Andita Setiarini CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Definition of Reading Comprehension 1. Nature of Reading Reading was one of the major skills that engaged in learning

  language especially English. Learning reading was not only requires studying words or sentences without understanding the meaning but also identifying the meaning of words or sentences in a text and comprehending the context. This statement is strengthened by Nunan (1994 : 125) who said that reading was a people’s skill related to the readers' knowledge in comprehending the content of a text. If those activities can be applied, the messages that want to be delivered by the author of the text would be recognized.

  Reading was one of the language skills that had various definitions such as: reading was one of four language skills with a written communication in a form of text (Tampubolon, 1987:5). Meanwhile, reading was an active skill in which guessing, predicting, checking, and asking oneself questions are include in it as confirmed by Grellet (1984:7). Another scientist said that reading was transferring something written into ideas so it would be able to read and to be understood (Ramelan, 1990:1).

  In the meantime, Finochiaro and Bonomo as cited in Tarigan (1990 : 8) said that reading was finding meaning from something written so it was

  6 understandable. On the other hand, Dowson and Gamman as cited in Tarigan (1984 : 6) also emphasized that reading was a process. The process was started from the eyes which read written texts from words to sentences, sentences to paragraphs on the printed paper and further continue with hearing ourselves reading and spelling the difference words that compiled from one to another in the sounds and appearance. Furthermore, identify the pronunciation and the meaning of new words by developing the words or sentences and finally select the main idea and the major supporting details regulate reading rate.

  From the previous definitions it can be concluded that reading was a multi-process to find and get information and knowledge by comprehending the meaning and written language in complex activities such remembering process, recalling process, interpreting process, judging process, and evaluating process.

2. Importance of Reading

  Having ability to read was the first thing to do by people before getting education. To being able to read everything from a very simple thing until the most complicated one such ABC’s poster, street banner, storybooks, cartoons, comics, etc. was asked even forced and taught by parents. Therefore, reading was very important because ability in reading would not be easy to be intimidated by people. Through reading, every single word that has not known can be learned. Also by reading, lots of local and worldwide information unknown before would be easier to be known now. Reading was a pleasure. It was indeed a pleasure if the reading was understandable. By doing this kind of activity learning the texts of paragraph would be enjoyed.

  Reading was very important especially for the students in developing their knowledge. Reading provides answers from questions, provides directions needed, or release us from boredom. It was realized that reading gives more knowledge and information. Reading was also important in building vocabulary for students. Haris (1980 : 39) said that reading was a communication which information and ideas were transferred which means that when reading something, interaction with a piece of written material that had written was happened in order to provide some information or ideas.

  Learning without reading was impossible to be successful. Students who only convinced with what their teacher gave at class without having any effort to read more references would not be succeed and pass in the time. Ramelan (1990 : 1) confirmed that reading was a good activity for learners because it was something important as the success of their study depended on their ability in reading. Even after leaving school; reading would be much useful for students, by reading lots of literary works of various kinds of subject their mind would be more developed in maturity.

  From the previous statements, it can be concluded that reading was very important for students either at school or after they graduate from their study. It was similar to a quote, “The More We Read, The More Knowledge We Get”, which emphasized the habit of reading.

3. The Purposes of Reading

  Anderson (1972 : 10) mentioned that there were several purposes of reading : a.

  Reading for detail or fact The students read the text to get detail information of text that had been written by the writer or solve the problem of the writer.

  b.

  Reading for main idea The students read the text to know why the topic was good or interesting, find the problems, and make summaries of the text.

  c.

  Reading for sequence or organization The students read the text to know what’s happening in the text of every episode and solve the problems of the texts.

  d.

  Reading for inference The students read the text in order to find out the conclusion from the action or idea in the text.

  e.

  Reading to classify The students read the text to classify some information or actions of the writer in the text or paragraph. f.

  Reading to evaluate The students read the text to evaluate the characteristics that found in the text which tried to be explained by the writer and find out whether the characters can be imitated or not.

  g.

  Reading to compare or contrast The students read to compare the content of the text or content that having similarity with the readers.

  Based on the purposes mentioned before, it was concluded that the purpose of reading was looking for and getting information from books, references, texts, etc. By reading, students would be able to explore their knowledge well.

4. The Ways of Reading

  Grellet (1984 : 4) named the ways of reading were: a.

  Skimming Skimming was reading quickly by running the eyes over a text to get the general idea of it. There are some activities in skimming, such compare values, find and compare events, sect a title, draw inferences, decide the questions, and create a title.

  b.

  Scanning Scanning was reading quickly through a text to find specific information. There are some activities in scanning, such finding new words for all, locating grammar features, finding a specified advertisement, comparing details, checking dates, shopping lists, making word sets, and newspaper headlines.

  c.

  Extensive Reading Extensive reading was reading longer text for the readers’ own pleasure. Keep records and wall charts, make summaries, and indicate the difficulties are the activities in extensive reading.

  d.

  Intensive Reading Intensive reading was reading shorter text to get extract specific information. Match noun and verbs, split sentences, combine sentences, make summaries, recorder paragraph, fill the gaps, complete tables and graphs, take sides, read and choose, select a summary, compare version, identify facts, and focus on form and style are the activities of intensive reading.

  It can be assumed that there are different kinds of people’s ways of reading with variation activities to apply it but it still on one purpose of reading which understands the content of the text.

5. The Principles of Reading

  Harmer (1998 : 70) mentioned that there were some principles of reading: a.

  Reading was not a passive skill.

  Reading was an active skill. To do it successfully, we had to understand what the words mean, see the pictures painted by the words, understand the arguments, and work out if we agree with them.

  If these kinds of activities are not done then it means that the text would be quickly forgettable.

  b.

  Students need to be engaged with what they are reading Engaged here means that the students are indirectly involve in the text and unconsciously interested in what they read. As with everything else in lessons, students who are not engaged with the reading text would get fewer advantages from it. When they are really fired up by the topic or the task, they get much more from what was in front of them.

  c.

  Students should be encouraged to respond to the content of a reading text, not just to the language It was important to study reading texts for the way of using language, the number of paragraphs contained and how many times relative clauses are used. But the meaning or the message of the text was just as important as study the language and students must be given a chance to respond to that the text they read in some way. It was important since they are allowed to express their feelings about the topic in their own way.

  d.

  Prediction was a major factor in reading Before reading a text sometimes the content or the main idea of the text has already predicted. A hint of what’s in the book was indirectly given by the book covers, photographs, and headlines before reading a single word.

  The moment of getting these hints – the book cover, the headline, the word-processed page – what we are going to read would suddenly predicted by the brain. Expectations are set up and the active process of reading was ready to begin. Teachers should give students ‘hints’ so that they can predict what’s coming too. It would make them better and more interested in their reading.

  e.

  Match the task to the topic Once a decision has been taken about what reading text the students are going to read, good reading tasks need to be chosen by considering the right kind of questions, engaging and useful puzzles etc. The most interesting text can be ordinary passage also can be made really exciting with imaginative and challenging tasks.

  f.

  Good teachers exploit reading texts to the full Any reading text was full of sentences, words, ideas, descriptions etc.

  It doesn’t make sense just to get students to read it and then drop it to move on to something else. Good teachers integrate the reading text into interesting class sequences, using the topic for discussion and further tasks, using the language for Study and later Activation.

  Reading was an active skill that considering as a boring activities especially for students, so that in teaching reading teacher must be creative in choosing texts. However, to make the students interested in reading, the texts chosen should be attractive, understandable, and predictable.

6. Text Genre

  Based on Hartono (2005) in Genres of Text, there were some types of reading text : a.

  Descriptive text Descriptive text was a text to describe a particular person, place, or thing.

  b.

  Recount text Recount text was a text to retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining.

  c.

  News items text News item text was a text to inform readers, listener, viewers about even of the days which are considered newsworthy or important.

  d.

  Procedure text Procedure text was a text to describe how something was accomplished (completed) through a sequence of process, action, step, or describe how to do something.

  e.

  Narrative text Narrative text was a text amuse entertain and to deal with actual various experience in different ways.

  f.

  Report text Report text was a text to describe the way thing was with the reference to a range of natural, manufactured, and social phenomenon in our environment. g.

  Analytical exposition Analytic exposition was a text to share with others an account of an unusual of amusing incident.

  h.

  Anecdote text Anecdote text was a text to share with others an account of an unusual or amusing incident. i.

  Hortatory exposition text Hortatory exposition text was a text to persuade the readers or listener that something should not be the case. j.

  Explanation text Explanation text was a text to explain the process involved in the information on working of natural or socio cultural phenomenon. k.

  Discussion text Discussion text was a text to present (at least) two point of view about an issue. l.

  Review text Review text was a text to comment and artwork, event for public audience. Such work of includes movies, TV, sows, books, plays, operas, recording, exhibition, concert, and ballets. In this research, narrative and recount text were used to teach and figure out the students’ reading comprehension ability.

7. Nature of Reading Comprehension

  Reading comprehension was reading with understanding or silent reading. Reading comprehension was the heart of reading since the purpose of reading itself was to gather meaning from texts. The aims of reading comprehension are to get information, to understand and to draw something from the text. The primary purpose of reading comprehension was to improve the students’ ability to understand English as it was used in written material. Reading comprehension was not a skill ability that can be developed once and for all any level of instruction. Reading comprehension means understanding a written text and extracting the required information from it as efficiencies as possible.

  Kennedy (1981 : 192) defined reading comprehension as a process which the readers are able to understand what was written in the text and find the idea of the text so they are able to interpret it to their own needs and purposes.

  Nuttal as cited in Anton (1995 : 24) also quoted that reading comprehension means an idea that had been centred on passage of the text followed by questions which help readers to participate actively to the process of making sense of it, rather than expecting understands just to happen.

  Based on some scientist’ definitions about reading comprehension above, it can be concluded that reading comprehension was understands a written text, a thinking process that relates with ability of the readers need as efficiencies as possible. If the readers can take the main idea and required information they need, means that the readers had understood what they read. The understanding of the readers about the material they read was the indication of reading comprehension.

8. The Components of Reading Comprehension

  Leu and Kinzer (1987:30-37) explained that there were six major components of the reading comprehension: a.

  Decoding knowledge Knowledge used to determine a written word which was the same as the oral.

  b.

  Vocabulary knowledge Knowledge used to determine the appropriate meaning for a word in certain context.

  c.

  Syntactic knowledge Knowledge of the word-order rules used to determine grammatical function, the meaning, and pronunciation of words.

  d.

  Discourse knowledge Knowledge of language organization at units beyond the single sentence level includes knowledge of the structural organization of different types of writing. e.

  Readiness Aspects Knowledge of students’ ability in reading comprehension which getting advantages from reading an instruction which also refers to understand a particular selection.

  f.

  Affective aspect In reading comprehension, include both attitude and interest. These increase motivation and facilitate reading comprehension.

  The major comprehension of reading influenced someone in comprehending the text. Readers had different interpretation based on their understanding of the text. The readers would comprehend the text perfectly (it means that the reader understand what the writer means in this text) if they understand well of the major component of reading.

9. Levels of Comprehension

  Burn (1984 : 177) confirmed that there were four levels of comprehension: a.

  Literal Reading Reading level for literal comprehension which involves information that stated directly important parts become a precondition to the higher level. In this level the readers are able to comprehend what the writer said. b.

  Interpretive Reading Reading level which the readers had to comprehend what the text implied but not in a direct statement or reading between the lines or making conclusion. At this level, reader was able to understand what the author meant.

  c.

  Critical Reading Evaluating written text by comparing the ideas and making conclusions that discovered in the text about accuracy and appropriateness. Critical reading depends on literal comprehension and implied ideas are especially important.

  d.

  Creative Reading Reading level which requires the readers to be creative in reading, to think as they read just like critical reading, and they had to use their imagination while reading. Creative reading involves going beyond the material presented by the author.

  By knowing the level of comprehension, the weaknesses of the readers can be found. Therefore, it would help both the teacher and the learners minimize them. In this research, all of the levels of comprehension were used.

B. Card Games

  Reading was considered as a boring and confusing lesson since what the students learned from reading was texts. This was what challenged the English teacher to make teaching reading especially in reading comprehension become more interesting. Therefore, teacher needs a strategy to help the students in learning reading comprehension. One of the most interesting ways in teaching was using games.

  Wright (1997 : 1) stated that games helped and encouraged the students to continue their interest and work. When the students enjoyed the activities of a game, they would not be afraid of using English in the class because game was a fun learning strategy that would attract the students to be more active and confidence so they had not any scared feeling of making mistakes. Games also help the teacher to be more creative during the teaching learning process so the lesson that taught would be more interesting and meaningful. Indirectly, the students would be more able to remember what they had learnt in the class because game forces them to take part in it which means that they had to comprehend the lesson in order they can express their opinions in the class.

  Wright (1997 : 3) confirmed kinds of games such magic trick games, true false games, picture games, psychology games, sound games, story games, word games, memory games, question and answer games, guessing and speculating games, and miscellaneous games.

  In this case, cards game or well known as index card game was selected to teach reading especially in reading comprehension because it was able to be created into certain forms. Clark (1992) mentioned several types of index cards games:

1. Ten Questions Games

  Ten questions game was a variation of “Twenty Questions Game” which the number of the questions reduced to ten questions and the field includes nouns that represent a person, a place, or a thing. This was a group game which the class was divided into two groups which one team had to practice yes or no questions and the other team had to guess the answers. It can also serve as a vocabulary review and the challenge of general knowledge. Things that had to be prepared by the teacher are sets of cards which each card was written of the name of a person, a place, or a thing and might provide some additional information.

  The procedures of this game are: a. Describing the cards to the students. Tell them there are three categories: person, place, and thing. Within each category in the sample sets, there are three levels: easy, moderate, and difficult. To play the basic ten question game, have the students choose what level they want to try.

  b.

  Dividing a class into two teams and gives each player a card.

  Emphasize that the questions can only be yes or no questions, and the respondent answers only with “yes” or “no”. Explain that only ten questions may be asked. The players may show their cards to others on their team.

  c.

  Questioning other team. The question begins with “are you a person?” etc., and continues until a correct identification has been made or ten questions have been answered.

  d.

  The team with the most correct identifications wins.

2. Matched Pairs

  This game requires the students to remember the location of the cards and make matching pairs. This game can be included as a group game. The aim of this game was to review vocabulary and to stimulate conversation among the team members. This game was fun and contributes to the group building. Things that need to be prepared by the teacher are teacher choose the category that has been taught and write a word on each 12 cards and make the 12 matching cards then shuffle the cards well, turn them over number from 1 to 25 on the back. For the record, because this game was to review something that has been taught rather that teach something new, the teacher should make sure that the students knows what the 12 pairs are. For the alternative, just tell topic.

  The procedures of this game are: a. Laying the cards out face down with the numbers showing.

  b.

  Taking turns, the students call out two numbers, for example, one and three. c.

  Turning over the called pair of cards. If the cards don’t match, the cards are turned back over.

  d.

  Removing the match cards from the layout when a student makes a match and get another turn and it continues until they fail to produce the match.

  e.

  Finally, when all the cards have been matched, the student with the most matches wins.

3. Sound and Spell

  This game was a team activity which content 3 to 5 students and purposed to review the pronunciation of selected words and sounds and the various ways the sounds can be spelled. This card game was described as a set of cards (36 cards) which each card has one word written on it and one sound underlined. Things that have to be prepared by the teacher are a set card contains from two to six different sounds. Use the sample sets on the following pages, write the number of words, and underline the spelling of the sounds in a question.

  The procedures of this game are: a. Giving the directions to the class. For example, “you have 36 cards in this set. There are three different sounds underlined. Read the words, pronounce them, and sort them into three piles.” b. Letting the students work on the sounds and spellings. Do not give any help. c.

  Having the groups lay out their cards and look at each other’s solutions when all the groups have finished their sorting.

  d.

  Checking the solutions and the team with the most correct cards wins.

4. Scramble

  In this game, the students rearranged jumbled sentences, sequences, and stories. This game was useful for review work or sentence order and the placement of punctuation marks. This game would be effective if it concentrates on a single sentence pattern. Things that have to be prepared by the teacher are samples of sentences from photocopy or developed original material then cut out the individual words.

  The procedures of the game are: a. Dividing the class into groups of 2 or 3 students.

  b.

  Giving each group a sentence and put extra bundled sentences in a central place.

  c.

  Telling each group to use all the cards to form a sentence.

  d.

  Having them write the number of the sentence and the sentence on a separate sheet of paper when a group was satisfied with its sentence.

  Then the group returns the sentence to the central pile and chooses a new bundle of cards.

  e.

  Reading the correct sentences and have the groups check their answers when the groups have finished.

5. Categories The students are required to use English quickly and descriptively.

  This game was used to review vocabulary and it was a good exercise for stretching the students’ command of the language as they work under pressure.

  The procedures of the game are: a. Dividing the class into two or more teams.

  b.

  Giving one card to a member from one of the teams. This person was the clue giver. Leave the room with the clue giver to be sure they understand the meanings of the words on the card.

  c.

  Asking the clue giver announces the category to their own team. The other teams watch and lesson.

  d.

  Asking the clue giver then makes up clues while team members try to guess the words on the card.

  e.

  Continuing the game until all the words have been identified.

  f.

  Getting the next team a chance to play with a different card when the first team was finished.

  g.

  Four or five rounds are usually good enough for a good game.

6. Scenarios

  This was a role playing exercise played by at least six and not more that sixteen students in which students receives card describing a character whose identity they assume. This game requires the students to practice social conversation, listen carefully, and remember and restate what they have heard. This game was designed for a lower level class, only minimum of information should be given.

  The procedures of this game are: a. Giving the directions to the students. First, set the context of the scenario.

  b.

  Giving each students a card and ask them to study it.

  c.

  Helping the students with any questions they might have about their character in a quiet corner or outside the room.

  d.

  Letting the students mingle and talk to each other for 15 to 30 minutes.

  e.

  Concluding the game when it seems that everyone has met everybody else.

  f.

  Having the other students tell what they can remember about the character.

7. Pyramids

  This game was a review of a subject matter that was either general knowledge or part of the learner’s course work. The sample cards which follow were chosen to illustrate the great variety of language and content information students can work with in this game. Also while learning the content; the students build confidence and skills. The teacher should prepare a set of 24 cards with a question and its answer on the same side of each card and the teacher try to order the cards from easy to difficult.

  The procedures of this game are: a. Placing a stack of cards in front of the two opponents (individual or team) and give each of them a blank pyramid.

  b.

  Student A takes the top card and reads the question to student B. If the answer was correct, student B puts an X or writes the answer in a box in the base of their pyramid. Then student B asks student A the next question in the stack.

  c.

  Playing continues as each opponent builds a pyramid from the base to the top. The first student to complete a pyramid wins.

  d.

  If neither student build a pyramid nor all the cards have been used, the student with the most correct answers wins.

  e.

  If one student builds a pyramid and there are still some unused cards, the losing opponent can be given the opportunity to catch up by answering the remaining cards.

8. Index Card Match

  In this case, Index Card Match was selected to enhance students’ reading comprehension based on the consideration that this was an effective and fun method to teach reading comprehension. This game was focused on matching two cards. Index Card Match was a learning that invites students to learn actively and in order they have independence soul in learning and foster their creativity. This was an active, fun way to review class material. It allowed students to pair up and quiz their classmates (Silberman : 1996). If the students feel pleasure in using this technique, it would be easy for them to comprehend reading texts. Nevertheless, new material could also be taught using this learning with a record that the students had to learn the new material first, so when the class began they already had knowledge (Zaini, et. al, 2008 : 67). This learning can be used as an alternative learning to know students’ characteristics deeply. Characteristic here means the students love to learn while playing in a teaching learning process so the teacher have to be able to attract the students’ interest so they like the material that the learning aim can be reached.

  Zaini, et. al (2008 : 67) stated that Index Card Match was a fun learning strategy which was suitable to improve students’ achievement, because it could increase students’ participation. In this technique, teacher was the only one who conducts the rules and assists the activity to be more interesting. Index Card Match, according to Zaini, et. al (2002) as cited in Mustolikh (2010), could also improve evaluation test, because students’ brain needed some steps in order to store any information. Those steps are: (1) information repetition; (2) ask about that information; and (3) teach it to others. Those steps are found in Index Card Match. Another consideration in using active learning strategy was the reality that students have different way in learning. Some of them are: (1) dare to read; (2) dare to discuss; and (3) dare to practice.

  Index Card Match was chosen because there are some advantages in enhancing students’ reading comprehension, such as (1) Index Card Match which was well-organized and well-applied was able to enhance students’ comprehension; (2) Building a pleasant relationship between lecturer and students was considered to create an effective, efficient, and fun learning mood or environment; (3) Index Card Match was suitable to increase individual and class participation; (4) Index Card Match gives the students more chances to perform as a teacher for their classmates (Mustolikh, 2010); (5) Index Card Match was able to enhance students’ success evaluation test, because students’ brain needs some steps to store lots of information; and (6) Index Card Match was appropriate to improve students’ achievement (Zaini, et. al, 2008 : 67). However, there are also some disadvantages in using Index Card Match, such as (1) The class would be noisy so it needs to be monitored intensively; and (2) Index Card Match takes teacher’s time for preparing the sets of index cards (Lie, 2010 : 46).

  Furthermore, Silberman (2006 : 67-68) mentioned the procedures in using Index Card Match were: a.

  Writing down questions about anything taught in the class on a separate card. Create enough question cards to equal one-half the number of students.

  b.

  Writing down answers to each of these questions on a separate card.

  c.

  Mixing the two sets of cards and shuffle them several times so they are well mixed.

  d.

  Distributing one card to each student. Explain that this was a matching exercise. Some students have review questions and others have the answers.

  e.

  Having students find their matching cards. When a match was formed, ask the matching students to find seat together. (Tell them not to reveal the other students what was contained on their cards.) f. Having each pair quiz the rest of the class by reading aloud their question and challenging classmates to tell them the answer when all the matching pairs have seated.

  C. Basic Assumption

  Reading comprehension was the process of understanding and constructing meaning from texts. This activity was regarded as one of the difficult process of learning because learners must have ability to understand and find certain details of the reading text. To make teaching reading comprehension be more attractive and successful, teacher needed an interesting method. Index card match was a fun teaching learning strategy which was used to review materials given before. Nevertheless, new material still could be taught using this strategy, with a record that the learner should learn the topic that would be taught in order when the class begin they already have knowledge.

  By applying Index Card Match in reading activities, the students would be easier to understand the content of the text. It also could stimulate their motivation and interest to read the text. Hopefully, the students’ reading comprehension would be enhanced through an application of Index Card Match in the teaching learning process.

  D. Hypothesis

  From the explanation given before, the hypothesis of this study was Index Card Match would enhance students’ reading comprehension.