THE REFLECTION AND INFLUENCE OF POPULAR CULTURE AS THE RESULT OF WESTERNIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES IN JESSICA HAGEDORN’S DOGEATERS
THE REFLECTION AND INFLUENCE OF POPULAR
CULTURE AS THE RESULT OF WESTERNIZATION IN THE
PHILIPPINES IN JESSICA HAGEDORN’S DOGEATERS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
KARTIKA KUSUMANINGSIH
Student Number: 024214108
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2009
THE REFLECTION AND INFLUENCE OF POPULAR
CULTURE AS THE RESULT OF WESTERNIZATION IN THE
PHILIPPINES IN JESSICA HAGEDORN’S DOGEATERS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
KARTIKA KUSUMANINGSIH
Student Number: 024214108
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2009
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
THE REFLECTION AND INFLUENCE OF POPULAR
CULTURE AS THE RESULT OF WESTERNIZATION IN THE
PHILIPPINES IN JESSICA HAGEDORN’S DOGEATERS
By
KARTIKA KUSUMANINGSIH
Student Number: 024214108 Approved by Modesta Luluk Artika Windrasti, S.S. September 14, 2009.
Advisor Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum. September 14, 2009.
Co-Advisor
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
THE REFLECTION AND INFLUENCE OF POPULAR
CULTURE AS THE RESULT OF WESTERNIZATION IN THE
PHILIPPINES IN JESSICA HAGEDORN’S DOGEATERS
By
KARTIKA KUSUMANINGSIH
Student Number: 024214108 Defended before the Board of Examiners on September 25, 2009 and Declared Acceptable
BOARD OF EXAMINERS
Name Signature Chairman : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.Secretary : Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum. Member I : Elisa Dwi Wardani, S.S., M.Hum. Member II : Modesta Luluk Artika Windrasti, S.S. Member III : Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum.
Yogyakarta, September 30, 2009 Faculty of Letters
Sanata Dharma University Dean Dr. I. Praptomo Baryadi, M.Hum.
There is no need for temples,
no need for complicated philosophies.
My brain
and
my heartare my temples;
my philosophy is kindness .
( Dalai Lama )
This Undergraduate Thesis is Dedicated to
My Beloved Parents and Siblings
My Kochanie, Seba
My P.R.U.E Family
And my GIORDANO Family
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would express my greatest gratitude to Allah SWT for countless mercy. Thank you for protecting and never leaving me even in my doubtful and dreadful moments. I would not have finished this thesis without Your blessing.
A wealth of gratitude is dedicated to my advisor Modesta Luluk Artika Windrasti, S.S. and Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum. as my co-Advisor who have spent time and thought on this thesis. Thank you for your valuable suggestions and correcting my thesis until it finished. My gratitude also goes to my lecturers for the knowledge and guidance during my years in college.
My greatest thanks go to my beloved dad Susmono and mom Sukatmi for endless love, backup, and for always trusting me in making my own decisions. For my siblings Agung, Susi, Koko, and of course Ratih, thank you so much for helping me with stuffs I could not manage.
For my lovely ‘shipmate’, Sebastian R. Grocz, I am so grateful for your never ending support in my bad times and for being such an amazing teammate. Let us bring our dreams into reality and create a legend we will be proud of.
My gratitude also goes to all my ‘good joe’ in Sanata Dharma University who have made my life more colorful. A special thank goes to my GIORDANO family and P.R.U.E (Alfa, Ardy, Debby, Dian, Faida, Ferdy, Fitra, Hendy, Jeff, Nico, Rudy, Shreek, and Suryo) for sharing life experience and fabulous friendship.
At last but most essential, my biggest appreciation goes to Vital van de Horst, Adrian, Debora, Patricia, Tika Kecil, Wahyu Ginting, Ana Preman, and Caesar for your great contribution and magical cards. Furthermore, I thank to my Vida’s boarding house and ex boarding house girls at Jl. Beo 45B for our joyful sisterhood.
May God always bless all these amazing people.
Kartika Kusumaningsih
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGE ..................................................................................... ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ................................................................................ iii MOTTO PAGE ............................................................................................ iv DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................. vii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ ix ABSTRAK ................................................................................................... x CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................
1 A. Background of the Study .............................................................
1 B. Problem Formulation ..................................................................
5 C. Objectives of the Study ...............................................................
6 D. Definition of Terms .....................................................................
6 CHAPTER II: THEORITICAL REVIEW .............................................
8 A. Review of Related Studies ..........................................................
8 B. Review of Related Theories ........................................................
12 1. Theory of Setting ..............................................................
12 2. Theory of Character and Characterization .......................
13 3. Theory of Popular Culture ................................................
14 4. Theory of Westernization .................................................
17 5. Theory of Hegemony .......................................................
19 C. Review on Philippines’ Cultural-Historical Background ............
20 1. Before the Arrival of American .......................................
20 2. The Philippines under the Stars and Stripes ....................
23 D. Theoretical Framework ...............................................................
25 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .........................................................
27 A. Object of the Study .....................................................................
27 B. Approach of the Study .................................................................
28 C. Method of the Study ....................................................................
29 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ......................................................................
31 A. The Reflection of Popular Culture as the Impact of Westernization 31 1. The Setting in the Novel ..................................................
32 2. The Characters in the Novel ............................................
42 B. The Influence of Popular Culture toward Filipinos’ Behavior Pattern ........................................................................................
53 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ................................................................
63
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................
66 APPENDICES ............................................................................................
69 Appendix 1: The Summary of Dogeaters ........................................
69 Appendix 2: Terms in the Novel Quoted in the Thesis ...................
72
ABSTRACT
KARTIKA KUSUMANINGSIH (2009). The Reflection and Influence of
Popular Culture as the Result of Westernization in the Philippines in Jessica
Hagedorn’s Dogeaters. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Culture is understandings, patterns of behavior, practices, and values that are acquired, preserved, and transmitted by a group of people and that can be embodied in art works. Culture can be diffused from one to another and transmitted from one generation to generation. The diffusion and transmission of two cultures may form a new culture. In the Philippines, the invasion of Spaniards in 1521 and arrival of Americans in 1898 gave significant changes to the local culture and formed a new one. Afterwards, it grew into popular culture as the influence of Westernization. Popular culture will always be an interesting issue to discuss since it stimulates people to be part of it for the sake of existence. This circumstance encourages the writer to analyze the reflection and influence of popular culture as the result of Westernization in the Philippines in Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters. Here, obviously Jessica Hagedorn tries to show the Westernization which deeply influenced the way of the Filipinos in viewing life.
There are two problems related to the topic of this research to guide the analysis. They are: (1) In what way is popular culture as the impact of Westernization reflected on Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters? (2) How does popular culture as the impact of Westernization influence the behavior pattern of the Filipinos in Dogeaters?
In order to answer the problems, this study is using sociocultural-historical approach which relates the work to the society and history where it was produced. In the process of collecting information, the writer used library research method. Therefore sources from books were taken as well as from the internet to support the analysis. The primary source of the study is Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters. Some other books as well as several websites which contain the information about popular culture and the Philippines history are also discussed as the secondary sources.
From the analysis, the writer finds out two significant results. First, it is found that Dogeaters reflects popular culture as the impact of Westernization by showing the settings and characters in the novel in reference with the Philippines’ history. Second, the influence of popular culture as the impact of Westernization in Dogeaters is seen from the characters’ behaviors toward popular and their original culture. The growing of popular culture gives influences the way the society praising and imitating the Western culture or products, feeling ashamed and disrespectful to their original culture or local products, and having consumerism habit.
ABSTRAK
KARTIKA KUSUMANINGSIH (2009). The Reflection and Influence of
Popular Culture as the Result of Westernization in the Philippines in Jessica
Hagedorn’s Dogeaters. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Kebudayaan merupakan pemahaman bersama, pola hidup, tingkah laku, dan nilai-nilai yang diperoleh, dipelihara, dan disebarkan oleh sebuah kelompok orang dan dapat berbentuk dalam karya seni. Kebudayaan dapat berbaur dari satu budaya ke budaya lainnya dan diwariskan secara turun-temurun. Pembauran dan penyebaran antar dua budaya dapat membentuk suatu budaya baru. Di Filipina, invasi bangsa Spanyol tahun 1521 dan kedatangan bangsa Amerika pada tahun 1898 memberikan perubahan yang besar terhadap budaya lokal dan membentuk sebuah budaya baru. Setelah itu, budaya baru tersebut berkembang menjadi budaya populer atas pengaruh Westernisasi. Budaya populer akan selalu menjadi persoalan yang menarik untuk dibahas karena dapat membangkitkan semangat untuk ikut mengambil bagian untuk kepentingan eksistensi. Keadaan seperti ini yang mendorong penulis untuk mendiskusikan pencerminan dan pengaruh budaya populer akibat dari Westernisasi di Filipina dalam novel Dogeaters. Melalui karya sastra ini, Jessica Hagedorn dengan sangat jelas mencoba menunjukkan Westernisasi yang sangat mempengaruhi cara orang Filipina memandang hidup.
Sebagai pedoman analisa, terdapat dua pokok permasalahan yang terkait dengan topik skripsi ini. Antara lain: (1) Dengan cara apakah budaya populer sebagai akibat dari Westernisasi dicerminkan dalam novel Dogeaters karya Jessica Hagedorn? (2) Bagaimanakah pengaruh budaya populer akibat dari Weternisasi terhadap pola prilaku orang Filipina dalam novel Dogeaters?
Untuk menjawab permasalahan tersebut, skripsi ini menggunakan pendekatan sosial budaya dan sejarah, yang mana menghubungkan novel ini dengan masyarakat and sejarah dimana karya sastra tersebut telah dibuat. Dalam proses pengumpulan data, penulis menggunakan metode studi pustaka. Oleh karena itu, sumber-sumber diambil dari buku dan internet untuk membantu analisa. Sumber utama studi ini adalah novel Dogeaers karangan Jessica Hagedorn. Buku-buku lain dan beberapa website yang di dalamnya terdapat informasi tentang budaya populer dan sejarah mengenai Filipina juga digunakan dalam studi ini sebagai sumber pendukung.
Dalam analisa ini, penulis menemukan dua hasil yang penting. Pertama, ditemukan bahwa novel Dogeaters mencerminkan budaya populer yang muncul akibat Westernisasi dengan menunjukkan setting dan penokohan dalam novel yang mengacu pada sejarah Filipina. Kedua, pengaruh budaya populer sebagai akibat Westernisasi dalam Dogeaters dapat dilihat dari pola prilaku tokoh-tokoh terhadap budaya populer dan budaya lokal mereka. Perkembangan budaya populer berpengaruh pada sikap masyarakat yang memuji dan meniru budaya atau produk dari Barat, merasa malu dan tidak menghargai budaya atau produk-produk lokal, dan bersikap konsumtif.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study
“We live in transitional society, and the idea of culture, too often, has been identified with one or other of the forces which the transitions contains” (Esthope and McGowen, 1992: 224). The opening quotation above is taken from Raymond Williams’ Culture
and Society (1958) in Esthope and McGowen’s A Critical and Cultural Theory
Readers. It affirms that everything is changing, including society and all the
things contained in it. In a society where its members have the same history and collective action, people are communicating and interacting with each other. Time after time, they form a custom—by which a culture is being shaped and becoming an identity of a society. Culture is not fixed and finished, but it is rather living and changing. Different society forms different culture and it differs one another in variance which makes them more particular and unique. Raymond Williams defines ‘culture’ as “the product of the old leisured classes who seek now to defend it against new and destructive forces” (Esthope and McGowen, 1992: 224).
Nevertheless, more specific definition of culture is found in Visual Arts: Glossary. It is described as “understandings, patterns of behavior, practices, and values that are acquired, preserved, and transmitted by a group of people and that can be embodied in art works” (http://arts.unitec.ac.nz/engageinarts/visarts/glossary.php). Meanwhile, Merriam-Webster dictionary classifies culture as:
b: the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; also : the characteristic features of everyday
2 existence (as diversions or a way of life} shared by people in a place or time <popular culture> <southern culture> c: the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization <a corporate culture focused on the bottom line> d: the set of values, conventions, or social practices associated with a particular field, activity, or societal characteristic (http://www.merriam-webster.com /dictionary/ culture). Culture travels across geographical borders and it can be diffused from one to another and transmitted from generation to generation. The diffusion between two cultures may cause a cultural change or it builds a new culture because the new comer culture mixes and blends with local one. Cultural contact, expansion, pressure, colonialism, and globalization are the main factors which strongly change or reshape an original culture into a new one. It is since in those conditions, groups of people come, stay, and make interactions with local people, while at the same time bring, show, and share their culture to the public. The local inhabitants are sooner or later reacting to this new comer’s culture. There are two kinds of possibility: rejection or acceptance. Their act of rejection can be in the form of a confrontation or by being an opposition and trying to loose from it. We can view rejection to the new culture in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, for instance. This novella depicts the Europeans effort to conquer the inland of Africa which is full of ‘barbarians’. Meanwhile, in Samual Seward’s “Literary analysis: Heart of Darkness”, Marlow addresses them as ‘prehistoric’ people since he cannot comprehend their alien procedures. This story brings colonialism issues on the way the Europeans consider themselves as a higher society with civilized culture and view African as uncivilized. This novella tells Marlow’s trip to hinterland of Congo for trading and meeting Kurtz. During his trip, Marlow sees
3 torture and slavery over the native Africans by the Europeans. One of the Europeans is Kurtz who rules the native Africans through violence and intimidation. His follower, a Russian guy, explains that Kurtz had used his guns and personal charisma to take over tribes of Africans and had used them to make war on other tribes for their ivory.
“The prehistoric man was cursing us, praying to us, welcoming us- who could tell?” (Conrad, 44), Marlow describes the Africans as prehistoric and has no ability to understand exactly what they were attempting to do when the boat was floating down the river. This separates the Africans from the Europeans, Marlow not having the ability to understand their activities, separates the Africans by describing them as prehistoric because he cannot comprehend their alien procedures (http://www.helium.com/ items/1330880-the-use-of-racism-in-heart-of-darkness).
An example of cultural attack or pressure can be seen in “The White Man’s Burden” by Rudyard Kipling. As stated in Eliza Fabillar’s poetry analysis, this poem was originally published in the popular magazine McClure’s with subtitle “The White Man’s Burden: 1899, The United States and the Philippine Islands”(http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6609/). This was Kipling's response to the American takeover of the Philippines in 1899. In this poem, he tells about a command to the ‘White Man’ to colonizes and rules the natives of other nations for their own benefit which are the imperialism and cultural domination of the United States. By the cultural development of people from other ethnic and background, the ‘White Man’ can make the people adopting their Western culture, as seen in the first stanza:
Take up the White Man's burden-- Send forth the best ye breed-- Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need; To wait in heavy harness,
4 On fluttered folk and wild-- Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half devil and half child. (http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_2 /kipling.html). Another poet, Luis Cabalquinto, writes “The Dog-Eater” which was first published in American Poetry Review. He was inspired by Jessica Hagedorn’s novel. This poem illustrates an American boy sees the dog-eater walking on a sidewalk of New York. The dog-eater is described as a village dark man who eats dog everyday. Although he is in New York, he is still being himself and aware of his identity (http://www.meritagepress.com/ bspeaks_feb.htm).
When people decide to accept a diffusion of cultures, it is because they want to follow it ‘voluntarily’ or they have to accept it because they are being under pressure. In this case, the culture is coming from a so—called more advanced or developed society. Popular culture in this modern era can be identified as a mass culture which stimulates people to be part of it for the sake of existence. According to Raymond Williams popular culture is “inferior (less commendable quality or value) kinds of work that deliberately sets out to win favour upon people” (Strinati, 1995:2). Popular culture is interesting to troop after and appealing to study about. The writer found a great exploration on this theme in the Philippines’ society in Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters. That is the reason why the writer wants to discuss popular culture in the Philippines since the arrival of the Colonialists, Americans and Spaniards. However, specifically the writer will discuss the reflection and influence of popular culture as the result of Westernization in the Philippines in Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters.
5 The Philippines is so steeped in love for pop culture, fantasy life. It’s probably one way to get through the day in a hard life. They work hard and they dream hard and they love hard and they die hard. There’s this fixation with movie stars, pop stars, worship, and a sense of melodrama. It’s very effusive. Other cultures may find it a bit much, but I just love it. I love the bigness, the flamboyance (http://www.donshewey.com/theater_ articles/jessica_hagedorn.htm). In Don Shewey’s interview with Hagedorn for the New York Times as quoted above, Hagedorn tells how deep popular culture penetrates into the
Filipinos life. Dogeaters portrays the characters’ fantasy or euphoric dream of living in glamorous life in America. She mentions the whole about Filipinos who are crazy to consume expensive American brands, like Jiffy Peanut Butter, Libby's, and Buick cars. They like to be updated with radio melodramas, news, Western culture movies, and its music. They are also proud of using American services, as US divorce, Green card, American doctor, and American hospital. All is about getting the Hollywood dreams. Here, obviously Jessica Hagedorn tries to show the bombardment of the media which deeply influences the way of the Filipinos viewing life.
“RIO-I wish you never left us but if God wills I will perhapps be joineing you soon over there, primma. I need a US divorse, sabes ya- its still not okay here it’s a mortal sin….” (Hagedorn, 1991: 7).
B. Problem Formulation
Through the writing of this research, the writer would like to answer the two questions listed as follows:
1. In what way is popular culture as the impact of Westernization reflected on Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters?
6
2. How does popular culture as the impact of Westernization influence the behavior pattern of the Filipinos in Dogeaters?
C. Objectives of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to answer the problems that have been formulated above. The initial objective of this study is to find out the way
Dogeaters reflects popular culture as the impact of Westernization in the
Philippines. This step is taken by analyzing the content of the novel which portrays popular culture. The final objective is to discover how popular culture as the impact of Westernization influences the behavior pattern of the Filipinos in
Dogeaters . This is done by relating what are found in the first problem with the
Filipinos’ life pattern. Therefore, the reflection and influence of popular culture as the result of Westernization occurring in the novel could be revealed.
D. Definition of Terms
1. Popular Culture
Definition of culture according to “Visual Arts: Glossary” is described as understandings, patterns of behavior, practices, and values that are acquired, preserved, and transmitted by a group of people and that can be embodied in art works. It delivers the meaning of popular culture into contemporary understandings, patterns of behavior, practices, and values as defined by the objects, images, artifacts, literature, music, and so on of ‘ordinary’ people
7 (http://arts.unitec.ac.nz/engageinarts/visarts/glossary.php). Meanwhile, Merriam- Webster dictionary defines popular as:
2: suitable to the majority, as
a: adapted to or indicative of the understanding and taste of the majority. 3: frequently encountered or widely accepted . 4: commonly liked or approved (http://www.merriam- webster.com /dictionary/ culture).
A simple definition of the term ‘popular culture’ may refer either to individual artifacts (often treated as texts) such as popular song or a television programme, or to a group’s lifestyle (Edgar and Sedgwick, 1999: 285). According to Raymond Williams (1976: 199), popular culture is inferior (less commendable quality or value) kinds of work that deliberately sets out to win favour upon people (Strinati, 1995:2).
2. Westernization
Wikipedia English - The Free Encyclopedia defines Westernization as a process whereby non-western societies come under the influence of ‘Western culture’ in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economy, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, religion or values. It is usually a two-sided process, in which the Western influences and interests themselves for making the non- Western to change towards a more westernized society (http://dictionary.babylon. com/Westernization).
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies Dogeaters is Jessicca Hagedorn’s best-selling novel which was nominated
for a National Book Award and an American Book Award when it was first published in 1990. This novel is inspired by the colonization of Spain, Japan, and America in the Philippines, a state which makes this novel rich in contents and issues. Literary critics discuss Dogeaters in many aspects, such as: politics, power, romance, gender, religion, culture, ethnicity, and many more. Moreover in 1998, La Jolla Playhouse, a professional theater of University of California based in San Diego, produced a stage performance whose scenario is adapted from the novel (http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Jessica_Hagedorn).
In Elyse Sommer’s review, she focuses on the emphasis of the way this novel is named Dogeaters. She said that by naming the novel Dogeaters, the pejorative for the Filipinos coined by Americans to make fun of the natives who often serve up dogs the way one serves chicken meat and pork. She criticizes Jessica Hagedorn for her fictional appraisal of the land of her birth, examines every strata of its society and puts everything on the table, including bits and pieces like the dog eating days that many Filipinos prefer to hide or forget. The result was a tangled tale of the long-lingering aftertaste of colonization that left people torn between the old and new world, connected by the hype of the media and the glamour of the movies (http://imeldificevita.multiply.com/reviews).
9 In an essay entitled “Dictators, Movie Stars, and Martyrs”, Myra Mendible examines Jessica Hagedorn's Dogeaters as an ironic critique of spectacle that exposes and usurps its political usefulness. Here she states the impacts of colonial era toward dictator’s bureaucracy and in driving the characters to dream and worship the American cultures.
While their dictators flourish on the world stage, Hagedorn’s characters dream themselves as actors in foreign movies, often confusing cinematic events with personal memories; they produce themselves in the image of another’s desire, reenact a familiar stock of clichéd roles and social rituals. For example, First Lady who is so extravagant that she would become an object of world parody. Yet throughout Ferdinand’s twenty-year dictatorship, Imelda played the starring role in a national spectacle that served as ‘guardian of sleep’ for the regime. While Ferdinand tightened his grip on power, the spectacle of Imelda captivated Filipino audiences, intrigued the international press, and enthralled U.S. leaders and dignitaries. Imelda’s spectacular image inspired by Hollywood movies and promoted by the press, seduced an impoverished majority—a populace enamored of American movie images depicting lavish prosperity and splendor (http://www.genders.org/g36/g36_mendible.html).
Meanwhile, in Julie Shackford-Bradley’s “Politics, Pleasure, and Intertextuality in Contemporary Southeast Asian Women’s Writing” which is published in Deborah L. Madsen’s Beyond the Borders: American Literature and
Post-Colonial Theory , focuses on intertextuality in the three novels that refills the
influence of postcolonial political structures in the Philippines, Burma, and Indonesia. The three novels are Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters (1990), Wendy Law-Yone's Irrawaddy Tango (1993), and Ayu Utami’s Saman (1998). In
Dogeaters, Shackford-Bradley analyzes the legacies of the Cold War and the
onset of globalization for characters living under harsh military rule and the socio- cultural, as well as economic traumas brought by the US military and dictatorships of Marcos. “The economic traumas caused by the Philippines Rehabilitation Act
10 which gave less advantage to citizens of the Philippines. Nevertheless, it gave outstanding beneficiaries to the America and American businessmen whose investments in the Philippines in the form of factories, shops and buildings, mines and other industrial plants or commercial enterprises, were seriously damaged by the American war in Vietnam and the Maynilà ‘summit’ of 1966. For this matter, the Filipinos were asked to pay an exorbitant price” (Agoncillo, 1969:294-295).
Shackford-Bradley studies the ways in which authors of those three novels weave together compelling tales out of fragments and disparate narratives. At the same time, she uses allusion to reveal the hidden structures of postcolonial histories. She also examines the authors’ response to these histories through the inclusion of a discourse of international human rights which is woven into their narratives for the purpose of exposing unseen injustices and their long-term effects on the individual and on the general populace. Besides, she also discusses about the female experience of sexual torture for the purposes of not only undermining the individual’s ability to express the most expansive potential of the human being, but also by associating pain with sexuality (Madsen, 2003: 222-237).
Different from other essays on Dogeaters, in E. San Juan, Jr.’ “Who’s Afraid of Jessica Hagedorn?” notes on Filipina Writer in America, he explores the themes of U.S. imperial hegemony. Moreover, he as well investigates the construction of a historically specific, gendered, national identity by a leading Filipina-American writer. He points not only to racial discrimination of citizens of Asian ancestry in the U.S., but mainly to the relentless neocolonial domination on the Philippines whose effects still defy inventory by orthodox postcolonial
11 casuistry (http://philcsc.wordpress.com/2008/10/06/whos-afraid-of-jessica- hagedorn -notes-on-a-filipina-writer-in-america/).
Dogeaters depicts the multilayered contradictions of the Philippines’
society, an uneven terrain alluded to one of the characters as “a nation of cynics…betrayed and then united only by our hunger for glamour and our Hollywood dreams”, as stated bellow by San Juan, Jr.:
Hagedorn expresses the Gramscian version of nationalism as the national- popular: she articulates the sense of her own country as the sense of her own place, of herself as occupying a given position whose social meaning derives from belonging to a historically-defined tradition. She rejects the nationalism of the nation-state which is supported by the identification with a specific ideology…. Precisely because the Philippines [is] an American colony–and this is not an invention–Dogeaters is not only a realistic portrayal of the cultural, social, and moral fragmentation derived from centuries of dependence on first the Spanish and later the Americans, but also–in Gramscian terms–the expression of a sociality which is historical and ethic-political and which is the condition for the artistic rendering of a genuine and fundamental humanity (http://philcsc.wordpress.com/2008/10/06/whos-afraid-of-jessica-hagedorn -notes-on-a-filipina-writer-in-america/).
Compared with previous essays, this thesis is discussing Dogeaters from different point of view. Historically, the Philippines was colonized by Spain and America for such a long time as Indonesia by Dutch. During that time, the colonizers brought major effects to the local custom. They westernized the Filipinos with their religion, culture, habits, and ideas. This Westernization formed popular culture among the Filipinos. Therefore, this thesis focuses on the reflection and influence of popular culture in the novel as a result of the invasion of Western countries.
12
B. Review of Related Theories
To have the analysis meet the objectives of this study, the writer uses the theory of setting, character and characterization, westernization, popular culture, and the theory of hegemony.
1. Theory of Setting
Setting takes an important part in Dogeaters. The way Jessica Hagedorn uses particular terms to signify the meaning of the place and certain time to imply an important event. A Handbook of Literary Terms defines setting as “the elements that give the reader an abstract impression of the environment in which the characters move” (Yelland, et al., 1986: 184). According to A Handbook to
Literature , setting is also said as “the physical, and sometimes spiritual,
background against which the action of a narrative takes place” (Holman and Harmon, 1986: 465). For narrative or dramatic work, the setting usually is “the general locale, historical time, and social circumstances in which its action occurs” (Abrams, 1993: 192). In a broader meaning, quoted by Koesnosoebroto, Lostracco and Wilkerson stated that “setting refers to the conditions or total environment, physical, emotional, economic, political, social, and psychological in which the characters live” (Koesnosoebroto, 1981: 80).
There are four elements making up a setting according to Holman and Harmon’s A Handbook to Literature, namely:
a. The actual geographical location, its topography, scenery, and such physical arrangements as the location of the windows and doors in a room.
b. The occupations and daily manner of living of the characters.
13 c. The time or period in which the action takes place, for example, epoch in history or seasons of the year.
d. The general environment of the characters, for example, religious, mental, moral, social, and emotional conditions through which the people in the narrative move. Based on this book, when setting dominates, or when a piece of fiction is written largely to present the manners and customs of a locality or certain place, the writing is often called as local color writing or regionalism (Holman and Harmon, 1986: 465).
2. Theory of Character and Characterization
In A Glossary of Literary Terms, characters is identified as “the persons presented in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional, and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say—the dialogue—and by what they do—the action” (Abrams, 1993: 23).
E. M. Forster divided character into two types according to its complexity of quality. The first type is flat character which is “built around a single idea or quality and is presented without much individualizing detail”. And second is round character which is “complex in temperament and motivation and is represented with subtle particularity” (Abrams, 1993: 24). “Many writers present their main characters with fullness of detail, ‘in the round’, while the minor figures appear flat and somewhat lifeless” (Yelland, et al., 1953: 31).
14 Characters are imaginary persons because characters are presented in dramatic or narrative works. “The creation of these imaginary persons so that they exist for the reader as lifelike is called characterization” (Holman and Harmon, 1986: 81). There are three basic methods of characterization in fiction:
a. The explicit presentation by the author of the character through direct exposition.
b. The presentation of the character in action.
c. The representation within a character (ibid).
In addition, “a character may be either static or dynamic. A static character is one who changes a little if at all. Things happen to such a character without things happening within” (ibid, 83). Therefore, a static character may face even small changes which in fact do not change the character’s quality. “A dynamic character, on the other hand, is one who is modified by actions and experiences” (ibid). Such character changes his or her traits during the development of the story.
3. Theory of Popular Culture
In An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture by Dominic Strinati (1995), the contrasting implications with the history of the idea of popular culture are clearly noted by Raymond Williams. Referring to a ‘shift in perspective’ between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, he notes that ‘popular’ means “being seen from the point of view of the people rather than from those seeking favor or power over them”. He describes ‘popular culture’ as “a culture that
15 carries two older senses: inferior kinds of work and deliberately setting out to win favor as well as the more modern sense of well liked by many people” (William, 1976: 199 in Strinati, 1995, 2-3) . The social significance of popular culture in the modern era can be charted by the way it has been identified with mass culture. It is seen from the coming of the mass media and the increasing commercialization of culture and leisure rise the issue of popular culture. The growth of the idea of mass culture, very evident from 1920s and 1930s onwards, is one of the historical sources of the themes and perspectives on popular culture (Strinati, 1995: 2).
The threat posed to high culture by mass culture and take over it as follow: Plays are now produced mainly to sell the movie rights, with many being directly financed by the film companies. The merger has standardized the theatre expunging both the classical and the experimental…and…the movies…too have become standardized…they are better entertainment and worse art (MacDonald, 1957: 64-65).
From the quotation above, Hoggart MacDonald in An Introduction to
Theories of Popular Culture states that the plays or movies are now being
produced merely to entertain the viewers and put artistry as secondary element.He views the American mass culture leads the ‘jukebox boys’ away from the lived authenticity of their working-class backgrounds and into the empty fantasy world of Americanized pleasure. Mass culture is thought to arise from the mass production and consumption of culture. Since capitalist society most closely associated with these processes, it is relatively easy to identify America as the home of mass culture. In the following quotation, MacDonald affirms that in popular culture people are organized as masses and related to one another. It gives occasion to lose their human identity and quality.
16 This idea of the audience (public) is quite common to theories of popular culture. If “people are organized…as masses, they lose their human identity and quality…they are related to one another neither as individuals nor as members of communities”. Instead, every individual exists as “a solitary atom, uniform with and undifferentiated from thousands and millions of other atoms who go to make up ‘the lonely crowd' as David Reisman well calls American society.” By contrast, “folks is a community, i.e., a group of individuals linked to each other by common interests, work, traditions, values, and sentiments” (MacDonald, 1957: 69). The development of the idea of popular culture is linked to the argument about meaning and interpretation which predate but become strikingly evident in the debates over mass culture. In particular, three related themes can be found in the work referred to above which, while not being exhaustive, have been central to theories of popular culture ever since.
a. The first theme concerns on what or who determines popular culture Where does popular culture come from? Does it emerge from the people themselves as an autonomous expression of their interests and modes of experience or is it imposed from above by those in positions of power as a type of social control? Does popular culture rise up from the people ‘below’ or does it sink down from elites ‘on high’ or is it rather a question of an interaction between the two? b. The second theme concerns on the influence of commercialization and industrialization upon popular culture
Does the emergence of culture in commodity forms mean that criteria of profitability and marketability take precedence over quality, artistry, integrity and intellectual challenge? Or does the increasingly universal market of popular culture ensure that it is truly popular because it makes available commodities
17 people actually want? What wins out when popular culture is manufactured industrially and sold according to the criteria of marketability and profitability – commerce or quality?
c. The third theme concerns on the ideological role of popular culture Is popular culture there to indoctrinate the people, to get them to accept and adhere to ideas and values which ensure the continued dominance of those in more privileged positions who thus exercise power over them? Or is it about rebellion and opposition to the prevailing social order? Does it express, in however an imperceptible, subtle and rudimentary manner, resistance to those in power, and the subversion of dominant ways of thinking and acting? (Strinati, 2004: 3).
4. Theory of Westernization
The theory of popular culture has also been concerning with the process of Westernization. It is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western culture in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, religion, or values. Westernization has been a pervasive and accelerating influence across the world in the last few centuries. It can also be related to the process of acculturation and/or enculturation. Acculturation refers to the changes that occur within a society or culture when two different groups come into a direct continuous contact. After the contact, changes in cultural patterns within either one of or both cultures are evident. In a widely accepted definition, Westernization can also refer to the effects of Western expansion and colonialism
18 on native societies (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westernization). For example, natives who have adopted European or American languages and characteristic of Western customs are called the acculturated or westernized. Westernization may be forced or voluntary, depending on the situation of the contact. It is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of globalization. This theory proposes that Western thought has led to globalization, and that globalization propagates western culture, leading to a cycle of Westernization.