où on est. Quand nous sommes arrivés à la maison, nous avons enlevé nos habits et nous les avons étalés.41 On a arrêté notre véhicule à la porte; la pluie le frappe -- nous sommes à l’intérieure. On est là. Quand nous sommes là, nos habits sont mouillés. Quand on a quitté on n’a rien. Maintenant on les a enlevés obligatoirement. On est à l’intérieur assis. Jusqu’à la fin de la pluie. Quand la pluie a fini, on s’est habillé. Il était déjà l’aube. On a quitté pour le village.42
34
Où est-ce que nous sommes restés? sous un arbre 35
Nous sommes restés là jusqu’à quand? le soir 36
Qu’est-ce que nous avons eu? un peu de lumière 37
Où est-ce que nous sommes venus? là où on a quitté 38
Où est-ce que nous nous sommes assis? sur le même endroit 39
Quand est-ce que nous sommes rentrés? à huit heures 40
Qu’est-ce que est arrivé maintenant? la pluie 41
Qu’est-ce que nous avons fait avec nos habits? les enlever, les étaler 42
(30)
Appendix C: Intelligibility test data
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores*
Ingal Demographics Tasawaq (hometown) test scores
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
2 m 12 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
3 m 13 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 9
4 f 11 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 10.5
5 m 14 CM1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9
6 m 13 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
7 f 13 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
9 f 14 CM1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
10 f 12 CM1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
11 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
12 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 10
* Subject # 8 failed the hometown test.
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (cont.)
Ingal Demographics Tagdal
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 5
2 m 12 CM1 0 1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 1 1 3.5
3 m 13 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 7
4 f 11 CM1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3
5 m 14 CM1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 4
6 m 13 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 5
7 f 13 CM1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4
9 f 14 CM1 1 1 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 1 1 5.5
10 f 12 CM1 0.5 1 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
11 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 7
12 f 14 CM2 1 1 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 0 1 4.5
(31)
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (cont.)
Ingal Demographics Tabarog test scores
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0 5.5
2 m 12 CM1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 1.5
3 m 13 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0.5 0 4.5
4 f 11 CM1 1 0.5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 3
5 m 14 CM1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0.5 5
6 m 13 CM1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 1 0 2.5
7 f 13 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 2.5
9 f 14 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0 5.5
10 f 12 CM1 1 0.5 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.5 0 5
11 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0 6.5
12 f 14 CM2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.5 0 2.5
* Subject # 8 failed the hometown test.
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (concl.)
Ingal Demographics Tadaksahak test scores
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
2 m 12 CM1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
3 m 13 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
4 f 11 CM1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
5 m 14 CM1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
6 m 13 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
7 f 13 CM1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5
9 f 14 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 3.5
10 f 12 CM1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
11 f 14 CM2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 2.5
12 f 14 CM2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3
(32)
C.2 Tamaya subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores*
Tamaya Demographics Tagdal (Hometown Test)
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 15 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
3 m 15 CP 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 1 1 1 1 8.5
4 m 17 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 9.5
5 m 15 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 0 1 1 1 7.5
6 m 27 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 9
7 m 15 CE2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 9
8 m 16 CE2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
9 m 15 CE1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 9
10 f 15 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 8
* Subject # 2 failed the hometown test.
C.2 Tamaya subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (cont.)
Tamaya Demographics Tabarog Test
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tota
1 m 15 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
3 m 15 CP 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
4 m 17 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
5 m 15 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 8
6 m 27 ? 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 8.5
7 m 15 CE2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 9.5
8 m 16 CE2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
9 m 15 CE1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
10 f 15 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
(33)
C.2 Tamaya subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (concl.)
Tamaya Demographics Tadaksahak Test
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 15 CM1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0.5 1 6
3 m 15 CP 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 5
4 m 17 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 4
5 m 15 0 1 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 0.5 1 4
6 m 27 ? 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 6
7 m 15 CE2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0.5 1 0 1 7.5
8 m 16 CE2 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 5
9 m 15 CE1 1 0 1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 1 3.5
10 f 15 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 4
* Subject # 2 failed the hometown test.
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores
Tofabayogh Demographics Tabarog (Hometown) Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tota
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 9
3 m 16 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
4 m 10 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 8.5
6 m 46 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 9
(34)
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and RTT scores (cont.)
Tofabayogh Demographics Tagdal Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 8
3 m 16 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9
4 m 10 ? 1 1 1 0.5 0 1 1 1 1 1 8.5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 9
6 m 46 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 1 1 1 1 8.5
7 m 15 corr. 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0 8.5
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and RTT scores (cont.)
Tofabayogh Demographics Tasawaq Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 9
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 9
3 m 16 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 9
4 m 10 ? 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 8
6 m 46 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 8
7 m 15 corr. 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 8
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and RTT scores (concl.)
Tofabayogh Demographics Tadaksahak Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 0 0 1 1 6.5
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 1 7
3 m 16 ? 1 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0 0 1 5
4 m 10 ? 1 1 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 1 3.5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 0 0 1 0 5.5
6 m 46 0 1 0 0 0 0.5 1 0 0 0.5 1 4
(1)
Appendix C: Intelligibility test data
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* Ingal Demographics Tasawaq (hometown) test scores
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
2 m 12 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
3 m 13 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 9
4 f 11 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 10.5
5 m 14 CM1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9
6 m 13 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
7 f 13 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
9 f 14 CM1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
10 f 12 CM1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
11 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
12 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 10
* Subject # 8 failed the hometown test.
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (cont.) Ingal Demographics Tagdal
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 5
2 m 12 CM1 0 1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 1 1 3.5
3 m 13 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 7
4 f 11 CM1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3
5 m 14 CM1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 4
6 m 13 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 5
7 f 13 CM1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4
9 f 14 CM1 1 1 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 1 1 5.5
10 f 12 CM1 0.5 1 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
11 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 7
12 f 14 CM2 1 1 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 0 1 4.5
(2)
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (cont.) Ingal Demographics Tabarog test scores
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0 5.5
2 m 12 CM1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 1.5
3 m 13 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0.5 0 4.5
4 f 11 CM1 1 0.5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 3
5 m 14 CM1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0.5 5
6 m 13 CM1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 1 0 2.5
7 f 13 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 2.5
9 f 14 CM1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0 5.5
10 f 12 CM1 1 0.5 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.5 0 5
11 f 14 CM2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0 6.5
12 f 14 CM2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.5 0 2.5
* Subject # 8 failed the hometown test.
C.1 Ingal subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (concl.) Ingal Demographics Tadaksahak test scores
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 f 12 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
2 m 12 CM1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
3 m 13 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
4 f 11 CM1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
5 m 14 CM1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
6 m 13 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
7 f 13 CM1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5
9 f 14 CM1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 3.5
10 f 12 CM1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
11 f 14 CM2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 2.5
12 f 14 CM2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3
(3)
C.2 Tamaya subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* Tamaya Demographics Tagdal (Hometown Test)
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 15 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
3 m 15 CP 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 1 1 1 1 8.5
4 m 17 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 9.5
5 m 15 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 0 1 1 1 7.5
6 m 27 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 9
7 m 15 CE2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 9
8 m 16 CE2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
9 m 15 CE1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 9
10 f 15 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 8
* Subject # 2 failed the hometown test.
C.2 Tamaya subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (cont.) Tamaya Demographics Tabarog Test
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tota
1 m 15 CM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
3 m 15 CP 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
4 m 17 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
5 m 15 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 8
6 m 27 ? 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 8.5
7 m 15 CE2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 9.5
8 m 16 CE2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
9 m 15 CE1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
10 f 15 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
(4)
C.2 Tamaya subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores* (concl.) Tamaya Demographics Tadaksahak Test
Subj. # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 15 CM1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0.5 0.5 1 6
3 m 15 CP 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 5
4 m 17 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 4
5 m 15 0 1 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 0.5 1 4
6 m 27 ? 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 6
7 m 15 CE2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0.5 1 0 1 7.5
8 m 16 CE2 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 5
9 m 15 CE1 1 0 1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 1 3.5
10 f 15 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 4
* Subject # 2 failed the hometown test.
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and Recorded Text Test scores Tofabayogh Demographics Tabarog (Hometown) Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tota
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 9
3 m 16 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
4 m 10 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 9.5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 8.5
6 m 46 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 9
(5)
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and RTT scores (cont.) Tofabayogh Demographics Tagdal Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 8
3 m 16 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9
4 m 10 ? 1 1 1 0.5 0 1 1 1 1 1 8.5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 9
6 m 46 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 0 1 1 1 1 8.5
7 m 15 corr. 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0 8.5
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and RTT scores (cont.) Tofabayogh Demographics Tasawaq Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 9
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 9
3 m 16 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 9
4 m 10 ? 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 8
6 m 46 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 8
7 m 15 corr. 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 8
C.3 Tofabayogh subject demographics and RTT scores (concl.) Tofabayogh Demographics Tadaksahak Test
Subject # Sex Age Edu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
1 m 30 corr. 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 0 0 1 1 6.5
2 m 26 ? 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 1 7
3 m 16 ? 1 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0 0 1 5
4 m 10 ? 1 1 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 1 3.5
5 m 15 ? 1 1 1 0 0.5 1 0 0 1 0 5.5
6 m 46 0 1 0 0 0 0.5 1 0 0 0.5 1 4
(6)
Appendix D: Results of the Northern Songhay RTT
Table D.1 Results of the Northern Songhay Recorded Text Test Test Site
Speech Form Text
Mean Score (%)
Standard Deviation (%)
Sample Size
Tamaya Tagdal 89 8 9
Tagdal Tabarog 93 7 9
Tasawaq 62 10 9
Tadaksahak 50 13 9
Tofabayogh Tabarog 93 5 7
Tabarog Tagdal 88 6 7
Tasawaq 73 13 7
Tadaksahak 54 13 7
Ingal Tasawaq 94 7 1
Tasawaq Tagdal 49 13 11
Tabarog 40 16 11
Tadaksahak 25 11 11
References
Bernus, Edmond et Suzanne (1972) Du sel et des dattes: introduction à l’étude de la communauté d’In Gall et de Tegidda-n-tesemt. Etudes Nigériennes n. 31. Niamey: Centre Nigérien de
Recherches en Sciences Humaines.
Casad, Eugene H. (1974) Dialect intelligibility testing. SIL publications in linguistics and related fields, No. 38. Lacroix, P.F. (1968)
Nicolaï, Robert (1981a) Les dialectes du songhay. Contribution à l’étude des changements linguistiques. (étude phonologique). Paris: Selaf.
Nicolaï, Robert (1981b) Le songhay septentrional (études phonématiques): Extrait du Bulletin de l’Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire. Tome 41 (1979), série B, nos 2, 3, et 4. Dakar: IFAN. Woodke, Jeff (8 May, 1998) Interview. Niamey.