Designing a set of reading instructional materials using content-based instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI 1 Yogyakarta.

STUDENTS OF SMA BOPKRI I YOGYAKARTA

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Rinaldi Kurniawan Student Number: 061214073

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY 2010

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STUDENTS OF SMA BOPKRI I YOGYAKARTA

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Rinaldi Kurniawan Student Number: 061214073

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY 2010

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ABSTRACT

Rinaldi Kurniawan. 2010. Designing A Set of Instructional Materials Using Content-Based Instruction for the Tenth Grade Students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.  

This study aims to answer the two questions which are how a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta is designed and what a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta looks like. To answer those questions, this study employed five steps of Educational Research and Development (R & D) cycle. Those steps were (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Developing Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Final Product Revision.

To answer the first question stated above, this study adapted Yalden’s instructional model and Kemp’s instructional model as the realization of Educational Research and Development (R & D) cycle. Those steps were conducting needs survey, determining goals and general purposes, listing and organizing subject contents, specifying learning objectives, selecting teaching/learning activities, and evaluating the designed materials. Meanwhile, the presentation of the designed materials as the answer of the second question is presented in Appendix I. The designed materials itself consist of five sections, namely ‘Warm Up’, ‘Vocabulary’, ‘Reading’, ‘Comprehension, and ‘Task’.

Dealing with the information which was used to design the reading instructional materials, this study interviewed a tenth-grade English teacher of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta and distributed the questionnaire to 85 tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Afterwards, the reading instructional materials were designed based on the information from the surveys. In addition, the designed materials were also evaluated by giving questionnaires to two tenth-grade English teachers of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta and three lecturers of English Education Language Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Furthermore, the result of the evaluation questionnaire indicated that the designed materials were good and acceptable.

  Upon the completion of this study, the writer hopes that the designed material could help the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta improve their English competence. Besides, the writer also expects that this study could be the reference for other researchers to conduct any further research related to the topic of this study.

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ABSTRAK

Rinaldi Kurniawan. 2010. Designing A Set of Instructional Materials Using Content-Based Instruction for the Tenth Grade Students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.  

Studi ini bertujuan untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan yaitu bagaimana mendesain seperangkat materi pembelajaran reading menggunakan Content-Based Instruction bagi siswa-siswi kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta dan bagaimana penyajian materi yang telah disusun tersebut. Untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan tersebut, studi ini menggunakan lima langkah dalam siklus Educational Research and Development (R & D). Langkah tersbut yaitu: (1) Pengumpulan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, and (5) Revisi produk.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama yang telah disebutkan di atas, studi ini mengadaptasi model instruksional dari Kemp dan Yalden sebagai realisasi siklus

Educational Research and Development (R & D). Step-step tersebut yaitu melakukan survei kebutuhan, menentukan tujuan dan tujuan umum, memilih dan mengatur isi pembelajaran, merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran, memilih kegiatan pembelajaran, dan mengevaluasi materi. Sementara itu, presentasi dari materi yang sudah didisain sebagai jawaban dari pertanyaan kedua dalam studi ini dapat dilihat pada lampiran I. Disain materi itu sendiri terdiri dari lima bagian, yaitu ‘Warm Up’, ‘Vocabulary’, ‘Reading’, ‘Comprehension, and ‘Task’.

Sehubungan dengan informasi yang dibutuhkan untuk mendisain seperangkat materi reading, studi ini mewawancarai seorang guru bahasa Inggris kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta dan membagikan kueisoner kepada 85 siswa kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Setelah itu, pendisainan materi dilakuakan berdasakan informasi yang diperoleh. Sebagai tambahan, instruksional materi yang telah didesain juga dievaluasi oleh dua orang guru bahasa Inggris kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta dan tiga orang dosen Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Hasil dari kuesioner evaluasi menandakan bahwa materi yang sudah didesain tergolong baik dan dapat diterima.

  Dengan selesainya studi ini, penulis berharap bahwa materi yang telah didisain dapat membantu siswa kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa Inggris mereka. Selain itu, penulis berharap studi ini dapat menjadi referensi bagi peneliti lain untuk melakukan penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai topik dalam studi ini.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. Without His blessing and guidance this thesis would not be accomplished. Mother Mary who always stayed next to me when I was in trouble has also given me extra spirit during the completion of my thesis.

I am also deeply grateful to my major sponsor Drs. Y.B Gunawan, M.A for his patient, guidance, support, criticisms, comments, and everything he has given for the sake of my success in finishing this thesis. I could not have imagined having such an inspiring sponsor for my thesis.

I also owe a debt of gratitude to Ag. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., and C. Lhaksmita Anandari, S. Pd., M.Ed. for their willingness to evaluate my designed materials. Without their suggestions and comments, my thesis would never be completed. Moreover, I am also grateful to all the lecturers and the secretariat staffs of English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University and all the librarians who assisted me during the completion of my thesis.

I would also thank to Drs. Priyanto as the headmaster of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta for giving me permission to conduct research there. To Pak Purwanto and

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conducting the research. I also would like to address my thanks to the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta for their cooperation.

My deepest gratitude also goes to my beloved parents, papa Kenthut and

mami Naning who always support and pray for my success. They have been my motivation and inspiration. I am deeply grateful for having them in my life. My brother, Mas Prima, had also showed his generosity by lending me his laptop. I also address my thanks to all my cousins, Nana, Desy, Dumbo, and Tista for having joy and tears together.

I also wish to thank to all my friends in PBI 2006 for their wonderful relationship. In particular, I would like to mention Adven, Nonok, Riris, Esti, Nita, Satrio, Sari, Vita, Puput, Yoga, Mupet, Tata, Kucluk, Vika, and Thunder for their help and support. They all have helped me improve my English. Without them, I might not finish this thesis. I also feel thankful to all my friends in omah

Lempuyangan 182 for their companionship. I have learned many things from them, especially something about life lesson. In addition, I also wish to thank to anak2 rumah Catur for having a great time together; May grace always shine on us so that we can change our life to be a better one.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to all people whose names I cannot mention one by one for their help and support. Thank you so much and God bless you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv

ABSTRACT... v

ABSTRAK ... vi

STATEMENT OF PUBLICITY ... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS... x

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ... xiv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background... 1

B. Problem Limitation... 5

C. Problem Formulation... 6

D. Research Objectives ... 6

E. Research Benefits ... 7

F. Definition of Terms ... 8

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description... 10

1. Instructional Design Models ... 10

a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model... 11

b. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model... 15

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3. Content-Based Instruction... 19

4. Models of Content-Based Instruction ... 26

5. The Framework for Implementing Content-Based Instruction ... 29

6. Teaching Reading to EFL Students... 33

B. Theoretical Framework ... 38

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method... 44

B. Research Participants ... 49

C. Research Instruments ... 50

D. Data Gathering Technique ... 52

E. Data Analysis Techniques ... 53

F. Research Procedure... 57

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. The Elaboration of the Steps in Designing the Reading Instructional Materials... 59

B. The Description of the Reading Instructional Materials ... 79

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusion... 83

B. Suggestions... 85

REFERENCES... 86

APPENDICES APPENDIX A: The Permission Letters... 89

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APPENDIX C: The Pre-Design Questionnaire ... 95

APPENDIX D: The Evaluation Questionnaire ... 98

APPENDIX E: The Result of Establishing the Contents... 101

APPENDIX F: The Result of Organizing the Contents... 104

APPENDIX G: The Syllabus of the Designed Materials... 107

APPENDIX H: The Lesson Plans of the Designed Materials ... 115

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1: The Kemp’s Instructional Model... 14

Figure 2.2: The Yalden’s Instructional Model... 17

Figure 2.3: The Writer’s Instructional Model ... 43

Figure 3.1: R & D Cycle and the Writer’s Model... 48

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1: The Description of Post-design Participants... 50

Table 3.2: The Presentation of Participants’ Opinions on the Designed Materials 55 Table 3.3: The Presentation of Participants’ Opinions on the Designed Materials 56 Table 4.1: The Summary of the Interesting Topics Based on the Students’ Opinions ... 66

Table 4.2: The Description of the Threads in the Designed Materials ... 68

Table 4.3: The Objectives of Each Unit in the Designed Materials... 70

Table 4.4: The Transitions in the Designed Materials ... 73

Table 4.4: The Description of the Participants... 74

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter is divided into six sections. They are Research Background, Problem Limitation, Problem Formulation, Research Objectives, Research Benefits, and Definition of Terms.

A. Research Background

Nowadays, English is important for our life. It has become an international language. English is viewed as a means not only to communicate with other people from different countries but also to access knowledge. English has been used in almost every field such as technology, science, information, trade, etc. Thus, English mastery is considered as a need for people to survive, otherwise they will be left behind.

Responding the phenomenon that English has been an international language, many countries in the world which do not use English as their first language start to include English lesson as a compulsory subject in schools. Indonesia as one of those countries also does the same thing. The government includes English in the curriculum at elementary school levels up to university levels.

In the effort to develop students’ English competence, some schools in Indonesia have recently implemented a new program called immersion program or international program. The implementation of immersion program in which English

is used as the medium in subject matter classes is considered as an appropriate way to improve students’ English competence. The immersion program is expected to provide students with plenty of opportunity to practice English not only in English lesson but also in other subjects. Students, then, are demanded to use English for academic purposes. According to Krashen (1985), the immersion program offers the nature of learning the second language by utilizing that language in learning subject matter. As a result, the immersion program focuses on both second language acquisition and subject matter mastery.

In line with the immersion program which has been conducted by some schools in Indonesia, the role of English lesson in the immersion program must be regarded as an important thing. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), the foreign language role in immersion programs is as a vehicle for content instruction. It reflects that students’ English proficiency level may determine their success in content subjects. Therefore, the English lesson should serve students’ needs. Students’ needs are not only to use English to communicate in daily life situations but also to access the content of academic learning and teaching.

Responding to such challenge, the implementation of Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is seen as the appropriate approach to serve the students’ needs. CBI which integrates particular subject matter content with the objectives of language teaching is intended to establish links between language classes and subject matter classes. The links itself are established by improving students’ language foundation and teaching students effective study skills. Brinton et al (1989) argue that the focus

for students in CBI is on acquiring information via the second language, and in the process, developing their academic language skills.

Since the subject matter content is exploited in CBI, it brings the consequence that the language teaching of CBI emphasizes on the meaning rather than the usage or form. Through the focus on meaning, the second language acquisition is done unconsciously. Krashen (1985) argues that the knowledge that is gained unconsciously can lead to the second language proficiency. Meanwhile, he also argues that knowledge that is gained consciously such as grammatical rules will never be converted into second language acquisition. However, it functions as a self correction when learners produce the language. Therefore, the implementation of CBI lies on the principle that learning a second language is more successfully if the focus is on acquiring the information rather than on mastering the grammatical rules.

In its implementation in the classroom, CBI has several different applications. According to Brinton et al (1989), there are three models in CBI, namely sheltered model, adjunct model, and theme-based model. In order to implement CBI appropriately in senior high school level, the writer refers theme-based model to design the reading instructional materials. Compared to the other models in CBI, theme-based model is slightly different. What makes it different is on the primary purpose and the setting where it is used. The main objective of theme-based model is to help students develop L2 competence within specific topic areas (Brinton et al, 1989: 19). Meanwhile, theme-based model is usually used in EFL contexts in schools or universities.

Regarding the objective of CBI in theme-based model, the English instructional materials in this study is designed for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. The writer focuses on SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta since the school has implemented a pilot project program (RSBI). Similar to the immersion program, RSBI also uses English as the medium in subject content classes. However, since it is still RSBI, the subject matter classes which use English are still limited to the physical science subjects. Moreover, not all teachers utilize English fully in class. It happens due to lacks of English capability possessed by the teachers. Thus, the English portion in the teaching of subject content is more closely to the written texts.

Pondering that the English use in RSBI is mostly done through texts, this study intends to design reading instructional materials using CBI. The reading instructional materials are expected to help the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta increase their English competency level so that they can successfully achieve the objectives in the content subjects. Besides, the reading materials also present some effective study skills so that the students can apply the skills in subject matter classes. Based on the needs analysis, the writer found that most of the tenth grade students in SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta were not accustomed to reading the content subject materials, in which they are written in English. One of the reasons was the lack of the authentic materials used in the English lesson. Thus, it reflects that the materials in the English lesson have not yet sufficient, especially for assisting them in academic purposes. Consequently, it can be the barrier for the students to

reach success in the content subjects especially in the physical science subjects. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conduct this study.

As what has been discussed above, this study refers theme-based model of CBI in which the reading instructional materials are presented around themes. There are five themes in the designed materials of this study. Each theme consists of two units which are connected to each others. The contents of five themes in the designed materials are also related to the students’ subject matters, such as physical science subjects, economy, and history, while the rest is informational content. Furthermore, the selection of the themes was based on the interests of the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Besides, the use of those themes in this study is expected to prepare them to enter their regular subject-area classrooms in which English is used as the medium in the classroom.

B. Problem Limitation

This study focuses on designing a set of reading instructional materials for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. The reading materials are designed applying CBI in which the reading materials are organized around the selected themes. The application of CBI used in designing the reading instructional materials is the theme-based model. Furthermore, the contents used in the reading materials are related to subject matters, such as physical science subjects, economy, and history, while the rest is informational content. Those contents are selected based

on the consideration that the reading are designed to prepare the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta to enter into regular subject-areas classroom.

C. Problem Formulations

The problem formulation of this study is presented as follows:

1. How is a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta designed?

2. What does the design of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta look like?

D. Research Objectives

There are two main objectives of the study. The objectives are formulated as follows:

1. The study aims to design a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. 2. The study aims to present a set of reading instructional materials using

Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta looks like.

E. Research Benefits

It is hoped that this research will be beneficial for those who are involved in English language teaching. Therefore, in order to make it clear, the benefits of the research are presented as follows:

1. For the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta

The research is expected to stimulate and further develop their English skills especially reading skills by providing them with great exposure to English through the tasks presented in the reading instructional materials. Besides, it is also expected to prepare the students enter their subject matter classes by providing study skills in the reading instructional materials.

2. For the English teachers of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta

The research is expected to give a clear description to the English teachers of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta about a set of reading instructional materials using CBI in which the materials can be used as a reference to teach the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. It is also hoped that the teachers can broaden their knowledge about English teaching.

3. For other researchers

The results of the research may be used as a reference for other researchers to conduct research related to the topic. It also can give a description for them about designing a set of reading instructional materials using CBI for the tenth grade students.

F. Definition of Terms

In order to avoid misconceptions and give the clearer boundaries in the research, some terms are defined below.

1. Designing

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 65), designing is defined as the process of creating a new set of materials that fits the learning objectives and specifies subject area of particular learners. In this study, designing refers to the development of reading instructional materials to help the learners achieve particular goals in learning English.

2. Instructional Materials

Instructional materials are a set of clear and coherent units which will guide teachers and learners through various activities in the teaching-learning process (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 107). In other words, it can be the guidelines for the teacher to organize the teaching-learning process. Therefore, in this study, instructional materials are a set of materials which facilitate the teaching-learning process so that it can help the student gain reading comprehension skills.

3. Reading

According to Nunan (2003: 68), reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. In this study, reading is one of the four English skills that should be

mastered by the students. Reading skill, then, include the skill to understand the written texts in order to access the information.

4. Content-Based Instruction

According to Krahnke (1987), Content-Based Instruction is the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with little or no direct or explicit effort to teach the language itself separately from the content being taught. In this study, Content-Based Instruction is an English teaching method which is conducted through acquiring the information. In other words, teaching English is conducted indirectly.

5. Tenth Grade Students

Tenth grade students are the students in their first year in senior high school level. The average age of the tenth grade students is about 15-16. According to Hurlock (1980), they are in a transition period between puberty and adult.

10 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter covers the literature review which is used as the basis theories in conducting this study. There are two parts presented in this chapter, namely Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. Theoretical Description discusses the relevant theories underlying this study and Theoretical Framework discusses the synthesis of the theories in designing the materials.

A. Theoretical Description

This part discusses two instructional design models which are applied in designing the instructional reading materials and some significant theories which are utilized as the basis of the study. Furthermore, the instructional design models discussed in this part are Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional design model. Meanwhile, the theories which will be discussed are Kurrikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP), Content-Based Instruction (CBI), Models of Content-Based Instruction and Teaching Reading to EFL Learners. Thus, the further explanation of those models and theories will be presented below.

1. Instructional Design Models

When designing instructional materials, the use of the instructional design model is essential. The reason is that the instructional model functions as a framework or guideline for the designer to design instructional materials or a course

in any educational level. Therefore, this study adapts Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional design model to create the writer’s instructional design model. Those models will be discussed below.

a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

According to Kemp (1977), the instructional design is similar with the instructional technology. The term instructional technology is defined as the process of systematic planning that comprises a model to discover instructional problems and needs, set procedure for solving them, and then evaluate the results. Furthermore, the model is utilized as the answers of the three major questions, namely what must be learned (objectives)? What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels (activities and resources)? And how will we know when the required learning has taken place (evaluation)? Therefore, Kemp proposes eight steps as the instructional design model. The following steps are:

1) Determining the Goals, Topics, and General Purposes

This step starts with recognition of the broad goals of the school system or institution. The identification of the goals is derived from society, students, and subject areas. Afterwards, the topics are selected to serve the goals. Finally, the general purposes are stated for each topic to know what objectives that the students should achieve.

2) Identifying Learners’ Characteristics

Recognizing learners’ characteristics is important since it can influence the selection of topics, objectives, treatment, and learning varieties in the instructional

material design. The learners’ characteristics include the information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. Besides, the factors such as learning condition and learning styles should take into account to develop the individualized learning program.

3) Specifying Learning Objectives

In specifying the learning objectives, there are three categories that should be considered, namely cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Furthermore, those three categories should be clearly stated in terms of activities that best promote learning. In other words, the activities as the realization of learning objectives must be measurable. In addition, the learning objectives usually start with an action verb that describes learners’ specific behaviour or activities.

4) Listing and Organizing Subject Contents

In listing the subject contents, the designer must consider the objectives and the students’ needs. In some cases, the selection of the subject content is done before specifying the learning objectives. The learning objectives are formulated based on the subject content. However, some other designers decide to state the learning objectives first before listing the subject content. According to Kemp (1977), the designers can employ whichever procedure they wish or whichever seems appropriate as long as the subject content relates to the objectives. The content itself refers to the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge (facts and information), skills (step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements), and attitudinal factors of any topic.

5) Developing Pre-Assessment

After specifying the learning objectives and the subject contents, the next step is to conduct pre-assessment. The pre-assessment is aimed at finding out the students’ competence in a certain topic or unit. Thus, it is done by using placement and diagnostic tests as ways of determining students’ background in the subject and as guides for grouping them.

6) Selecting Teaching/ Learning Activities and Resources

To accomplish the learning objectives, the designers should determine the effective and the efficient teaching/learning method. Afterwards, the designers should select the materials and the activities which are in accordance to the teaching method which has been selected. Furthermore, the selection of the resources which use various media is suggested to support the materials and learning activities.

7) Coordinating Support Service

What should be considered in coordinating support service is funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel whose time must be scheduled for participation in the instructional plan.

8) Evaluation

The last step in Kemp’s instructional model is evaluation. The evaluation is used to measure the students’ achievements of a learning process. Besides, the evaluation is also useful to ensure whether the instructional materials are appropriate or not.

In this study, the writer refers to Kemp’s instructional model because the process is flexible. The designer can start with whichever step he or she wants and then move back and forth to the other steps. Furthermore, the designer can create their own model which is based on the Kemp’s instructional model. Moreover, Kemp’s instructional model focuses more on the objectives, activities and resources, and evaluation. In order to give a clear explanation about the process, the diagram of Kemp’s instructional model is presented as follows.

Goals, topics, And General

Purposes

Evaluation

Revision

_Objectives Learning

Supports services

Teaching/ Learning Activities, Resources

Pre-assessment

Subject Content Learner characteristics

Besides referring to Kemp’s instructional model, this study also uses Yalden’s instructional model as the reference to create the writer’s instructional model. Yalden’s model is used as the reference since Yalden’s model is based on the needs survey. In other words, the needs survey is used as the basis to move to the next step as shown in Figure 2.2. Furthermore, how well the designer analyzes the needs survey may be a determining factor in designing the instructional materials.

b. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model

According to Yalden (1987), the development of syllabus design should involve a number of extra-linguistic factors, the educational setting in which the course is to be taught, the learners’ characteristics, the circumstances in which the educational institution operates, even the society in which the language-learning and teaching process is to be carried on. Therefore, the consideration of those factors refers to communicative syllabus. In order to implement the communicative syllabus in a language program development, Yalden proposes these following steps:

1) Needs Survey

What should be done in a needs survey is related to the information gathering which is needed in designing a language program development. When the information gathering is successfully completed, the realistic and acceptable objectives can also be formulated successfully. Therefore, the needs survey include the identification of the communication requirements, personal needs, motivations, relevant characteristics and resources of the learners.

2) Description of Purpose

After completing the needs survey, the next step is description of purpose. This is used to clarify the purpose of the language program. The designer should decide whether the program is for specific purposes or academic purposes based on the needs survey. Then, the objectives and the methodology of a language-teaching program are selected as the basis for conducting the next step.

3) Selection or Development of Syllabus Type

In this step, the designer can combine the various types of syllabus and put various focuses on oral or written language as it is required. Therefore, Yalden (1987) suggests the communicative syllabus, namely structural-functional syllabus, structures and functions syllabus, variable focus syllabus, functional focus syllabus, fully notional syllabus, and fully communicative syllabus.

4) Production of a Proto-Syllabus

After selecting the syllabus type, the next step is to describe what content that the syllabus will have. The content may include the communicative functions, discourse skills, and study skills.

5) Production of a Pedagogical Syllabus

In this step, what should be done by the designer is to develop of teaching, learning, and testing approaches. It includes the development of teaching materials and development of testing sequence and decisions on testing instruments.

6) Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedures

There are three things that should be done in this step, namely selecting the exercise types and teaching techniques, preparing the lesson plans, and preparing the weekly schedules. After completing those three things, the following step is implementation in the classroom.

7) Evaluation

The evaluation of Yalden’s instructional model consists of evaluating the students, the materials, and the teaching approaches. This step is also labeled ‘the recycling step’ because the designer can start again from the beginning.

In this study, the writer refers to Yalden’s and Kemp’s instructional model to create the writer’s instructional model. However, the writer does not use all of the steps of Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional model. The steps which are used from Kemp’s instructional model are determining goals and specific purposes, and evaluation. Meanwhile, the step which is used from Yalden’s model is needs survey. In addition, the writer uses those steps since it has fitted to the writer’s needs in designing reading instructional materials using CBI for the tenth grade students of

Selection of Syllabus Description of purpose Needs Survey Production of Proto-Syllabus Production of Pedagogical Syllabus Development and Implementati on Evaluation

SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Thus, the detail explanation will be presented in Theoretical Framework.

2. School-Based Curriculum (KTSP)

According to Finney (2002: 69), a curriculum includes the educational purpose of the program, the content, teaching procedures and learning experiences which will be necessary to achieve the purpose, and also some means for assessing whether the educational ends have been achieved. In other words, a curriculum is a guideline which covers planning, implementation, and evaluation of an educational program. Thus, the curriculum must be made at the beginning of the course.

Considering how crucial the curriculum is, Indonesia has been trying to formulate the appropriate curriculum for the education. In 2006, the government launched a new curriculum called School-Based Curriculum or widely known as

Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP). According to Government Law No.20/2006, KTSP gives the opportunity for schools to develop their own curriculum based on the basic competence and competence standard which have been formulated. Furthermore, the basic competence and competence standard are used as the basis to determine the graduate competency standard. As it is stated in the curriculum 2006, the students should achieve the graduate competence standard in order to continue to the higher level.

In this study, the writer refers to KTSP as the basis in determining the competence standard and basic competence. The competence standard and basic

competence are used as the goal of the learning process. Therefore, the students are expected to achieve the goal. Afterwards, the learning indicators are formulated based on the competence standard and basic competence. Thus, the decision of what materials to teach and what skills to be achieved can be made.

3. Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

Basically, CBI is a teaching approach that is content-oriented. According to Snow (2001), the content itself is defined as the subject matters that are currently studying in schools. However, the contents are not only limited to the topics in the subject matters. According to Genesee (1994), the contents could not be academic, but it could be any topics, themes, or non-language issues which are interesting or important for the learners. In brief, the content could refer to the any informational contents.

Since the teaching of CBI is organized around the contents, it is highly suggested using authentic texts in the teaching-learning process. The authentic texts are the texts in which it is designed not for language teaching purposes such as the texts in newspapers, journals, or magazines. Furthermore, the main advantages of using authentic materials are: (1) They have a positive effect on learner motivation, (2) They provide authentic cultural information, (3) They provide exposure to real language, (4) They support a more creative approach to teaching, and (5) They relate more closely to learners ' needs (Philips and Shettlesworth 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock 1997, cited in Richards, 2001).

Considering the content that has been discussed above, this study defines CBI as the teaching method which utilizes a particular content as the language teaching materials for the improvement of students’ language competence. More specifically, the teaching-learning process primarily focuses on acquiring the information in the particular content and, in the process, developing their academic language skills (Brinton et all, 1989: 2). Krahnke (1987) also notes that obtaining the content or information within the context in the language which is being learned has no direct or explicit effort to teach the language itself separately from the content being taught. Therefore, it reflects that the process of second language acquisition is done unconsciously.

According to Brinton et al (1989), there are five rationales for integrating the teaching of language and content in CBI, namely:

• The objectives of the language teaching should refer to the use of the target language that the students will use.

• The students’ motivation in language learning can be increased by using the informational contents which are interesting and relevant for the students.

• The language teaching should takes account of the students’ existing knowledge. • The language teaching should focus on the contextualized use rather than on the

correct sentence-level usage so that the students will be aware of the larger discourse level.

• The last rationale comes from the Krashen theory cited by Snow (2001: 304). According to Krashen, the second language acquisition will be successfully achieved when the students receive comprehensible input, not when the learners is memorizing vocabulary or completing grammar exercises. Thus, the input should be at least a level higher than students’ proficiency (i + 1).

In its implementation, CBI has two grounded frameworks, namely approach and design. Those theories are used as the basis to design the instructional materials and to conduct the learning activities in the classroom. Those are presented as follows.

a. Approach

In the approach of CBI, it consists of three subtopics. They are underlying principles, theory of language, and theory of learning. Those theories give the clear explanation about CBI in general. The theories are elaborated below.

1) Underlying Principles

As Richard and Rodgers (2001) note that there are two main principles which are used as a basis in CBI. Those principles are:

• People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information.

2) Theory of Language

According to Richard and Rodgers (2001), there are three assumptions about the theory of language underlying CBI, namely:

• Language is text- and discourse-based

In CBI, language is viewed as a linguistic unit of constructed texts and discourse. Thus, the focus of teaching is how meaning and information are communicated through the linguistic unit rather than single sentences. As a result, it promotes the study of textual and discourse structure of written texts such as letters, reports, essays, description or book chapters or speech events such as meetings, lectures, and discussions.

• Language use draws on integrated skills

CBI views that language involves several skills. In performing the language in real world activities, the presence of any other skills is inevitable. The students may encounter the situation in which they should link the skills such as reading and taking notes, listening and write summary or responding orally to the things that they have written or read. Besides, grammar can also be included as a component of other skills.

• Language is purposeful

CBI views that language is used for specific purposes such as academic, social, or recreational. Thus, when the students focus on the purpose of the language they are exposed to, they become engaged in following through and

seeing if the purpose is achieved and how their own interests relate to the purpose (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 208).

3) Theory of Learning

The concept of learning in CBI is quite different from any existing approaches in language teaching in which the language form is the primary focus of the syllabus and of the classroom teaching. Here are the concepts of learning in CBI cited by Richard and Rodgers (2001:209):

• People learn a second language most successfully when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful, and leading to a desired goal.

• Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than others. • Students learn best when instruction addresses students’ needs.

• Teaching builds on the previous experience of the students.

b. Design

In the design of CBI, there are five theories to be considered, namely objectives, learning and teaching activities, learner roles, teacher role, and the role of the materials. Those theories are used as a framework to design the instructional materials using CBI. Below are the detail explanations.

1) Objectives

Referring to the approach that has been mentioned above, the language learning in CBI is considered as an incidental learning. It means that the language

learning is done indirectly. Generally, CBI has no intention purpose to learn a language. It emphasizes the information in the content subject. According to Richard and Rogers (2001: 211), the objectives of CBI course are stated as the objectives of the content course. So, the achievement in content course objectives is viewed as the adequate evidence that language learning objectives have been successfully achieved. However, as CBI has been developed well, the objectives of CBI can be varied. It depends on the model of CBI which is implementing in the classroom. For the further explanation about models of CBI, it will be discussed in the next part in this chapter. 2) Learning and Teaching Activities

Regarding the definition of CBI which has been stated in the previous paragraph, the activities in CBI are not merely limited to how to get the information within the context. In contrast, the activities in the classroom may vary. As what has been stated by Stoller in Richard and Rogers’ book (2001: 212), there are some types of activities in CBI. They are vocabulary building, discourse organization, communicative interaction, study skill, and synthesis of content materials and grammar.

3) Learner Roles

In CBI, the learners should be independent learners. CBI requires the learners to be more autonomous. They are demanded to be active in interpreting the input or even finding the best learning strategy. Besides, they also become the sources of the content and the participants of selecting the topics and activities as what has Richard and Rodgers noted (2001: 213).

4) Teacher Role

The most important of the teacher role in CBI is the teacher should not only master the target language but also master in the subject matter since CBI usually uses the topics which are related to a particular subject matter. CBI requires more than a good language teacher in order to achieve the more effective teaching-learning process in the classroom. Stryker and Leaver (1993) in Richard and Rogers’ book (2001: 214) give the description about the skills which should be possessed by the teacher. They are varying the format of the classroom instruction, using group work and team-building techniques, organizing jigsaw reading arrangements, defining the background knowledge and language skills required for student success, helping students develop coping strategies, using process approaches to writing, using appropriate error correction techniques, and developing and maintaining high levels of student esteem.

5) The Role of Materials

According to Brinton et al (1989: 17), the materials in CBI should not originally be produced for language and teaching purposes. In other words, it refers to the authentic materials such as magazine articles or newspaper. Thus, the authentic materials are used in order to provide a rich variety of materials for the learners. Furthermore, the modification of the authentic materials is necessary to fix the difficulty level with the learners and it is to get the maximum comprehensibility.

4. Models of Content-Based Instruction

According Brinton et al (1989), the implementation of CBI can be classified into three models, namely:

a. The Sheltered Model

The main objective of this model focuses more on the mastery of the content materials which are being taught (Brinton et al, 1989: 19). This model is mostly conducted at secondary schools or universities. Similar to the tradition of elementary and secondary immersion education, the sheltered courses also separate the ESL students from native-speaking students. The ESL students are placed in one class and taught by a native-speaking content teacher. Furthermore, the teacher is expected to make adjustments and modifications so that the students can follow the courses. The adjustments and modification can be done by simplifying the texts being used, providing the lectures more closely to the written texts, and make a certain linguistic adjustments. According to Davies (2003), the sheltered model can be possibly conducted by two teachers. The first teacher is an ESL teacher and the last is a content subject teacher. They may teach the class together or divide the class time. The content subject teacher has a role to teach the subject matter. Meanwhile, the ESL teacher is to check whether the learners understand the important words.

b. The Adjunct Model

Basically, the adjunct model also has the same characteristics with the sheltered model. The adjunct model is also implemented at the universities. What makes it different from the sheltered model is on the teacher. Davies (2003) argues

that the teacher of an adjunct course is an ESL teacher. In addition, some adjunct courses are usually conducted during the summer months before regular college classes begin, while others run concurrently with regular lessons. Besides, this model may also have the same idea with EPA (English for Academic Purposes) or ESP (English for Specific Purposes).

According Brinton et al (1989), the purposes of this model are to help the students master content materials and introduce students to L2 academic discourse and develop transferable academic skills. Since the teacher is not a content teacher, this model requires a large amount of coordination between the ESL teacher and the content teacher in order to ensure the two courses complement each others. Furthermore, Davies (2003) also sates that developing transferable academic skills is conducted by acquiring specific target vocabulary, facilitating the students with listening, note taking and skimming and scanning texts.

c. The Theme-Based Model

This model usually occurs in EFL contexts such as in schools or other language courses. According to Brinton et al (1989: 19), the purpose of this model is to help students develop L2 competence within specific topic areas. In implementing this model, ESL teachers may use subject matter content as the learning materials for the students. Davies (2003) argues that the teachers should explore various aspects of subject matter content being used rather than attempting to give the students a thorough grounding in a subject in which it would have been too difficult for them to

understand. In addition, the interesting topics which can motivate the students in the learning process are highly recommended.

In its implementation, theme based model refers to a language class in which the syllabus is structured around themes or topics, with the linguistic items in the syllabus subordinated to the “umbrella” organizing of the theme which has been selected (Brinton et al, 1989: 26). In other words, the content is exploited to explore the linguistic items conveyed by the content being used. By doing so, it is expected to generate various activities so that the students find it enthusiastic about the content. Therefore, the teachers are demanded to be knowledgeable in the subject matter and they must be creative enough to stimulate the students’ interests.

Considering that the implementation of CBI can be classified into three models, the reading instructional materials of this study refer to the third model of CBI, namely theme-based model. The objective of theme-based model which is to develop the students English competence becomes the basis in designing the reading materials for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Besides, the subject matter content used in the reading instructional materials also reflects the characteristic of based model as it has been stated in the elaboration of theme-based model above. Moreover, the reading instructional materials are intended for the students in EFL contexts.

5. The Framework for Implementing Content-Based Instruction

According to Stoller and Grabe (1997), the framework for developing the course that utilizes CBI is grounded on the Six-T’s Approach. In the Six-T’s Approach, it is assumed that first consideration must be given to an array of student needs, student goals, institutional expectations, available resources, teacher abilities, and expected final performance outcomes. In other words, the implementation of the Six-T’s Approach includes collecting the data of the students, formulating the learning goals, considering the resources and teacher abilities, and finally designing the teaching learning activities as the final performance outcomes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Six-T’s Approach is a systematic planning of instruction for any instructional settings that endorse CBI. Furthermore, the approach has three basic goals, namely the specification of theme-based instruction as central to all CBI, the extension of CBI to support any language-learning context, and the organization of coherent content resources for instruction and the selection of appropriate language learning activities (Stoller and Grabe, 1997: 4). The explanation of the components of the Six T’s Approach and the steps for implementing the Six-T’s Approach is discussed below.

a. The Components of the Six-T’s Approach

As well as its name, the Six-T’s Approach has six components. They are: 1) Themes. Themes are the central ideas that organize major curricular units.

2) Texts. Texts are content resources (written and aural) which drive the basic planning of theme units. The types of the texts in the Six-T’s Approach are:

• Instructor-compiled content resources: Readings of various genres, videos, audiotapes, maps, tables, graphs, and software.

• Instructor-generated content resources: Lectures, worksheets, graphic representations, and bulletin board displays.

• Task-generated content resources: Student freewrites, discussions, problem-solving activities, graphic representations, library searches, debates, and surveys/questionnaires.

• External content resources: Guest speakers and field trips.

3) Topics. Topics are the subunits of content which explore more specific aspects of the theme. The topics should be organized to generate maximum coherence for the theme unit and to provide opportunities to explore both content and language. 4) Threads. Threads are linkages across themes which create greater curricular

coherence. They are relatively abstract concepts (e.g., responsibility; ethics, contrasts, power). Threads can bridge themes that appear quite disparate on the surface.

5) Tasks. Tasks, the basic units of instruction through which the Six-T's Approach is realized day-to-day, are the instructional activities and techniques utilized for content, language, and strategy instruction in language classrooms (e.g., activities for teaching vocabulary, language structure, discourse organization, communicative interaction, study skills, academic language skills). In the Six-T's Approach, tasks are planned in response to the texts being used.

6) Transitions. Transitions are explicitly planned actions which provide coherence across topics in a theme unit and across tasks within topics. Transitions create links across topics and provide constructive entrees for new tasks and topics within a theme unit. The transition occurs when the students are asked to predict new topics, discuss the importance of prior task, consider issue that prior task does not address, brainstorm additional concepts and associations, engage in guided speed writing, discuss the relationship between the latest reading and a prior reading, and relate personal experiences to past and upcoming tasks.

b. The Steps for Implementing the Six-T’s Approach

According to Stoller and Grabe (1997), the implementation of the Six-T’s Approach comprises two parts. The first part is initial planning. The initial planning is the foundation before the designers can generate the Six-T’s Approach. In the initial planning, there are five things that should be done. First the designers must review students’ needs (based on critical needs analyses), institutional expectations and corresponding objectives, resources possibilities, and teacher preparation. Those things are useful to determine the content, language, and learning skills. Second, the designers need to ascertain the extent to which the curriculum is institutionally predetermined or shaped by teacher and/or student choices. Third, the designers need to decide on the degree of tension a theme is permitted to generate. Tension occurs when students consider complex and/or controversial issues associated with varying perspectives and alternatives viewpoints on topics defining a theme. Fourth, the

designers should determine the number of theme units to be explored and the amount of time in each unit. Fifth, the designer must consider their own commitment to CBI and its objectives.

Once the initial planning has been completed, the designers can go to the next part, namely implementing the Six-T’s Approach. Furthermore, the steps for implementing the Six-T’s approach are:

1) Establishing the Contents. In this first step, the designer collects the contents consisting themes, texts, and topics.

2) Selecting Possible Threads. The threads are formulated first before the tasks in order to make coherence to the overall theme units.

3) Sequencing the Contents. In sequencing the contents, the designers need to consider the availability of the contents, the difficulty of the contents, and the cognitive demands made on the students.

4) Building the Teachers’ Commitment to Learn Additional Information. According to Walmsley (1994) cited by Stoller and Grabe (1997), the teachers’ commitment refers to the need for the designers to ‘bump up their knowledge’. Therefore, it can build the teachers’ motivation and enthusiasm and also provides the teachers with additional options for classroom tasks.

5) Specifying The Objectives for Each Theme Unit. This step requires the specification of core objectives for each theme unit in terms of language, content, and strategy learning.

6) Designing Tasks. This step involves the selection of tasks to carry out the content and language goals of each unit.

7) Designing Transitions. The next step is to determine the transitions that create meaningful linkages across topics. With the transitions, the students sense the logical progression from one topic to the next.

8) Modifying the Theme Unit. This final step involves the fine-tuning of theme units while they are being implemented. The change also possibly happens during the ongoing process of implementing the theme units.

Taking account of the fact that the Six-T’s Approach provides the means for developing a coherent CBI curriculum (Stoller and Grabe, 1997: 7), this study uses the steps of the Six-T’s as the part of the writer’s instructional model. However, this study does not include all of those steps in the writer’s instructional model. There are three steps that are eliminated, namely building the teachers’ commitment to learn additional information, specifying the objectives for each theme unit and modifying the theme unit. In addition, the detail explanation will be explained in The Theoretical Framework.

6. Teaching Reading to EFL Students

In teaching reading to EFL students, there are two important points to consider. They are objectives of teaching reading to EFL students and the stages of teaching of reading to EFL students. The first point deals with the primary purposes

of teaching reading to EFL students. Meanwhile, the second point deals with the framework of teaching of reading to EFL students in which it is used to develop the activities in teaching reading to EFL students. Thus, in order to have a clear description of those two points, the discussion of those two points is presented below. a. Objectives of Teaching Reading to EFL Students

Teaching reading to EFL learners may be critical. What should be taught and how to teach are the aspects which should be considered in teaching of reading. Besides, how reading activities influence the learners’ language proficiency should take into account. According to Richard and Renandya (2002), there are two main goals which should be fulfilled in teaching reading. First, teaching reading should promote the ability of understanding texts in the target language for the students since it becomes the learners’ purpose in learning a second language. Second, extensive exposure to comprehensible written texts can help the process of second language acquisition (Richard and Renandya, 2002: 273).

b. The Stages in Teaching Reading to EFL Students

According to Armbruster and Osborn (2002), there are three stages which can facilitate the learners to relate their background knowledge to the texts they are reading. Those three stages are:

1) Pre-Reading (Before Reading)

Pre-reading is important to prepare the students before they read the whole text. According to Stoller and Grabe (2003), the purpose of pre-reading instructions is to help students access background information that can facilitate subsequent reading,

to provide specific information needed for successful comprehension, to stimulate students’ interests, and to set up students’ expectations and reading strategies that students can later use on their own. Therefore, the activities in this stage include: a) Activate background knowledge

To activate background knowledge, a teacher can ask his/her students about what they already know about the topic. Besides, asking students to make prediction about what will be discussed in the text from the title is also possible. Thus, it can help students recognize and use the information they already possess. However, if students have inadequate background knowledge, the teacher should build his/her students’ background knowledge in order to help them understand the text that they are going to read. Providing students with a preview about the text is one of the ways to build their background knowledge.

b) Build vocabulary

Teaching vocabulary in pre-reading activity may be necessary in order to help the students acquire good understanding about the text. Moreover, the success in comprehending a text depends on the students’ vocabulary. Furthermore, Stahl (1999) states that teaching vocabulary in pre-reading activity should comprise definitional and contextual knowledge. It means that the definition of a word is not enough since the word definition can change with different contexts. Thus, the contextual information is needed to broaden the students’ knowledge on vocabulary. According to Anderson (2003), the students should be taught to use context to effectively guess the word meaning. However, the teacher’s instruction should focus on vocabulary

that is important to understanding the text, rather simply interesting novel vocabulary that is not closely related to the main idea of the selection (Armbruster and Osborn, 2002: 65). This is important because it will promote the students’ ability of guessing the word meaning within the context.

2) While-Reading (During Reading)

In while-reading activity, the thing which should be considered is how to improve the students’ reading comprehension during reading process. Then, providing the questions to the students can be one of the ways. The questions in while-reading activity are essential since it can monitor the students’ comprehension and determine whether the students have difficulties in reading a text. In addition, Armbruster and Osborn (2002: 86) suggest some activities in while-reading. Those are:

• Ask the students to try to find the answers to questions they posed or confirming or disconfirming predictions they made.

• Remind the students to complete the reading guide as they read, if the teacher has prepared it.

• Ask the students to record main ideas and supporting details, outline, summarize, and make graphic organizers.

• Ask the students to record their responses in journals or engage in other informal writing activities, such as note taking, as the read.

3) Post-Reading (After Reading)

The activities included in post-reading are: a) Further questioning

This activity promotes the students to apply, synthesize, or elaborate the information and ideas in the material they have read. The questions in this activity are the follow-up questions to pre-reading and while-reading questions.

b) Discussion

The students will exchange ideas freely in order to gain new understandings or perspective.

c) Writing

Through writing, it assists the students to connect what they already know with new information in the text. The forms of writing can be varied such as summaries, journals, reports, stories, letters, and so on.

d) Role-play

This is an alternative form for the students to enhance or demonstrate their knowledge and understanding. Besides, this activity can break the monotonous teaching-learning process.

e) Application and outreach in the real world

Application may be done by asking the students to implement the concepts described in the text, such as following direction for how to conduct an experiment or make a certain kind of map. The purpose of this activity is to help the students to strengthen the connection between background knowledge and reading.

Taking into consideration that those stages can give an appropriate sequence of teaching reading to EFL students, this study implements the stages as the framework to organize the activities in the instructional reading materials.

B. Theoretical Framework

Referring to the Theoretical Description that has been discussed above, this study adapts Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional model to create the writer’s instructional model which is used to design the reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. The purpose of combining those two models is to achieve the systematic steps of designing the reading instructional materials for the tenth students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. In addition, the writer also added the Six-T’s Approach as the part of the steps of the writer’s instructional model. The Six-T’s Approach is implemented since the Six-T’s Approach is the framework for developing CBI course.

The first step of the writer’s model, namely needs survey, is adapted from Yalden’s instructional model. The reason of selecting the needs survey from Yalden’s instructional model is that the needs survey becomes the strength in Yalden’s instructional model. According to Yalden (1987: 107), the information about the students is the prior step before beginning the program in order to establish the

realistic and acceptable objectives. Therefore, the needs survey should be placed in the first step of the writer’s instructional model.

After conducting needs survey, the next step to do is adapted from Kemp’s instructional model, namely formulating goals, topics and general purposes. However, formulating topics is not included in this step since it is conducted alongside the step of the Six-T’s Approach, namely establishing contents.

Afterwards, the next step to carry on is listing and organizing subject contents. This step is adapted from Kemp’s instructional model. In this step, the writer employs some steps of the Six-T’s Approach, namely establishing contents, selecting possible threads, and sequencing the contents. The steps of the Six-T’s Approach is implemented in the step of listing and organizing subject contents because those steps share the same idea of listing and organizing contents.

After the contents have been determined, the next step to do is specifying learning objectives. This step is also adapted from Kemp’s instructional models. In this step, the writer decides the specific goals of each unit of the reading instructional materials. The goals are stated in form of indicators that the students should achieve in each unit.

Once the specific goals have been formulated, the writer starts to select the teaching/learning activities. The step of selecting the teaching/learning activities is also adapted from Kemp’s instructional model. In selecting the teaching/learning activities, the writer uses the steps of the Six-T’s Approach, namely designing tasks

and designing transitions. The tasks and transitions are designed based on the specific goals that have been formulated before.

As the final step, the writer implements the step of evaluation which is adapted from Kemp’s instructional materials. The step of evaluation is conducted as the final revision of the designing a set of reading instructional materials using CBI for the tenth grade students of SMA BIOKRI I Yogyakarta. In addition, the steps of learners’ characteristics and pre-assessment proposed by Kemp are excluded since their ideas share with the step of needs survey proposed by Yalden. Besides, the writer also does not need any support services proposed by Kemp (1977) because the writer views that it is unnecessarily needed in designing these instructional materials.

To sum up what has been discussed above, the formulation of the writer’s instructional model is presented below.

1. Conducting Needs Survey

Needs survey is conducted by gathering the data about the students. The data includes the learners’ needs, wants, and lacks. Furthermore, the data is gathered by using questionnaires and interview. The purpose of conducting needs survey is to design the realistic and acceptable instructional materials for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta.

2. Determining Goals and General Purposes

After gathering the data about the students, the writer determines the goals and general purposes of the instructional materials. This is done by referring to competence standard and basic competence in School-Based Curriculum (KTSP).

3. Listing and Organizing Subject Contents

In this step the writer starts to list and organize the subject contents. Therefore, the writer employs some steps of the Six-T’s Approach, namely establishing contents, selecting possible threads, and sequencing the contents. According to Six-T’s Approach, the contents consist of themes, texts, and topics. After the contents have been selected, the writer, then, creates the link that connects coherence idea among the theme units. Finally, as themes, texts, topics, and threads have been established, the writer continues arranging the themes, texts, and topics into an appropriate order so that it can be developed into appropriate tasks.

4. Specifying Learning Objectives

In this step the writer formulates the learning objectives that should be achieved by the students in each theme. The formulation of the learning objectives is stated in form of learning indicators. Therefore, the learning indicators should reflect the activities that the students have to do in each theme.

5. Selecting Teaching/ Learning Activities

After specifying the learning objectives, the writer selects the teaching/learning activities by implementing two steps of the Six-T’s Approach, namely designing tasks and designing transitions. The writer designs tasks for the students in order to facilitate the students to accomplish the learning objectives in each unit. The tasks are the activities and techniques that develop students’ language learning, facilitate the learning of content, and model strategies for language and content learning. The writer will also refer to the activities used in CBI such as

activities for teaching vocabulary, language structure, discourse organization, communicative interaction, study skills, academic language skills. Besides, the writer will design the reading activities based on the stages of teaching reading to EFL students as what has been explained in the sub section above.

Afterwards, the writer designs the transitions as the realization of the Six-T’s Approach. The transitions itself provide coherence across topics in a theme unit. Therefore, the transitions are designed in order that the students can relate what they have learned in the previous topic. In addition, the transitions are stated in the form of learning activities.

6. Evaluating the Designed Materials

The last step of the writer’s model is evaluation. The designer evaluates the instructional materials by asking the lectures’ and teacher’s opinions. Therefore, the revision will be made after gathering the data.

To illustrate the writer’s instructional model, the figure below shows the description of the writer’s instructional model.

Figure 2.3: The Writer’s Instructional Design Model Conducting Needs Survey

Determining Goals and General Purposes

Establishing Contents

Selecting Possible Threads

Sequencing the Contents

Designing Tasks

Designing Transitions Evaluating the Designed

Materials

Specifying Learning Objectives Listing and Organizing Subject

Contents

Selecting Teaching/ Learning Activities

44 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology which was used in designing a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. The methodology is used to answer the two questions in the Problem Formulation; first how a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta is designed, second, what a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta looks like. The methodology covers the Research Method, Research Participants, Research Instruments, Data Gathering Techniques, Data Analysis Techniques, and Research Procedures.

A. Research Method

In this study, the writer used Educational Research and Development (R & D) as the reference to check whether the writer’s model in line with R & D method. According to Borg and Gall (1983), R & D is a process used to develop and validate educational products. R & D consists of several steps which include research and information collecting, planning, preliminary form of product, preliminary field testing, main product revision, main field testing, operational product revision, operational field testing, final product revision, and dissemination and

implementation (Borg and Gall, 1963: 775). However, this study only used five steps of the ten steps. Those steps are (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Developing Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Final Product Revision.

As stated in Chapter Two, the writer combined Yalden’s instructional, Kemp’s instructional model, and the Six-T’s Approach proposed by Stoller and Grabe (1997) to achieve the objectives of this study. The combination was used as the writer’s model in designing the materials. Therefore, in order to find out whether the writer’s model is appropriate to be included in each R & D step, this part tries to compare between the writer’s model and the R & D steps.

1. Research and Information Collecting

In this step, the writer adapted Yalden’s instructional design model, namely needs survey. The needs survey was conducted in order to provide the writer with sufficient data in designing the instructional materials. The data were gathered in this step including learners’ needs, interests, and lacks. To obtain the data, the writer used two research instruments. Those are an interview and a questionnaire. Besides, the writer also conducted review of literature to obtain the data about the topics in the content subjects in which it will be used as the reading materials.

The writer interviewed a tenth-grade English teacher of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta to know the reading activities in the classroom, the students’ needs, and the students’ lacks. Meanwhile, a set of questionnaires was also distributed to the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I to know their difficulties in reading English

                     

1. Read the text below carefully. The text is testimony from the person who could  survive from the bombing. 

 

Hiroshima Bombing 

www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hibakusha/index.shtml   

  It was very clear morning in Hiroshima. Sun shone so bright and clouds were  very friendly. Just as usual, school children began to start their morning lesson in schools.  One of them was Akihiro Takahashi. He was 14‐year‐old boy. He stood in line with other  students of his junior high school, waiting for the morning meeting.  

Everything went well before an aircraft flew over them. It was very clear. They could  see it that it was really an aircraft. Akihiro looked at the plane amazingly. Suddenly, the blast  came and they were left in the dark. They couldn't see anything at the moment of explosion.  They were blown about 10 m. Then Akihiro looked at himself and found his clothes had  turned into rags due to the heat. He was probably burned at the back of the head, on his  back, on both arms and both legs. His skin was peeling and hanging.  

Automatically he began to walk to his home to find for shelter. After a while, he  noticed somebody calling his name. It was Yamamoto. He studied at the same school with  him and he was badly burnt. They walked toward the river. When they reached the river  bank, at the same moment, a fire broke out. They made a narrow escape from the fire. If  they had been slower by even one second, they would have been killed by the fire. 

Akihiro went over to the other side of the river using the small wooden bridge which  had not been destroyed by the blast. But Yamamoto was not with him any more. He was  lost somewhere. Akihiro remembered he crossed the river by himself. For his burning body  the cold water of the river was as precious as the treasure.  

On the way, he saw, Tokujiro Hatta. The soles of his feet were badly burnt. The soles  were peeling and red muscle was exposed. Even Akihiro was terribly burnt, he could not go  home ignoring him. Akihiro made him crawl using his arms and knees.  

When  they  were resting because  they were so  exhausted, Akihiro found his  grandfather's brother and his wife coming toward them. That was quite coincidence. His  encounter with them was just about meeting Buddha in Hell. They seem to be the Buddha 

3. READING

Read the reading passage below

World War II   

Afterwards  he  was  under  medical  treatment  for  one  year  and  half  and  he  miraculously recovered. Out of sixty of junior high school classmates, only ten of them were  alive. Yamamoto and Hatta soon died from the acute radiation disease.” 

 

2. After you have finished reading it, make five questions related to the text  above. Make sure you know the answers of your questions.  

1. _______________________________________________________________  2. _______________________________________________________________  3. _______________________________________________________________  4. _______________________________________________________________  5. _______________________________________________________________ 

 

3. Pass your question to your friend and ask him/her to answer it.  

1. _______________________________________________________________  2. _______________________________________________________________  3. _______________________________________________________________  4. _______________________________________________________________  5. _______________________________________________________________ 

 

4. After you have finished answering the questions, discuss your answers with  your friend.  

                                   

                           

                                       

4. COMPREHENSION

Summarize the reading passage

that you have read in the

provided box below.

 

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

World War II   

 

                               

5. TASK

After understanding the text in the reading

section, write your terrible experience that

you cannot forget. Look at the questions below

to help you organize your ideas.

 

___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 

• When did it happen? 

• Were there any other people that involved?  • Where did it happen? 

• What happened to you next?  • How did you solve it? 

ABSTRACT

Rinaldi Kurniawan. 2010. Designing A Set of Instructional Materials Using

Content-Based Instruction for the Tenth Grade Students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta.

Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.  

This study aims to answer the two questions which are how a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta is designed and what a set of reading instructional materials using Content-Based Instruction for the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta looks like. To answer those questions, this study employed five steps of Educational Research and Development (R & D) cycle. Those steps were (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Developing Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Final Product Revision.

To answer the first question stated above, this study adapted Yalden’s instructional model and Kemp’s instructional model as the realization of Educational Research and Development (R & D) cycle. Those steps were conducting needs survey, determining goals and general purposes, listing and organizing subject contents, specifying learning objectives, selecting teaching/learning activities, and evaluating the designed materials. Meanwhile, the presentation of the designed materials as the answer of the second question is presented in Appendix I. The designed materials itself consist of five sections, namely ‘Warm Up’, ‘Vocabulary’, ‘Reading’, ‘Comprehension, and ‘Task’.

Dealing with the information which was used to design the reading instructional materials, this study interviewed a tenth-grade English teacher of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta and distributed the questionnaire to 85 tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Afterwards, the reading instructional materials were designed based on the information from the surveys. In addition, the designed materials were also evaluated by giving questionnaires to two tenth-grade English teachers of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta and three lecturers of English Education Language Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Furthermore, the result of the evaluation questionnaire indicated that the designed materials were good and acceptable.

  Upon the completion of this study, the writer hopes that the designed material

could help the tenth grade students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta improve their English competence. Besides, the writer also expects that this study could be the reference for other researchers to conduct any further research related to the topic of this study.

ABSTRAK

Rinaldi Kurniawan. 2010. Designing A Set of Instructional Materials Using

Content-Based Instruction for the Tenth Grade Students of SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta.

Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.  

Studi ini bertujuan untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan yaitu bagaimana

mendesain seperangkat materi pembelajaran reading menggunakan Content-Based

Instruction bagi siswa-siswi kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta dan bagaimana

penyajian materi yang telah disusun tersebut. Untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan

tersebut, studi ini menggunakan lima langkah dalam siklus Educational Research and

Development (R & D). Langkah tersbut yaitu: (1) Pengumpulan informasi, (2)

Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, and (5) Revisi produk.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama yang telah disebutkan di atas, studi ini mengadaptasi model instruksional dari Kemp dan Yalden sebagai realisasi siklus Educational Research and Development (R & D). Step-step tersebut yaitu melakukan survei kebutuhan, menentukan tujuan dan tujuan umum, memilih dan mengatur isi pembelajaran, merumuskan tujuan pembelajaran, memilih kegiatan pembelajaran, dan mengevaluasi materi. Sementara itu, presentasi dari materi yang sudah didisain sebagai jawaban dari pertanyaan kedua dalam studi ini dapat dilihat pada lampiran I. Disain materi itu sendiri terdiri dari lima bagian, yaitu ‘Warm Up’, ‘Vocabulary’, ‘Reading’, ‘Comprehension, and ‘Task’.

Sehubungan dengan informasi yang dibutuhkan untuk mendisain

seperangkat materi reading, studi ini mewawancarai seorang guru bahasa Inggris

kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta dan membagikan kueisoner kepada 85 siswa kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta. Setelah itu, pendisainan materi dilakuakan berdasakan informasi yang diperoleh. Sebagai tambahan, instruksional materi yang telah didesain juga dievaluasi oleh dua orang guru bahasa Inggris kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta dan tiga orang dosen Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Hasil dari kuesioner evaluasi menandakan bahwa materi yang sudah didesain tergolong baik dan dapat diterima.

  Dengan selesainya studi ini, penulis berharap bahwa materi yang telah

didisain dapat membantu siswa kelas X SMA BOPKRI I Yogyakarta meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa Inggris mereka. Selain itu, penulis berharap studi ini dapat menjadi referensi bagi peneliti lain untuk melakukan penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai topik dalam studi ini.