Handout COM 309 07 MODEL KOMUNIKASI

MODEL

KOMUNIKASI

KOMUNIKASI EFEKTIF

Pada tahap ini, harus dikenali siapakah audiens kita dan elemen-elemen komunikasi efektif
Siapakah yang harus memberikan pesan
Daya tarik apakah yang harus digunakan untuk pesan
Bagaimanakah struktur presan
Kata-kata apakah yang harus digunakan
Simbol?

KOMUNIKASI PERSUASI

cara yang etik yang meningkatkan masyarakat demokrasi

Mencoba untuk mempengaruhi orang, menggunakan cara-

Persuasi adalah bagian dari interaksi sosial yang digunakan oleh semua orang. Persuasi bertentangan dengan penyesatan yang
berdasarkan miskomunikasi, bukan paksaan dengan kekuataan.
Bukan juga propanganda yang didasarkan pada kebenaran
yang dipelintir dan agenda tersembunyi
untum menyakinkan orang membeli sesuatu. Pada public relations, organisasi menyakinkan publik

Pada pemasaran, komunikasi persuasif digunakan

untuk menyetujui konsep, mendukung kandidat.
Pada kesehatan masyarakat, menyakinkan remaja untuk berhenti merokok.
Pada organisasi non pemerintah, mempengaruhi pemerintah untuk menghormati hak asasi manusia.

Tradisi retorika

yaitu penggunaan kata-kata secara efektif baik tulisan maupun lisan untuk mempengaruhi, mengajak, atau menghibur.

Dimulai dari zaman Yunani Kuno melalui pidato persuasif

Kritik dari Socrates dan Plato, retorika harus didampingi oleh etika melalui logika ide.
Menurut Aristoteles retorik terdiri dari ethos, patos, logos.

Ethos. Komunikator yang meyakinkan

didasarkan pada reputasi pembicara, setting panggung bagi audiens untuk menerima atau menolak pesan.

Bagaiman persepsi audiens terhadap pembicara

Pesan belum dibicarakan namun audiens sudah mengambil kesimpulan berdasarkan prestise pembicara.
Hal ini disebabkan karena reputasi memiliki dampak pada audiens.

Kredibilitas

kualitas keahlian, status, kompetensi dan kejujuran. Expertise. Berarti sumber mengetahui apakah yang sedang

Kekuatan untuk menginspirasi kepercayaan melalui demonstrasi

dibicarakan. Status. Posisi sosial atau prestasi dari sumber pesan.
Kompetensi. Kemampuan untuk tetap tenang dibawah tekanan dan mampu menjelaskan dengan baik mengenai pesan terutama yang tidak memiliki kemampuan. Kejujuran. Sumber bersedia memberikan informasi secara lengkap
dan akurat, obyektif.
Sumber yang memiliki kredibilitas dapat menggunakan daya tarik ketakutan dan pembentukan opini dibandingkan dengan sumber yang
composure. Elemen lainnya adalah kualitas vokal dibagi menjadi

Fisik. Tinggi, tegap, memelihara kontak mata dan facial

pengucapan yang jelas, memulai komunikasi, berbicara dengan meyakinkan dan otoritas, energi dan antusiasme serta menghindri um dan uh.
secara masa lalu dan saat ini, antara kata-kata dan perilaku.

Kejujuran juga ditingkatkan dengan sumber pesan

Jika anda menyajikan posisi berbeda, jelaskan perubahan yang ada dan mengapa harus berubah. Harus tampil konsisten

KARISMA

karisma. Karisma juga merupakan masalah persepsi dan bervariasi tergantung pesan

Daya tarik personal yang dimiliki sumber pesan disebut

KARATERISTIK KARISMA

Attractiveness. Ketertarikan sumber pesan melalui tampilan

Familiaritas: sejauh mana audiens mengenal sumber pesan

fisik, sopan santun, self assured manner ppoise)i, dan
presence. Dilihat dari pakaian dan situasi lokasi penyajian
pesan. Tampilan fisik dan kecantikan kurang penting dibandingkan dengan kredibilitas dan aspek karisma lainnya. Komponen ketiga dari sumber pesan adalah kendali yang
didasarkan pada kendali sumber pesan terhadap audiens dan keinginan untuk melakukan kendali tersebut.
dominasi serta memberikan hadiah atau hukuman. Daya tarik guilt atau rasa bersalah sering diasosiasikan

Kekuatan adalah kemampuan untuk melakukan

dengan sumber pesan kekuatan.
Otoritas. Kendali dapat didasarkan pada sumber otoritas pesan yaitu hak untuk berkuasa atau memberikan arahan kepada orang lain

IDENTIFIKASI JURU BICARA ORGANISASI

Juru bicara selebritis.
Selebritis sering digunakan karena mereka memiliki kharisma dan dikenal.
Artis dan atlet sering menjadi juru bicara untuk perusahaan.
Politisi jarang digunakan sebagai juru bicara karena banyak memiliki musuh.

Jurubicara perusahaan

Organisasi harus berbicara secara single voice dan
melakukan koordinasi pesan. Pesan harus bersifat tunggal,
konsisten dan disajikan atas nama organisasi. Biasanya CEO namun jangan memiliki asumsi bahwa juru bicara harus CEO.
Alasannya adalah
Tidak overexposure boss karena akan ada masalah yang lebih berat.
CEO tidak mengetahui detil konferensi pers
CEO tidak memiliki kepribadian untuk tenang, kredibel dan karisma di depan publik.

LOGO: DAYA TARIK PENALARAN

Proposisi. Ide utama ada pada pidato, tulisan editorial,

Komunikasi efektif dan persuasi didasarkan pada

iklan, program televisi disebut proposisi atau klaim.
Pengajuan didasarkan pada satu proposisi; terlalu banyak proposisi akan membingungkan audiens dan mengurangi dampak pesan.

ADA EMPAT PROPOSISI

dapat dibuktikan. misalnya: bukti adanya polusi udara di kota besar. klaim fakta sering dikaitkan dengan tujuan komunikasi fokus pada awareness, untuk meningkatkan atensi atau meningkatkan pemahaman.

proposisi faktual: didasarkan pada sesuatu yang nyata,

proposisi konjektur pkesimpulan berdasarkan bukti yang belum jelas)i: sesuatu yang mungkin ada, didasarkan pada penalaran ditarik dari bukti fisik dan mengajak audiens untuk setuju terhadap kesimpulan. proposisi ini lebih mengarah kepada acceptance, menumbuhkan
kebaikan mengikuti sesuatu. Misalnya harus adanya reformasi kebijakan kesehatan. Klaim nilai berhubungan dengan tujuan penerimaan yang mencoba meningkatkan minat atau membangun sikap positif.

Proposisi nilai: mengidentifikasi nilai yang baik seperti

Proposisi kebijakan ppolicy proposition)i mengenali adanya perilaku baru dan mendorong adopsi perilaku baru seperti advokasi naik angkutan umum. Kebijakan diasosiasikan dengan opini dan aksi.

Bukti verbal

dikenal dan sudah menjadi referensi untuk membantu audiens memahami ide baru, khususnya membuat perbandingan antara dua hal yang berbeda namun memiliki kesamaan pada nilai yang paling penting.

Analogi. Analogi menggunakan situasi yang sudah

Contohnya parkir sembarangan seperti membuang sampah di sungai, akan terjadi kemacetan.
berhubungan dengan isu, perbandingan dapat dikaitkan dengan sesuatu yang dipahami oleh audiens.

Perbandingan: Dengan menekankan nilai yang

Buatlah perbandingan yang positif untuk sesuatu yang diketahui luas dan dikagumi dan buatlah perbandingan negatif untuk sesuatu yang tidak dihargai. Misalnya proposal reformasi pajak lebih ekonomis dibandingkan proposal alternatif.

CONTOH

contoh. Ilustrasi kasus terbaru, reliabel dan relevan dengan situasi yang dialami. Tidak boleh menarik kesimpulan dari kasus yang tidak masuk akal bahkan menyesatkan. Contohnya, pengobatan alternatif untuk tumor.

Contoh dapat berupa kesimpulan yang ditarik dari

Penggunaan statistik untuk menjelaskan sesuatu yang tidak dapat dibantah. Kelemahan statistik adalah misinterpretasi dan manipulasi.

Testimonial dan endorsements

disebut testimonial. Komen oleh orang yang mendukung organisasi disebut

Komen oleh saksi dan orang yang telah menggunakan

endorsements.
Testimonial dapat berupa surat dari konsumen yang puas.
Endorsement akan persuasif muncul dari selebritis yang sudah dikenal.

Bukti pendukung visual

bantu visual dalam menyajikan statistik dan informasi teknis.

Penggunaan foto, chart, grafik dan diagram sebagai alat

Misalnya. Blendtec.

Hindari kesalahan logika

unwarranted conclusion yaitu deduksi yang tidak didukung bukti.

Tidak boleh melakukan overgeneralisasi atau

False assumption. Kesimpulan yang tidak bisa diterima oleh audiens. Misalnya sekolah di AS lebih baik di Indonesia sehingga kurikulum Indonesia harus mengacu kepada AS. Tidak memperdulikan isu dan menyerang orang lain.
Misalnya, Trump.

Positive Emotional

Appeals

Love appeals

Bittersweet poignancy,
family togetherness,
nostalgia,
pity and compassion,
sensitivity,
sympathy or any of the many other sides of love.
and with issues of right or wrong. Altruism appeals focus on generosity, charity, kindness

Justice appeals deal with fairness, human or civil rights,

and unselfishness.
Loyalty appeals focus on patriotism and fidelity.
Bravery appeals evoke images of boldness, endurance and courage.

Piety appeals focus on religious faith, spirituality and

wisdom and self-control.

Discretion appeals relate to restraint, moderation,

advancement and making the world a better place.

Improvement appeals focus on progress, social

Esteem appeals focus on self-respect, pride, vanity
and self-worth.
Social acceptance appeals focus on the importance of peer support—the "everybody's doing it" theme.

Humor Appeals comedy and amusement are strong human instincts

Humor is useful in reinforcing existing attitudes and
behaviors, but it generally is not very efective in changing them.
Humor can make the speaker more liked by the audience, but seldom does it make the speaker seem more credible. However, the use of humor can reduce the speaker's
likability when audiences perceive the humor as

Sex Appeals

entendres to outright shock. These sexual messages can be efective in commanding

Appeals based on sex range from nudity to double

attention, though audience demographics afect how that attention is received.
Tests show that audiences often remember the sexual content of an advertisement but fail to associate it with the brand being promoted or the sponsor presenting the message.

Negative

Emotional Appeals

Fear appeals

receivers, such as advertising that focuses on the fear of body odor or political messages centered on the alleged disasters that await the public if the opposing candidate is elected.

are intended to arouse anxiety or worry among

The key to using fear appeals efectively is to accompany them with a quick fix featuring an easy, reasonable and immediate solution to the problem. Fear appeals to persuade audiences to obtain a
Moderate fear appeals can be efective, but too much

Beware of too much of a good thing.

fearful content can make people either avoid the message or take a defiant stance against it.
Appeals that present harsh consequences may cause audiences to cope with their fear simply by refusing to consider the message or even by denying the underlying issue.
without resulting in the desired action. For example, strong fear appeals used in a seat-belt

Fear appeals sometimes increase levels of awareness

campaign may leave audiences with an awareness of the
consequences of not wearing seat belts — perhaps There is a way to make fear appeals more efective:
Include in the message a strong how-to approach. For example, don't just deal with the dangers associated
with poor nutrition; give several clear and simple examples
fear appeals.

Source and significance also play a role in the efective use of

For example, fear appeals are more efective when they come
from highly credible sources who are dissimilar to the audience. Often this dissimilarity can be reinforced by symbols, such as

based information about disease prevention or using someone in a military uniform to speak about threats to national interests and preparation for war.

Fear appeals also can be efective when the issue is significant

guilt appeals

another negative message strategy, one that is the fip side of the virtue appeal.

Appeals to a personal sense of guilt or shame comprise

Consider the "Buy American" theme. Only a fine line separates a positive appeal to patriotism and national pride from one that tries to make people feel guilty.
With a positive approach, the message focuses on the common economic good, shared values among citizens and a healthy respect in the quality of American
can elicit a sense of guilt for having bought foreign- made products.

With a negative approach, however, the same appeal

Since nobody wants to feel guilty, a typical reaction against guilt appeals is to justify our actions p"Foreign cars are made better")i and to lament the alternative p"American cars just don't last as long")i.

Verbal Communication

spoken words. The right words— and the right use of those words—can

Verbal communication occurs through written and

efectively present your organization's message to its publics.
Several verbal factors combine to create an efective message, among them structure, clarity, saliency, power words, product and program names, strong quotes, and both ethical and legal language.

Message Structure

between the arrangement of the message and its efectiveness have been subjects of much research.

The structure of the message and the relationship

One-sided arguments

not the opposing views. This kind of argument is useful in reinforcing opinions,

present the organization's or speaker's point of view but

because one-sided arguments don't confuse the audience with alternatives, but onesided arguments are less efective in changing opinions.
Four conditions warrant the use of one-sided arguments:

p1)i The audience is friendly and already agrees with your position,
p2)i its members have low educational levels,
p3)i your position will be the only one presented, or
p4)i the objective is immediate opinion change.
cons of an issue, though not nessarily objectively. They usually criticize the opposition's position.

Two-sided arguments present both the pros and the

Two-sided arguments are necessary with better- educated audiences, with audiences that are undecided on an issue, and with audiences aware that another side of the issue exists.

Order of presentation refers to the way the argument unfolds

Should you present arguments in order of least to most
important or vice versa? It generally doesn't seem to matter, as long as you are consistent.
However, in developing your persuasive message, you may have reason to choose one form over the other.
For example, do you think your audience will be more attentive at the beginning of the message? If so, then use your strongest arguments there.

the lastmade point is the one best remembered

as well as for audiences that are less knowledgeable or less personally involved in the issue.

This is especially true with less-sophisticated audiences,

In your two-sided arguments, sandwich the information. That is, first present your side—the first argument often is perceived as the strongest.
Then present and refute the opposing arguments. Finally restate your position, because of the power of the
last word.

Drawing conclusions

telling the audience how to interpret it—has been the subject of much research.

—that is, presenting the evidence and then explicitly

To date, most of the findings suggest that making a recommendation or drawing a conclusion usually is more efective than leaving it to the audience to draw its own conclusion.
Reiteration is the final area to consider for efective message structure.

Reiteration refers to internal repetition of the main ideas within a persuasive message. This is not the kind of redundancy that involves superfuous words, such
as "puppy dog," "totally destroyed“ or "small village." Rather, reiteration means presenting the same message in diferent
forms, with diferent words and diferent examples, each reinforcing the other. For example, use a B list: "Be alert. Be prepared. Be resourceful."

using words that have the same beginning sounds, is another memory

Clarity

your message. To accomplish this, use words precisely, with an eye to

Clarity helps the audience quickly and easily understand

their exact and commonly understood meaning.
Use simple language—try instead of endeavor, use rather than utilize, say instead of articulate.
Avoid jargon unless the language is shared by your listeners,

Saliency In advertising, planners try to articulate the unique selling

proposition, that special something that their product or
service ofers that is diferent from all the competition.
the intended market segment.

It is a kind of niche statement that positions the product for

We can use the product also in public relations planning.
We call it saliency, the ability to stand out from the crowd.
Specifically, salient information is that which speaks
directly to the intended public by letting people know just

power words Power words is the name for terminology and

definitions that are so infuential that they often can determine public relations success for a movement or campaign.

Product and Program Names Product names receive much attention in commercial

enterprises. The California Prune Board went to court to gain permission to market prunes under the name "diced plums."
Exxon changed the name of the tanker Valdez to Sea River Mediterranean.
quotes, are an important aspect of verbal communication. Such quotes should be memorable and meaty.

Strong Quotes. The statements that people make,

Public relations writers should use strong quotes in their news releases, news conference statements, interviews and other occasions for interacting with the media. A more formalized kind of quote is a slogan, the catch
phrase in a communication program. Serving more or

Ethical Language

relations practitioner. In considering the verbal formulation of your message,

Using ethical language is a must for every public

pay attention to the implication of language.

Pretentious language is words or phrases that imply more than is warranted

Avoid them, because they can mislead readers.
Examples of pretentious language are "experienced vehicles" for used cars or "follically impaired" for bald.
Such words can have a backlash if they are perceived as either silly or too crafty. Sometimes pretentious language raises confusing questions. For example, if pets are "companion animals," then
should pet owners be called "human associates of

Doublespeak

behind the words. Don't use such language.

is outright dishonest language meant to obscure the real meaning

Besides being unethical, it invites the obvious criticism that the
organization is trying to hide the facts.

Legal Language. Strategic communicators also are familiar with laws afecting their
choice of language, and they respect both the letter and the spirit of such laws. Step
Defamation is a legal condition to be avoided at all costs. Defamatory language 6
meets a fivefold test: It is p1)i false information, (2) published or communicated to a third
party, p3)i that identifies a person p4)i and holds that person up to public hatred, contempt
or ridicule p5)i while involving some measure of negligence and/or malice on the part of
the communicator. Defamation is classified either as libel, which is written or broadcast
defamation, or slander, which is spoken defamation.

nonverbal

communication

simbol

representasi visual dari realitas.
dampak psikologis
pita merah AIDS
logo bulan bintang
bendera bangsa
logo korporasi. Nike.

musik lagu tahun baru. auld lang syne.

indonesia raya.

artifak fisik

palu hakim. logo kepolisian.
rokok. symbol kebebasan, anak muda, pemberontakan, kasar, petualang.
mobil adalah symbol kesuksesan.

clothing

designer clothing.

seragam militer, seragam akademis, etnis,

baju dokter. otori

people

harga diri, prestise.

manusia sebagai symbol. ulama, raja,

Ronald mcdonals, logo elang bondol.

hijau lingkungan. merah untuk aids. pink untuk kanker payudara.
white for wedding. in china, white for funeral.
pahami isu multicultural.