CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM.
Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT
TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
A Paper
Submitted to Department of English Education of Faculty of Language and Literature Education UPI in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of
Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
Debi Karmila (1005574)
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE EDUCATION
INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
2015
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
Classroom Interaction: A Case
Study of Student Talk in an EFL
Classroom
Oleh Debi Karmila
Sebuah skripsi yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Sarjana Pendidikan pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra
© Debi Karmila 2015 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Februari 2012
Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.
Skripsi ini tidak boleh diperbanyak seluruhya atau sebagian, dengan dicetak ulang, difoto kopi, atau cara lainnya tanpa ijin dari penulis.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
i
PAGE OF APPROVAL
DEBI KARMILA
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Approved by
Main Supervisor,
Prof. Dr. Didi Suherdi, M. Ed. NIP: 196211011987121001
Co-Supervisor,
Drs. Sudarsono M. I., M. A. NIP: 196607051994031004
Head of English Education Department Faculty of Language and Literature Education
Indonesia University of Education,
Prof. Dr. Didi Suherdi, M. Ed. NIP: 196211011987121001
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
ABSTRACT
Classroom Interaction: A Case Study of Student Talk in an EFL Classroom
This research aimed to identify the role of student talk which appeared the most in classroom interaction using Learner Language Exchange Aspect Analysis proposed by Suherdi (2010) and added by Berry (1981) and Ventola (1988); and to investigate the factors influencing the role. The research employed qualitative case study method. The research utilized three instruments; classroom observation, note-taking, and interview. The research was taken place in a class comprising six students in a private course. The research findings showed that the most-appeared role was category 1 (receiving-reacting-verbally-answering-satisfying). Meanwhile, the factors influencing category 1 to appear the most were the way the teacher manages the classroom, the size of the class, student linguistic abilities, and topic area.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
ABSTRAK
Interaksi Kelas: Sebuah Studi Kasus Tuturan Siswa di sebuah Kelas Bahasa Inggris sebagai Bahasa Asing (EFL)
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi peran tuturan siswa yang muncul paling banyak dalam interaksi kelas menggunakan Learner Language Exchange
Analysis yang diusulkan oleh Suherdi (2010) dengan ditambah oleh Berry (1981)
dan Ventola (1988); dan untuk menginvestigasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi peran tuturan tersebut. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode studi kasus kualitatif. Penelitian ini menggunakan tiga instrumen; observasi kelas, catatan lapangan, dan interview. Penelitian ini dilakukan di sebuah kelas yang terdiri dari enam siswa di sebuah kursus bahasa Inggris. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa peran tuturan yang paling banyak muncul adalah kategori 1 (menerima-bereaksi-verbal-menjawab-memuaskan). Sementara itu, faktor-faktor yang memengaruhi kategori 1 menjadi peran tuturan yang paling sering muncul adalah cara guru mengatur kelas, ukuran kelas, kemampuan linguistik siswa, dan topik pembelajaran.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE OF APPROVAL ... i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORIZATION ... ii
PREFACE ... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... iv
ABSTRACT ... .. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii
LIST OF TABLES ... . ix
LIST OF FIGURES ... . x
LIST OF APPENDICES ... . xi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1.Background of the Research ... 1
1.2.Research Questions ... 3
1.3.Aims of the Study ... 3
1.4.Scope of the Research ... 4
1.5.Significance of the Research ... 4
1.6.Research Methodology ... 4
1.7.Clarification of Terms ... 8
1.8.Organization of the Paper ... 9
1.9.Concluding Remark ... 10
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Classroom Discourse Analysis ... 11
2.2. The Overview of Classroom Interaction Studies ... 12
2.2.1 The Importance of Interaction in Language Classroom ... 14
2.2.2 Factors Influencing Classroom Interaction ... 14
2.3. Teacher Talk... 15
2.4. Student Talk ... 16
2.5. Learner Language Exchange Aspect Analysis ... 18
2.5.1 Receiving – Reacting – Verbally – Answering (Category 1 and 2) 22
2.5.2 Receiving Reacting – Verbally – Challenging (Category 3 and 4) . 22 2.5.3 Receiving – Reacting – Non-verbally – Refusing (Category 5) ... 23
2.5.4 Receiving – Reacting – Non-verbally – Doing (Category 6 and 7) . 23 2.5.5 Receiving – Not-reacting (Category 8) ... 23
2.5.6 Producing – Expressing – Responding – Answering (Category 9 and 10) ... 24
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
2.5.7 Producing – Expressing – Responding – Challenging (Category
11 and 12) ... 24
2.5.8 Producing – Expressing – Initiating –Asking (Category 13 and 14) 25 2.5.9 Producing – Expressing – Initiating – Stating (Category 15 and 16) ... 26
2.5.10 Producing – Repeating ... 26
2.6 Review of the Previous Research ... 27
2.7 Concluding Remark ... 30
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design ... 31
3.2 Site and Participant ... 32
3.3 Data Collection... 33
3.3.1 Classroom Observation ... 33
3.3.2 Note –Taking ... 34
3.3.3 Interview ... 34
3.4 Data Analysis ... 35
3.5 Establishing Raport ... 37
3.6 Establishing Reliability and Validity ... 37
3.6.1 Triangulation ... 37
3.6.2 Member Checking ... 38
3.6.3 Feedback ... 38
3.7 Concluding Remark ... 38
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 The role of student talk which appeared the most... 39
4.2 The factors influencing the role of student talk ... 42
4.3 Concluding Remark ... 47
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions ... 48
5.2 Suggestions ... 49
5.2.1 Pedagogical Implication ... 49
5.2.2 Further Research ... 49
REFERENCES APPENDICES
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x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Dynamic Moves (adapted from Love & Suherdi, 1996, as cited in
Suherdi, 2009, p.23) ... 20
Table 2.2 Learner Language Exchange Analysis (adapted from Suherdi, 2010, p. 183) ... 27
Table 3.1 Participants’ Profiles ... 32
Table 3.2 Observation Schedule ... 34
Table 4.1 The Distribution of Student Talk Role in Three Meetings ... 40
Table 4.2 Distribution of Category 1 Occurrences in Three Meetings ... 41
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 The Analysis Process ... 8 Figure 3.1 The Analysis Process ... 35
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LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Video Recording Transcription Appendix B Interview Transcription
Appendix C Note-Taking
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of several focal points. They are background of the research, statements of problem, aims of the study, significance of the research, scope of the research, research methodology, clarification of terms, and organization of the paper.
1.1.Background of the Research
There are two issues triggering this research. The first issue is the importance of classroom interaction. The second issue is about how classroom interaction research in connection with student talk has been conducted
The first issue is about the importance of classroom interaction. In the first place, it has to be clear regarding the definition of interaction. Citing Brown (2001, p.165), interaction in general is defined as thoughts, feelings, or ideas which are exchanged between two or more people causing an effect to one another. Thus, classroom interaction means that the interaction happens in the classroom context with the teacher and students as the interactants.
In regards to its nature, the role of interaction in the language learning is originated from the Socio-Cultural theory echoed by Vygotsky in which says that interaction is the realization of the concept Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD (Saville-troike, 2006, p.111; Pinter, 2009, p.10). In this concept, it is described that through interaction with “knowledgeable partner” such as teacher, learners maybe helped to reach their “potential level” from their “current level” in learning (Pinter, 2009, p.11). In other words, students may enhance their knowledge if they are learning by interacting with people who have more knowledge than they do. The knowledgeable partner might provide the students with meaningful input such as feedback which can add up to students’ knowledge.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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Furthermore, classroom interaction between teacher and students in the classroom is believed valuable, especially in the language classroom. This argument is supported by Rivers (1987, as cited in Brown, 2001, p.165) who argues that interaction can facilitate students to practice the language skills they have learned in a real situation. Additionally, Brown (2001, p.166) mentions the advantages of interaction in the language classroom. Some of which are firstly interaction can challenge the learners to take risks to produce the target language. Then, the interaction between teacher and students can help the students gain feedbacks as their teacher corrects and/or praises them after they try to interact in the target language (Brown, 2001, p.166). This advantage is similar to Vygotsky’s concept which says that the interaction should help the learners to reach their potential level by giving them knowledge about the correct ones. In line with this, Saville-Troike (2006, p.106) also states that interaction can provide language input for the learners to “express meanings which are beyond the current level of their linguistic competence”. Besides, a good classroom interaction can encourage the students to communicate with others in a real situation (Yu, 2008, p. 49).
As a result of the arguments related to classroom interaction value, the research aiming at the investigation raised. In the beginning, the research investigating classroom discourse was conducted in 1970 by Flanders, Mehan, and others (Suherdi, 2010, p.10). The research of classroom discourse concerning on classroom interaction was initially conducted by Sinclair and Coulthard in 1975 (McCarthy, 2008, p.77). The research brought about the emergence of IRF (Initation – Response – Follow-up) classroom interaction pattern. Starting from this point, many other researchers used this framework to conduct classroom interaction research.
The second issue that prompts this research is about classroom interaction which particularly spotlights student talk. As it has been stated earlier, classroom interaction comprises teacher and students. Thus, in terms of the participant, there are two types of talk in classroom interaction; teacher talk and student talk.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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Relating classroom interaction with the Sinclair & Coulthard framework, Edwards and Mercer (Sunderland, 2001, p.1) saw I-R-F exchange structure as teacher’s initiation, followed by students’ response, then finally closed by teacher’s evaluation which is unavoidable in classroom interaction. However, Sunderland (2001, p.2) argues that it denotes that classroom interaction is dominated by teacher talk. Furthermore, she further suggests since the teacher talk dominates classroom interaction, it does not simply mean that investigating student talk is less significant than teacher talk as the students’ achievement in language acquisition are the final purpose of a language learning (Sunderland, 2001, p.2). This is also supported by Suherdi (2010, p.176) who states that by carrying out the analysis of student talk, language teacher may be helped to recognize their students’ language quality in the process of learning.
Concerning the issue about how valuable it is to see classroom interaction and the issue about how research on teacher talk has outnumbered student talk research, this present research attempts to fill these gaps. This research attempts to identify classroom interaction focusing on student talk role in exchange structure to investigate students’ spoken discourse which occurs in EFL classroom.
1.2. Research Questions
This research is guided by two research questions:
1. Which role of student talk appears the most in classroom interaction?
2. Why does that role (from question 1) become the most frequent role to appear?
1.3.Aims of the Study
This study is conducted to achieve two purposes. Firstly, the purpose of the study is to find out the role of student talk which appear the most in classroom interaction. Secondly, the aim is to investigate the factors influencing student talk’s role which occurs the most in the EFL classroom interaction.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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1.4.Scope of the Research
The present study is limited into some specifications. Firstly, the research is conducted in a small size EFL classroom which only consists of six students. Secondly, the present research is concerned on student talk albeit the transcription also analyse the teacher talk.
1.5.Significance of the Research
The result of this research is expected to give two contributions; professionally and practically. Profesionally, this study can hopefully be the reference for further research regarding the field of classroom interaction and student talk. Practically, this study is expected to give contribution for pedagogical implication served as consideration for English teachers to have more awareness of the advantages of interaction in the target language and to have more awareness of giving opportunities to students to interact in the target language.
1.6. Research Methodology
This section contains the design of the research, the site and participant, and the collection of the data.
1.6.1. Research Design
The present research employs qualitative method embracing the characteristics of case study to seek the answers of research questions. The reasons why this study uses case study is firstly, a case study tries to seek the “contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (Yin, 1984, p.23).” This argument matches this study which concerns on student talk in a real classroom in which there is no modification given. Also, a case study employs “multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1984, p.23).” Matching with that argument, this study uses observation, note-taking, as well as interview to investigate the pattern of student talk.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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As what has been stated before, this study employs case study which requires cases as the base for the research. Thus, this research takes place in one classroom of an English private course in Bandung. The class consists of six students from the elementary level whose age is in the range of 9-12 years old.
1.6.3. Data Collection
The data for this research is obtained using several instruments:
1.6.3.1. Observation
The first instrument employed to accomplish the purposes is classroom observation. The observation is taped using the video-recorder. Time allotment for each meeting is 75 minutes. Since this research concerns on students’ language, the speech of the students recorded in the video-tape is transcribed.
1.6.3.2. Field-note
Another instrument applied in this research is field-note. This instrument is conducted along with another instrument which is video-taping. It is taken as the instrument in order to note the things which cannot be recorded by the video-tape. In other words, it functions to give details of what is happening in the classroom. As what is said by Gibson and Brown (2009,p.105), field notes can be used for reminding the researcher of the intriguing features that should be checked on the recording later; as the complement of the more descriptive data; and to record the aspects that cannot be taken from the camera.
1.6.3.3. Interview
The last instrument utilized in obtaining the data is interview. To quote Burgess (1984 as cited in Richards, 2009, p.183), a qualitative interviews are simply described as, ‘conversation with a purpose.’ This interview is aimed at the teacher as well as the students.
The questions for the teacher were related to teacher’s personal information including her teaching experience, teacher’s perspective towards interaction in the
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classroom between teacher and student, and the classroom interaction that the teacher experienced in the observed classroom. In the other hand, the questions aimed at the students were about their personal information, their interaction in the classroom that they experienced, and their views of classroom interaction as well.
1.6.4. Data Analysis
The data collected is then classified into quantitative data and qualitative data. The quantitative data is those which are obtained through observation, while the qualitative data is the data that is collected through field-noting and interviewing. The data which have been obtained were then analysed through several steps :
Step 1. Transcribing the video-recording
The results of the video-recording of classroom observation and interview were transcribed into the form of written text. The transcription of classroom observation includes both of teacher talk and student talk.
Step 2. Segmenting the transripts and marking the participants
In this step, the researcher segmented the conversation based on who talks what. In this research, ‘T’ was used for marking the teacher and ‘S’ for marking the students. There were six students as the participants of this research; therefore the researcher marked ‘S1’ up until ‘S6’ for each student. However, if there were two or more students talk the same utterance in the same time, the researcher marked it as ‘Ss’.
Step 3. Identifying the functions of each utterance.
In the third step, the segmented transcripts were classified into slots. One utterance may contain more than one slot for instance when the teacher is lecturing in front of the class, there will be lots of slots.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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The next step was identifying the types of move in the transcript. Later on, the exchanges were classified using learner language exchange aspect analysis proposed by Suherdi (2010).
Step 5. Calculating frequency of each category
Each category occurred in the transcription was then calculated to answer the first research questions which is the role occurring the most in classroom interaction.
Step 6. Interpreting the data
In this part, the results of the transcription analysis were put together with the result of note-taking and interview to interpret the data as well as answering the second research aim which is to find out the factors influencing the result of the first research question. In this stage, the result was also connected with the research questions and underlying theories.
Step 7. Concluding the data
After interpreting the data, the conclusion were drawn to provide the general view of the research.
To sum up the steps in analysing the data, figure 1.1. is provided. Figure 1.1. below made to make the analyzing process clearer.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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Figure 1.1. The Analysis Process
1.7. Clarification of Terms
To avoid misunderstanding in the research, this section provides some clarifications of terms used in the present research.
1.7.1. Classroom Interaction
According to Brown (2001, p.165) classroom interaction is the collaboration of thoughts, feelings, or ideas which are switched between two or more people causing an effect to one another.
Meanwhile, as far as this study concerns, interaction observed in this research is the interaction between teacher-students, and student-students during learning process inside the classroom.
1.7.2. Student Talk
Student talk is defined as the language production made by the language learners. (Ellis & Barkhuizen as cited in Dyson, 2010).
Transcribing the classroom
observation video
Segmenting the transcripts and marking the participant
Calculating frequency of each category
Interpreting the data
Concluding the data
Identifying the functions of each utterance.
Identifying types of moves and student talk categories
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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Meanwhile, in this researh, the student talk particularly refers to the conversation between student-teacher and student-student in the topic which is still related to the lesson.
1.7.3. Teacher Talk
According to Sinclair and Brazil (1982, as cited in Yanfen & Yuqin, 2010, p.77), teacher talk is the language that is used by the teacher spending most of the class time to give directions, explain activities, and check students’ understanding.
1.7.4. Role of Student Talk in Exchange Structure
This term is related to the function of student moves within exchange structure in classroom interaction. In this study it specifically determines whether or not the student move is included as receiving or producing position.
1.8. Paper Organization
The present study is reported systematically into five chapters: Chapter I: Introduction
This chapter embraces eight points consisting of background triggering the research, research questions, the aims of the study, the significance of the study, the clarification of the terms, and lastly the organization of the paper.
Chapter II: Literature Review
This chapter consists of theoretical framework in connection with the study of classroom interaction, student talk, and the framework underlying the present study.
Chapter III: Research Methodology
This chapter exhibits the research instruments employed in the research, how the data collected, who participate in the study, and how the data are analysed.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu Chapter IV: Findings and Discussions
This chapter points out the result of the research which is drawn by answering the research questions.
Chapter V: Conclusions and Suggestions
This last chapter portrays the conclusion from the whole study about the result of the research which is then followed by the suggestions for further research in the field of classroom interaction especially in student talk.
1.9. Concluding Remark
This chapter describes the background of the study, the statements of problem, aims of the study, the scope of the research, the significance of the research, the clarification of terms, and the organization of the paper.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, there are several descriptions of how the research is conducted to seek information to answer the research questions. The explanation discusses firstly the design of the research, secondly how the data are obtained, and lastly the way the data are analyzed.
3.1 Research Design
To achieve the purposes stated beforehand, this research was designed using qualitative method embracing the characteristics of case study. According to Hood (2009, p.86) case studies are, “empirical investigations of contemporary phenomena within real-life contexts. They comprise a bounded system, including an individual or entity and the settings in which they act.”
The qualitative case study method was chosen because of several reasons.The first reason is because this study aimed to investigate the role of students talk in an EFL classroom which is natural and there was no treatment or manipulation given by the researcher to the participants. In line with what is proposed by Creswell (2009, p.175) that one of the characteristics of qualitative research is “natural settings” where “qualitative researchers tend to collect data in the field at the site where participants experience the issue or problem under study.”Yin (2011, p.7) concurs that one of the characteristics of a qualitative research is “studying the meaning of people’s lives, under real-world conditions.” He also says that qualitative case study researcher “cannot manipulate the behavior of those involved in the study” (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
The second reason is that the result of this research is in regards with human behavior which is the interaction between the teacher and the students. This is appropriate with the characteristics mentioned by Yin (2011, p.7) which is
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“contributing insights into existing or emerging concepts that may help explain
human social behavior.”
Moreover, this research used three kinds of data collection techniques to obtain the data. Those techniques are classroom observation, field-notes as well as interview. This is also in line with Yin (2011, p.8) who stated that a qualitative research is “striving to use multiple sources of evidence rather than relying on a single source alone”. Similarly, Johansson (2003, p.3) believes that one of the main characteristics of a case study is it needs multi ways to reveal a case from different perspectives (Johannson, 2003, p.3)
Lastly, to quote Gibson & Brown (2009, p.49) a case study does not examine the large number of cases, because the purpose is to investigate the cases in detail. Thus, the participants in this research are both male and female students from a small-size class only which means that it did not take a large number of cases.
3.2Site and Participant
The research was undertaken in an English classroom in one of English private courses in Bandung. The participants of this research are one teacher and six students in that classroom. The age of the students is in the range of 10-12 years old. The participants of the research were six students from upper primary level of the course. They were four males and two females. They were named student 1 until student 6 to make the transcription easier to analyse. The more-detailed information regarding the participants’ profiles is shown in the table 2.1 below.
Table 3.1. Participants’ Profiles
Participants Gender Age
Student 1 Female 12
Student 2 Male 12
Student 3 Male 12
Student 4 Male 10
Student 5 Female 11
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The reasons for choosing the private course as the site of the research is firstly it definitely provides English course for children. Specifically, the children in this research were in the age range of 10 – 12 years old which Pinter (2006, p.2) includes into ‘older young learners’. This kind of learners have different characteristics with the younger ones in terms of the awareness of language learning. The older ones have more awareness that they are learning a language and have shown growing interest in analytical approach which may affect the role of the student talk. Secondly, the learners have been given exposure to English beforehand. Thirdly, the reasons behind the decision to take a small-size class consisting six students is that the research attempted to investigate the classroom interaction focusing on student talk role. To gain in-depth information for collecting the data, and in regards to the complexity of the analysis, the research employed the narrower number of participants. Therefore, the small-size classroom was chosen because the classes in that private course contain no more than ten students. Fourthly, the researcher and the representatives from the private course who are the teacher and the owner had agreed to conduct a research there.
3.3Data Collection
In this research, there are several intruments carried out to collect the data. Each instrument is elaborated as follows.
3.3.1. Classroom Observation
The first instrument employed to accomplish the purposes is classroom observation. Observation is the main method in qualitative research to gather the information regarding a person, group, or event in certain contexts (Furlong, Lovelace & Lovelace, 2000). It is beneficial for the validity of the research result. Additionally, it enables the researcher to recheck the data (Alwasilah, 2002, p.171). This observation was taped using the video-recorder. It took place in an
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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English classroom of one of English private courses in Bandung for three meetings. The observation schedule is elaborated in the table 2.2. Time allotment for each meeting is approximately 75 minutes. Since this research concerns on the students’ language, the speech of the students recorded in the video-tape is transcribed to ease the analysis.
Table 3.2 Observation Schedule
No.
of meeting
Date Time Topic of the
Lesson
Language Focus of the Lesson
1. Friday, September 14th, 2014
18.00-19.15 Appearance and Possessions
have got: negative
and positive 2. Tuesday, September
17th, 2014
18.00-19.15 Pets, Body Parts have got: questions
and short answers 3. Friday, September
26th, 2014
18.00-19.15 Story: Mago’s Room
there is / there are
questions and short answers; prepositions
of place
In the observation scheduled in table 3.2, the researcher recorded the activities in the classroom, observed the teacher’s and students’ movement, as well as the writing of the teacher and the students on the whiteboard.
3.3.2. Note-Taking
Another instrument used in this proposed research is note-taking. This instrument was conducted when the researcher reviewed the video observation. It was taken as the instrument in order to note the things which cannot be recorded by the video-tape. As stated by Gibson and Brown (2009, p.105), notes can be used for reminding the researcher of the intriguing features that should be checked on the recording later; as the complement of the more descriptive data; and to record the aspects that cannot be taken from the camera. In other words, it is a
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
supplementary instrument to give details of what is happening in the classroom such as the time, date, the weather, and many more aspects which may influence the participants but cannot be recorded by camera only.
3.3.3. Interview
Another instruments used in this study was interview. To quote Burgess (1984 as cited in Richards, 2009, p.183), a qualitative interview is simply described as, ‘conversation with a purpose.’
In practice, the interview was conducted with the teacher as well as the students. This instrument aims to identify the reason why the particular patterns emerged. The questions asked to the teacher were divided into three main themes. Firstly, the questions were about the teacher’s personal information including her teaching experience. Secondly, the questions were about the teacher’s perspective towards interaction in the classroom between the teacher and the students. Thirdly, the questions were about the classroom interaction that the teacher experienced in the classroom which was observed.
Besides, as this research focused on student talk, it is necessary to see the students’ perspectives as well. Thus, the researcher interviewed all of the six students separately. The questions given to the students were about their personal information, their interaction in the classroom that they experienced, and their views of classroom interaction as well. Since the students are children, the researcher told the students that their names would not be exposed, so they could tell the answer freely and honestly.
The entire of the interview was conducted on January 16th 2015. Before doing the interview, the researcher had asked the interviewees’ permission to record the interview.
3.4. Data Analysis
After all the data had been obtained, the data were then analysed. The analysis of the data was conducted through several steps as shown in figure 3.1.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
Figure 3.1. The Process of Analysis
Each step in the analysis process is elaborated in the following points. Step 1. Transcribing the video-recording
The results of the video-recording of classroom observation and interview were transcribed into the form of written text. The transcription of classroom observation includes both of teacher and sudent talk.
Step 2. Segmenting the transripts and marking the participants
In this step, the researcher segmented the conversation based on who talks what. In this research, ‘T’ was used for marking the teacher and ‘S’ for marking the students. There were six students as the participants of this research; therefore the researcher marked ‘S1’ up until ‘S6’ for each student. However, if there were two or more student talk the same utterance in the same time, the researcher marked it as ‘Ss’.
Step 3. Identifying the functions of each utterance.
In the third step, the segmented transcripts were classified into slots. One utterance may contain more than one slot for instance when the teacher is lecturing in front of the class, there will be lots of slots.
Step 4. Identifying types of moves and student talk categories Transcribing the classroom observation video Segmenting the transcripts and marking the participant Calculating frequency of each category
Interpreting the data
Concluding the data
Identifying the functions of each utterance.
Identifying types of moves and student talk categories
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
The next step carried out in analysis process was identifying the types of move in the transcript. Later on, the exchanges were classified using learner language exchange aspect analysis proposed by Suherdi (2010).
Step 6. Calculating frequency of each category
Each category occurred in the transcription was then calculated to answer the second research questions which is the feature occurred the most in the classroom. Step 7. Interpreting the data
In this part, the results of the transcription analysis were put together with the result of note-taking and interview to interpret the data. In this stage, the result was also connected with the research questions and underlying theories.
Step 8. Concluding the data
After interpreting the data, the conclusion were drawn to provide the general view of the research.
3.5. Establishing Rapport
Establishing rapport is important in conducting the research. The function of establishing rapport is to negotiate with the research object (Alwasilah, 2002, p.144). Without gaining the permission, the study cannot be conducted. Thus, to conduct this research, the researcher asked for permission to the private course owner, the English teacher, as well as the students.
3.6. Establishing Reliability and Validity
Validity is the truth of a description, conclusion, and any kinds of report (Alwasilah, 2002, p.169). The validation was carried out after the data has been gained and analysed. The validation and reliability was drawn from several strategies; triangulation, member checking, and feedback.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
Firstly, the strategy to determine the validity is triangulation. Since the study employed qualitative case study, it is useful to aviod misinterpretation of data. Therefore, it is suggested for the researcher to conduct triangulation. In regards to its definition, Stake (1995, p.241) mentions that it is the process of using many kinds of data source. It is very useful to validate the research as asserted by Johansson (2003, p.8) that “triangulation provides an important way of ensuring the validity of a case study research.” In line with Johansson and Stake, Hood (2009, p.87) echoes that “triangulation, the analysis of data from a variety of sources, may confirm inferences or render a multifaceted of an issue”. Therefore, the researcher employed three techniques to obtain the data which were recorded classroom observation, note-taking, and interviews.
3.6.2. Member Checking
Member checking is a strategy to check whether or not the results of the analysis is what the “participants feel that they are accurate (Creswell, 2009, p.191)”. Therefore, after the researcher had finished the analysis, the final report of the results was taken to the participants.
3.6.3. Feedback
The last strategy to validate the result of the research, especially the analysis of the observation, the researcher asked the supervisors, the experts, and colleagues who had the similar topic of research for feedback of the analysis.
3.7 Concluding Remark
In this chapter, the methodology of the research has been elucidated. It includes four subtopics which are research design, site and participants of this research, data collection, as well as the data analysis.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
In the last chapter, conclusions and suggestions will be elaborated. The conclusion is mainly the summary of the analysis result which has answered the two research questions guiding the study; student talk role in exchange structure, and the category of student talk which occur the most. Meanwhile, the suggestions will be given as the study hopefully can give contribution to two areas; pedagogical implication as well as suggestion for further research.
5.1. Conclusions
The present study aimed to investigate how the role of student talk pattern in exchange structure and to identify the most-occurring category in the pattern. The findings, regarding the first aim, showed that all of category from both receiving and producing category emerged in the three-meeting observation. However, their proportion differ each other. Some categories occurred greatly, while some others did not.
All of the categories were measured by the learner language exchange analysis proposed by Suherdi (2010). The analysis was started from analyzing the move, exchange, and after that the role of student talk. From the calculation it was shown that category 1 outnumbered the other student talk roles in three-meeting observation. The category 1 was predictable in classroom interaction because it was the typical of classroom interaction which was mainly led by teacher’s initiation (Park, 2013, p.150).
Next, the second research question aimed to identify the factors influencing the student talk role which appeared the most. From the analysis of classroom observation, interview, and note-taking, four factors were found. The factors were the way the teacher manages the classroom, the size of the class, student linguistic abilities, and topic area.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
5.2. Suggestions
The result of the study can expectantly give contribution to two areas which are pedagogical implication and lastly suggestion for further research. Suggestions for each area are elaborated in the following points.
5.2.1. Pedagogical Implication
The first suggestion is purposively for teachers. As a result of the research
findings, it hopefully can build teachers’ awareness of the importance of student
talk in language classroom. Specifically, the teacher should be aware of the equality of student response and student initiation.
5.2.2. Further Research
The result of the study shows that student talk is as overriding as teacher talk. However, research of classroom interaction concerning on student talk is still few. Therefore, the researcher gives several recommendations for the next researchers interested in the field of student talk.
In the first place, it is suggested to investigate the student talk pattern with narrower focus, for instance identify student-initiated talk only, to gain more in-depth understanding of student initiation in student talk in terms of questions. It is as a result from the findings of student-initiated question in the present research. Therefore, the investigation of student-initiated questions is not less significant from teacher question.
Secondly, as the present research carried out the study in a small size classroom consisted of six students only, it is recommended that the investigation of student talk is conducted in a larger-size classroom. It is resulted from the notion that student talk, as a part of classroom interaction, is also influenced by the size of the class. In other words, the size of classroom may affect the pattern of student talk. Lastly, since the analysis was carried out in an integrated-skill classroom, it is suggested to see the student talk pattern in certain-skill activities. It aims to see
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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whether or not certain classroom activities may also influence the pattern of student talk.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allwright, R., L. (1984). The Importance of Interaction in Classroom Language Learning. Applied Linguistics 5(2) 156-171.
Alwasilah, A., C. (2002). Pokoknya Kualitatif: Dasar-dasar Merancang dan
Melakukan Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study design and Implementation for Novice Researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544-559. Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter.pdf Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching By Principles: An Interactive Approach to
Language Pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2007) Discourse and Context in Language Teaching: A guide for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Consolo, D., A. (2006). Classroom Oral Interaction in Foreign Language Lessons and Implications for Teacher Development. Languagem & Ensino 9(2) 33-55. Creswell, J., W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mix
Method Approaches. (3rd ed). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J., W. (2011). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. (4th ed). Boston: Pearson.
Cullen, R. (1998). Teacher talk and the classroom context. ELT Journal 52(3), p.179-187. Retrieved from: http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/
Davies, M., J. (2011). Increasing Student's L2 Usage: An Analysis of Teacher Talk Time and Student Talk Time. Unpublished Paper: University of Birmingham.
Dyson, B. (2010). Learner Language Analytic Methods and Pedagogical Implications. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics,33(3). Retrieved from: http://www.nla.gov.au/openpublish/index.php/aral/article/view/2062.
Furlong, N., E., Lovelance, E., & Lovelance, K.. (2000). Research Methods and
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
Gibson, W. J., & Brown, A. (2009). Working with Qualitative Data. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Guillen, M., T., F. (2007). The role of interaction in the young learners’ classroom. Encuentro 17, pp. 6-14.
Hood, M. (2009). Case Study. In Heigham, J., & Croker, R., A. Qualitative
Research in Applied Linguistics: A practical introduction. Hampshire:
Palgrave MacMillan. Huraerah, N., R. (2013). The Analysis of Verbal Interaction between Teacher and Student in the Classroom (A Descriptive Study of EFL Classroom at a Senior High School in Bandung). Unpublished paper. Indonesia University of Education.
Johansson, R. (2003, September 22-23). Case Study Methodology. A key note speech at the International Conference “Methodologies in Housing Research” , Royal Institute of Technology in cooperation with International Association of People-Environment Studies, Sweden.
Kumpulainen, K., & Wray, D. (1997). Functional Analysis of Children's Classroom Talk: A Framework for Understanding Children's Discourse in Educational Contexts. The 1997 American Educational Research Association Conference (pp. 1-12). Chicago: American Educational Research Association.
McCarthy, M. (2008). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Mulyati, A., F. (2013). A Study of Teacher Talk and Student Talk in Verbal Classroom Interaction to Develop Speaking Skill for Young Learners.
Journal of English and Education 2013, 1(1), 1-10.
Park, Y. (2013). The Roles of Third-Turn Repeats in Two L2 Classroom Interactional Contexts. Applied Linguistics 2014: 35/2: 145–167. doi:10.1093/applin/amt006.
Pinter, A. (2009). Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM
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Pujiastuti, R., T. (2013). Classroom Interaction: An Analysis of Teacher Talk and Student Talk in English for Young Learners (EYL). Journal of English and
Education 2013, 1(1), 163-172.
Richards, K. (2009). Interviews. In Heigham, J., & Croker, R., A. Qualitative
Research in Applied Linguistics: A practical introduction. Hampshire:
Palgrave MacMillan.
Rylander, J. (2004). Interaction in a Chinese as a Foreign Language Classroom: A Conversation Analysis Approach. Second Language Studies 23(1), 67-144. Saville-troike, M. (2006). Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Suherdi, D. (2010). Classroom Discourse Analysis: A Systemiotic Approach.(3rd ed). Bandung: CELTICS Press.
Suherdi, D. (2009). Mikroskop Pedagogik: Alat Analisis Proses Belajar
Mengajar. Bandung: CELTICS Press.
Sunderland, J. (2001). Student Initiation, Teacher Response, Student Follow-Up: Towards an Appreciation of Student IRFs in the Language Classroom. Unpublished Paper. Lancaster University.
Tannen, D. (1996). Gender in Research on Language: Researching Gender-Related Patterns in Classroom Discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 30, 341-343. Tuan, L., T., & Nhu, N., T., K. (2010). Theoretical Review on Oral Interaction in
EFL Classrooms. Studies in Literature and Language 1(4), 29-48.
Yanfen, L. & Yuqin, Z. (2010). A study of teacher talk in interactions in english classes. Chinese Journal of Applied I33(2), p.76-86.
Yin, R., K. (1984). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Beverly Hills, New Delhi, London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Yin, R., K. (2011). Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. New York: The Guilford Press.
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
In the last chapter, conclusions and suggestions will be elaborated. The conclusion is mainly the summary of the analysis result which has answered the two research questions guiding the study; student talk role in exchange structure, and the category of student talk which occur the most. Meanwhile, the suggestions will be given as the study hopefully can give contribution to two areas; pedagogical implication as well as suggestion for further research.
5.1. Conclusions
The present study aimed to investigate how the role of student talk pattern in exchange structure and to identify the most-occurring category in the pattern. The findings, regarding the first aim, showed that all of category from both receiving and producing category emerged in the three-meeting observation. However, their proportion differ each other. Some categories occurred greatly, while some others did not.
All of the categories were measured by the learner language exchange analysis proposed by Suherdi (2010). The analysis was started from analyzing the move, exchange, and after that the role of student talk. From the calculation it was shown that category 1 outnumbered the other student talk roles in three-meeting observation. The category 1 was predictable in classroom interaction because it was the typical of classroom interaction which was mainly led by teacher’s initiation (Park, 2013, p.150).
Next, the second research question aimed to identify the factors influencing the student talk role which appeared the most. From the analysis of classroom observation, interview, and note-taking, four factors were found. The factors were the way the teacher manages the classroom, the size of the class, student linguistic abilities, and topic area.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
5.2. Suggestions
The result of the study can expectantly give contribution to two areas which are pedagogical implication and lastly suggestion for further research. Suggestions for each area are elaborated in the following points.
5.2.1. Pedagogical Implication
The first suggestion is purposively for teachers. As a result of the research
findings, it hopefully can build teachers’ awareness of the importance of student
talk in language classroom. Specifically, the teacher should be aware of the equality of student response and student initiation.
5.2.2. Further Research
The result of the study shows that student talk is as overriding as teacher talk. However, research of classroom interaction concerning on student talk is still few. Therefore, the researcher gives several recommendations for the next researchers interested in the field of student talk.
In the first place, it is suggested to investigate the student talk pattern with narrower focus, for instance identify student-initiated talk only, to gain more in-depth understanding of student initiation in student talk in terms of questions. It is as a result from the findings of student-initiated question in the present research. Therefore, the investigation of student-initiated questions is not less significant from teacher question.
Secondly, as the present research carried out the study in a small size classroom consisted of six students only, it is recommended that the investigation of student talk is conducted in a larger-size classroom. It is resulted from the notion that student talk, as a part of classroom interaction, is also influenced by the size of the class. In other words, the size of classroom may affect the pattern of student talk. Lastly, since the analysis was carried out in an integrated-skill classroom, it is suggested to see the student talk pattern in certain-skill activities. It aims to see
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50
Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
whether or not certain classroom activities may also influence the pattern of student talk.
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Debi Karmila, 2015
CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allwright, R., L. (1984). The Importance of Interaction in Classroom Language Learning. Applied Linguistics 5(2) 156-171.
Alwasilah, A., C. (2002). Pokoknya Kualitatif: Dasar-dasar Merancang dan
Melakukan Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study design and Implementation for Novice Researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544-559. Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter.pdf Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching By Principles: An Interactive Approach to
Language Pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2007) Discourse and Context in Language Teaching: A guide for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Consolo, D., A. (2006). Classroom Oral Interaction in Foreign Language Lessons and Implications for Teacher Development. Languagem & Ensino 9(2) 33-55. Creswell, J., W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mix
Method Approaches. (3rd ed). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J., W. (2011). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. (4th ed). Boston: Pearson.
Cullen, R. (1998). Teacher talk and the classroom context. ELT Journal 52(3), p.179-187. Retrieved from: http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/
Davies, M., J. (2011). Increasing Student's L2 Usage: An Analysis of Teacher Talk Time and Student Talk Time. Unpublished Paper: University of Birmingham.
Dyson, B. (2010). Learner Language Analytic Methods and Pedagogical Implications. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics,33(3). Retrieved from: http://www.nla.gov.au/openpublish/index.php/aral/article/view/2062.
Furlong, N., E., Lovelance, E., & Lovelance, K.. (2000). Research Methods and
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY OF STUDENT TALK IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
Gibson, W. J., & Brown, A. (2009). Working with Qualitative Data. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Guillen, M., T., F. (2007). The role of interaction in the young learners’ classroom. Encuentro 17, pp. 6-14.
Hood, M. (2009). Case Study. In Heigham, J., & Croker, R., A. Qualitative
Research in Applied Linguistics: A practical introduction. Hampshire:
Palgrave MacMillan. Huraerah, N., R. (2013). The Analysis of Verbal Interaction between Teacher and Student in the Classroom (A Descriptive Study of EFL Classroom at a Senior High School in Bandung). Unpublished paper. Indonesia University of Education.
Johansson, R. (2003, September 22-23). Case Study Methodology. A key note speech at the International Conference “Methodologies in Housing Research” , Royal Institute of Technology in cooperation with International Association of People-Environment Studies, Sweden.
Kumpulainen, K., & Wray, D. (1997). Functional Analysis of Children's Classroom Talk: A Framework for Understanding Children's Discourse in Educational Contexts. The 1997 American Educational Research Association Conference (pp. 1-12). Chicago: American Educational Research Association.
McCarthy, M. (2008). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Mulyati, A., F. (2013). A Study of Teacher Talk and Student Talk in Verbal Classroom Interaction to Develop Speaking Skill for Young Learners.
Journal of English and Education 2013, 1(1), 1-10.
Park, Y. (2013). The Roles of Third-Turn Repeats in Two L2 Classroom Interactional Contexts. Applied Linguistics 2014: 35/2: 145–167. doi:10.1093/applin/amt006.
Pinter, A. (2009). Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Pujiastuti, R., T. (2013). Classroom Interaction: An Analysis of Teacher Talk and Student Talk in English for Young Learners (EYL). Journal of English and
Education 2013, 1(1), 163-172.
Richards, K. (2009). Interviews. In Heigham, J., & Croker, R., A. Qualitative
Research in Applied Linguistics: A practical introduction. Hampshire:
Palgrave MacMillan.
Rylander, J. (2004). Interaction in a Chinese as a Foreign Language Classroom: A Conversation Analysis Approach. Second Language Studies 23(1), 67-144. Saville-troike, M. (2006). Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Suherdi, D. (2010). Classroom Discourse Analysis: A Systemiotic Approach.(3rd ed). Bandung: CELTICS Press.
Suherdi, D. (2009). Mikroskop Pedagogik: Alat Analisis Proses Belajar
Mengajar. Bandung: CELTICS Press.
Sunderland, J. (2001). Student Initiation, Teacher Response, Student Follow-Up: Towards an Appreciation of Student IRFs in the Language Classroom. Unpublished Paper. Lancaster University.
Tannen, D. (1996). Gender in Research on Language: Researching Gender-Related Patterns in Classroom Discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 30, 341-343. Tuan, L., T., & Nhu, N., T., K. (2010). Theoretical Review on Oral Interaction in
EFL Classrooms. Studies in Literature and Language 1(4), 29-48.
Yanfen, L. & Yuqin, Z. (2010). A study of teacher talk in interactions in english classes. Chinese Journal of Applied I33(2), p.76-86.
Yin, R., K. (1984). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Beverly Hills, New Delhi, London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Yin, R., K. (2011). Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. New York: The Guilford Press.