Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue2.1997:

Multi-functions of school-based teacher education
Yin Cheong Cheng
Dire c to r, The Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f
Educ atio n, Ho ng Ko ng
Allan Walker
Fac ulty o f Educ atio n, The Chine se Unive rsity o f Ho ng Ko ng, Ho ng Ko ng

Describes how the changing
educational environment
demands continuous schoolbased teacher education
(SBTE) for school development, teacher effectiveness
and quality assurance. Suggests that SBTE should help
teachers and the school to
perform technical, human,
political, cultural and educational functions at fi ve levels.
Asserts that the functions of
SBTE can contribute to the
strategic management
process, facilitate wholeschool development and
enhance school effectiveness.
Argues that a thorough

understanding of the multifunctions of SBTE is necessary for effective design and
implementation of the content and activities of teacher
education in school. Provides
a comprehensive framework
for practitioners and
researchers to understand
the complex nature and
potential contribution of SBTE
in both local and international
contexts.

The authors wish to express
their appreciation to the
Chinese University of Hong
Kong for supporting this
research through a direct
grant and to the Hong Kong
Institute of Educational
Research (HKIER) for its
support of the project.

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 ,2 [ 1997] 8 0 –8 8
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]

[ 80 ]

Introduction
Th r ou gh ou t th e la st deca de edu ca tion a l en vir on m en ts a r ou n d th e globe h ave ch a n ged
r a pidly. Th is h a s been pa r ticu la r ly so in Hon g
Kon g a n d th r ou gh ou t th e Asia P a cifi c r e gion .
Diver se a n d often con fl ictin g expecta tion s
em a n a tin g fr om a ll cor n er s of society ch a llen ge th e r ole a n d pla ce of tea ch er s a n d
a dm in istr a tor s, a n d th e fu n ction s a n d pu r poses of sch ools. Gr ow in g expecta tion s, for
exa m ple, th a t sch ools m ove beyon d sim ple
in str u ction (th e con veya n ce of sk ills a n d
k n ow ledge) to becom e veh icles for pr om otin g
socia l m obility a n d econ om ic developm en t,

pla ce sch ools on often u n fa m ilia r gr ou n d.
Sch ools n ow fa ce th e spectr e of h avin g to cope
w ith a diver se r a n ge of fu n ction s, m a n y of
wh ich a r e for eign to th eir tr a dition a l oper a tion . How sch ools m a n a ge ch a n ge a n d a dju st
th eir r oles to m eet th ese fu n ction s is of con cer n to a ll edu ca tion a l lea der s.
Recen t edu ca tion a l th ou gh t su ggests
str on gly th a t tea ch er s h old th e k ey to su ccessfu l ch a n ge a n d im pr ovem en t in sch ools
(F u lla n , 1991). As su ch , tea ch er s m u st be
em power ed to m eet th e ch a llen ges pr ovok ed
by th e expa n sion of sch ool fu n ction s a n d
r oles. Tea ch er em power m en t com es th r ou gh
con tin u ou s tea ch er lea r n in g a n d developm en t. To develop, tea ch er s m u st h ave oppor tu n ities to lea r n a n d a da pt a s pr ofession a ls.
Un for tu n a tely, th e cu r r en t sta tu s of pr ofession a l developm en t in sch ools r em a in s cen tr ed on cou r ses a n d wor k sh ops con du cted
aw ay fr om th e sch ool site (Wa lk er a n d Ch en g,
1996). Wh er ea s th ese ca n be va lu a ble lea r n in g
exper ien ces, th ey a r e often u n con n ected to
th e specific n eeds of th e sch ool. For con tin u ou s tea ch er edu ca tion to be m ea n in gfu l in
today’s flu id en vir on m en t it m u st be sch oolba sed, a ddr ess th e u n iqu e n eeds of th e sch ool
com m u n ity a n d th e w ider society, pr om ote
tea ch er in volvem en t a n d em power m en t, a n d

becom e a n in te gr a l pa r t of sch ool life (Ch en g,
1992; Ch en g a n d Ta m , 1994).
In th is a r ticle we su ggest th a t sch ool-ba sed
tea ch er edu ca tion (SBTE ) n eeds to be r econ ceptu a lized to a ccou n t for th e m u ltiple a n d
diver se fu n ction s wh ich fa ce today’s sch ools.

With ou t a n a dequ a te u n der sta n din g of th ese
m u lti-fu n ction s, tea ch er developm en t effor ts
m ay n ot on ly r em a in fr a gm en ted, su per ficia l,
sh or t-ter m a n d in effective, bu t m ay a lso fa il
to m eet th e n eeds of th e va r iou s con stitu en cies in tim a tely r ela ted to th e sch ool. Th is
pa per a im s to develop a th eor etica l fr a m ewor k for u n der sta n din g th e com plex n a tu r e
of SBTE a n d fa cilita tin g its design a n d m a n a gem en t. F ir st, we discu ss th e ch a n gin g
explicit a n d im plicit fu n ction s of sch ools a n d
su ggest h ow SBTE sh ou ld r espon d to th e
n eeds of th ese fu n ction s. Secon d, ba sed on a n
or ga n iza tion a l per spective, we expla in h ow
SBTE ser ves fi ve differ en t fu n ction s w ith in
sch ools a n d con tr ibu tes to th e str a te gic m a n a gem en t pr ocesses u n der pin n in g m a n y
r ecen t m oves tow a r ds sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t a n d im pr ovem en t. F in a lly, we a dva n ce a

n u m ber of im plica tion s a ssocia ted w ith
th e fr a m ewor k wh ich m ay gu ide effective
pr a ctice.

SBTE and changing school
functions
Tea ch er effectiven ess is lin k ed in tim a tely
w ith sch ool-specific n eeds. Sch ool n eeds a r e
in fl u en ced u n avoida bly by en vir on m en ta l
sh ifts a t in dividu a l, in stitu tion a l, com m u n ity,
society a n d in ter n a tion a l levels. Sch ools
m u st a ddr ess n eeds w ith in th ese five levels.
In ta n dem w ith th ese, sch ools m u st disch a r ge
cer ta in fu n ction s. On e w ay to cla ssify poten tia l fu n ction s ca n be seen in Ta ble I. Th e
fu n ction s a r e: tech n ica l or econ om ic, h u m a n
or socia l, politica l, cu ltu r a l, a n d edu ca tion a l
(Ch en g, 1996). A m a tr ix com pr isin g th ese
fu n ction s a n d th eir a ccom pa n yin g levels
pr odu ces 25 ca te gor ies wh ich we believe ca n
be a pplied u sefu lly for r econ ceptu a lizin g

SBTE eith er by sch ool pr a ctition er s or
r esea r ch er s.
T ech n ica l/ econ om ic fu n ction s r efer to a
sch ool’s con tr ibu tion to th e tech n ica l or econ om ic developm en ts a n d n eeds a t ea ch of th e
five levels. At th e in dividu a l level, tea ch er s
h elp stu den ts a cqu ir e th e k n ow ledge a n d
sk ills n ecessa r y to su r vive a n d com pete in a
m oder n society. At th e in stitu tion a l level,

Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
Multi-func tio ns o f sc ho o lbase d te ac he r e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
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Table I
Sc ho o l func tio ns at multi-le ve l

Individual

Technical/ economic

Human/ social

Political

Cultural

Educational

functions

functions

functions

functions

functions

Knowledge and skills training

Psyc hologic al developments

Development of c ivic attitudes

Ac c ulturation

Learning how to learn and develop

Career training

Soc ial developments

Soc ialization with values, norms

Learning how to teac h and help

and beliefs

Professional development

As a c entre for c ultural

As a plac e for learning and

and skills

Potential developments

Institutional

As a life plac e

As a soc ial entity/ system

As a workplac e

As a human relationship

As a servic e organization

As a plac e for politic al
soc ialization
As a politic al c oalition
As a plac e for politic al disc ourse

transmission and reproduc tion
As a plac e for c ultural
revitalization and integration

or c ritic ism

teac hing
As a c entre for disseminating
knowledge
As a c entre for educ ational
c hanges and developments

Community

Serving the ec onomic or instrumental needs of the c ommunity

Society

Serving the soc ial needs of the
c ommunity

c ommunity

Serving the c ultural needs of the
c ommunity

Provision of quality labour forc es

Soc ial integration

Politic al legitimization

Cultural integration and c ontinuity

Modific ation of ec onomic

Soc ial mobility/ soc ial c lass

Politic al struc ture, maintenanc e

Cultural reproduc tion

behaviour
Contribution to the manpower
struc ture

perpetuation
Soc ial equality
Selec tion and alloc ation of human
resourc es
Soc ial development and c hange

International

Serving the politic al needs of the

International c ompetition

Global village

Ec onomic c o-operation

International friendship

International trade

Soc ial c o-operation

Tec hnology exc hange

International exc hanges

Earth protec tion

Elimination of national/

Sharing information

[ 81 ]

Source: Adapte d fro m Che ng (1 9 9 6 )

regional/ rac ial/ gender biases

and c ontinuity
Democ rac y promotion

Produc tion of c ultural c apital
Cultural revitalization

Fac ilitating politic al

Serving the educ ational needs of
the c ommunity

Development of the educ ation
professions
Development of educ ation
struc tures
Dissemination of knowledge and

developments and reforms

information
Learning soc iety

International c oalition

Apprec iation of c ultural diversity

Development of global educ ation

International understanding

Cultural ac c eptanc e ac ross

International educ ation

Peac e against war
Common interests
Elimination of c onflic ts

c ountries/ regions
Development of global c ulture

exc hanges and c o-operation
Educ ation for the whole world

Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
Multi-func tio ns o f sc ho o lbase d te ac he r e duc atio n
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 2 [1 9 9 7 ] 8 0 –8 8

sch ools pr ovide qu a lity ser vice for clien ts,
em ployer s a n d oth er s con n ected w ith th e
or ga n iza tion . At com m u n ity a n d societa l
levels, sch ools a id th e econ om ic a n d in str u m en ta l n eeds of th eir loca l com m u n ity a n d
econ om y, m odify or sh a pe econ om ic beh aviou r s, a n d con tr ibu te to th e developm en t a n d
sta bility of th e br oa der society. Th ese th en
feed th e in ter n a tion a l level th r ou gh tea ch er s
a n d sch ools pr ovidin g econ om ica lly, tech n ologica lly a n d en vir on m en ta lly sen sitive
a du lts to th e con sta n tly sh r in k in g wor ld
com m u n ity. Th r ou gh SBTE , tea ch er s ca n
u n der sta n d fu r th er th e econ om ic a n d tech n ica l fu n ction s of sch ool edu ca tion a n d develop
su fficien t com peten ce to h elp per for m th ese
fu n ction s.
Hu m a n / socia l fu n ction s r efer to th e con tr ibu tion of sch ools to h u m a n developm en t a n d
socia l r ela tion sh ips a t differ en t levels of th e
society. SBTE sh ou ld h elp tea ch er s to u n der sta n d th e n a tu r e a n d sign ifica n ce of h u m a n
developm en t a n d h ow to ca ter for th is in
sch ools. For exa m ple, a t a n in dividu a l level,
tea ch er s h elp stu den ts to develop a s fu lly a s
possible psych ologica lly, socia lly a n d ph ysica lly. At th e in stitu tion a l level, tea ch er s h elp
in ven t a n d r ein for ce th e h u m a n r ela tion sh ips
wh ich fr a m e or ga n iza tion a l beh aviou r. Th e
qu a lity of su ch r ela tion sh ips is a k ey deter m in a n t of th e qu a lity of th e wor k a n d lea r n in g
lives of stu den ts.

‘...tea ch ers n eed to prepa re stu d en ts for in ter n a tion a l h a r m on y,
socia l co-opera tion , glob a l h u m a n rela tion sh ips a n d w ork tow a rd s
th e elim in a tion of n a tion a l, region a l, ra cia l a n d gen d er b ia ses a t
th e in ter n a tion a l lev el...’

F r om a fu n ction a list per spective, tea ch er s
ser ve cer ta in socia l fu n ction s in th eir loca l
com m u n ity. Th ese fu n ction s in clu de socia l
in te gr a tion of diver se con stitu en cies, fa cilita tion of socia l m obility w ith in existin g cla ss
str u ctu r es a n d r ein for cem en t of socia l equ a lity. F r om th e a lter n a tive view poin t of con fl ict
th eor y, tea ch er s r epr odu ce th e existin g socia l
cla ss str u ctu r e a n d per petu a te socia l in equ a lity (Bla ck ledge a n d Hu n t, 1985; Ch en g, 1995).
Beca u se of th e gr ow in g globa l con sciou sn ess
(Bea r e a n d Sla u gh ter, 1993), tea ch er s n eed to
pr epa r e stu den ts for in ter n a tion a l h a r m on y,
socia l co-oper a tion , globa l h u m a n r ela tion sh ips a n d wor k tow a r ds th e elim in a tion of
n a tion a l, r e gion a l, r a cia l a n d gen der bia ses a t
th e in ter n a tion a l level.
Politica l fu n ction s r efer to th e con tr ibu tion
of sch ools to th e politica l developm en ts a t
differ en t levels of society. At th e in dividu a l
level, tea ch er s h elp stu den ts to develop

[ 82 ]

positive civic a ttitu des a n d sk ills, a n d to exer cise th e r igh ts a n d r espon sibilities of citizen sh ip. At th e in stitu tion a l level, tea ch er s su ppor t th eir sch ools to a ct a s pla ces for en cou r a gin g cr itica l discu ssion of politica l issu es.
At th e com m u n ity a n d societa l levels, sch ools
a n d tea ch er s play a n im por ta n t r ole in pr om otin g aw a r en ess of dem ocr a cy a n d fa cilita tin g politica l developm en ts a n d ch a n ges
(Th om a s, 1983). Th e gr ow in g aw a r en ess of
in ter n a tion a l depen den ce r ein for ces th e n eed
for sch ool edu ca tion to con tr ibu te to in ter n a tion a l u n der sta n din g a n d elim in a tion of
in ter n a tion a l con flict. In a r ea s su ch a s th ese,
few tea ch er s possess th e a ppr opr ia te k n ow ledge, a ttitu des or com peten ce to h elp th eir
sch ools to per for m th e politica l fu n ction s.
Th is a ppea r s pa r ticu la r ly tr u e in th e r a pidly
developin g politica l en vir on m en t of Hon g
Kon g. SBTE , th er efor e, m ay be on e im por ta n t
w ay to em power tea ch er s to fa ce th is
ch a llen ge.
Cu ltu ra l fu n ction s r efer to th e con tr ibu tion
of sch ools to th e cu ltu r a l tr a n sm ission a n d
developm en t a t differ en t levels of society.
SBTE ca n pr ovide oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s
to u n der sta n d a n d r eflect on th ese cu ltu r a l
fu n ction s, a n d to bu ild th e sk ills n ecessa r y
for th eir tr a n sm ission . At th e in dividu a l
level, tea ch er s h elp stu den ts to develop cr ea tivity a n d a esth etic aw a r en ess, a n d to
becom e fa m ilia r w ith th e dom in a n t va lu es
u n der pin n in g th eir society. At a n in stitu tion a l level, tea ch er s a n d sch ools a ct a s
a gen ts for system a tic cu ltu r a l tr a n sm ission ,
cu ltu r a l in te gr a tion a m on g th eir m u ltiple
a n d diver se con stitu en cies, a n d cu ltu r a l r evita liza tion . At th e com m u n ity a n d society
levels, sch ools often ser ve a s a cu ltu r a l u n it
ca r r yin g th e explicit n or m s a n d expecta tion s
of th e loca l com m u n ity. Aga in , con flict th eor y
pr ovides a n a lter n a tive view. It su ggests th a t
sch ools a n d tea ch er s socia lize stu den ts fr om
differ en t levels of society w ith differ en t sets
of va lu es a n d beliefs a n d, in th e pr ocess, ben efit som e gr ou ps m or e th a n oth er s (Apple,
1982; Ch en g, 1995; Collin s, 1971; Gir ou x, 1981).
At th e in ter n a tion a l level, sch ools a n d tea ch er s ca n en cou r a ge a ppr ecia tion of cu ltu r a l
diver sity a n d a ccepta n ce of differ en t n or m s,
tr a dition s, va lu es a n d beliefs in differ en t
cou n tr ies a n d r e gion s.
Ed u ca tion fu n ction s of sch ools r efer to th e
con tr ibu tion of sch ools to th e developm en t
a n d m a in ten a n ce of edu ca tion a t differ en t
levels. Tr a dition a lly, edu ca tion h a s been
per ceived a s a m ea n s for a ch ievin g on ly th e
econ om ic, socia l, politica l a n d cu ltu r a l
va lu es. Ra pid a n d w idespr ea d ch a n ge, h ow ever, h a s n ow pr om pted a n a ccepta n ce th a t

Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
Multi-func tio ns o f sc ho o lbase d te ac he r e duc atio n
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 2 [1 9 9 7 ] 8 0 –8 8

edu ca tion in a n d of itself is a cr u cia l goa l. Th e
con ten t, system a n d str u ctu r e of edu ca tion ,
th en , n eed to be developed a n d m a in ta in ed.
SBTE is a n im por ta n t m ea n s n ot on ly for
tea ch er s to lea r n a n d develop th em selves, bu t
a lso to u n der sta n d th is in cr ea sin gly r ecogn ized n eed. At th e in dividu a l level, tea ch er s
h elp stu den ts to lea r n h ow to lea r n a n d collea gu es to lea r n h ow to tea ch . At th e in stitu tion a l level, tea ch er s wor k togeth er to
im pr ove lea r n in g a n d tea ch in g th r ou gh
m u tu a l su ppor t a n d sh a r ed in n ova tion . At
th e com m u n ity a n d society levels, tea ch er s
pr ovide ser vice for differ en t edu ca tion a l
n eeds w ith in th eir com m u n ities, fa cilita te
developm en ts of edu ca tion a s a pr ofession ,
dissem in a te k n ow ledge a n d in for m a tion to
th e n ext gen er a tion a n d con tr ibu te to th e
for m a tion of a lea r n in g society. In or der to
en cou r a ge m u tu a l u n der sta n din g a m on g
n a tion s, tea ch er s ca n con tr ibu te to th e developm en t of globa l edu ca tion a n d th e in ter n a tion a l exch a n ge a n d co-oper a tion of edu ca tion .

‘...a s th e fu n ction s of sch ools b ecom e m ore com plex , a d m in istra tors a n d tea ch ers n eed to b e b etter prepa red to fa ce th eir ch a n gin g
roles...’
We believe th a t a n u n der sta n din g of th e
a bove fu n ction s a n d a ccom pa n yin g levels is
u sefu l on two in ter r ela ted fr on ts. F ir st, it
pr ovides a fr a m e for sch ool m a n a ger s a n d
tea ch er s to u n der sta n d a n d oper a tion a lize
SBTE a n d, secon d, th e fr a m ewor k is u sefu l
for in cr ea sed th eor etica l u n der sta n din g of
SBTE a n d m ay for m th e ba sis for r esea r ch in
th is im por ta n t a r ea . Clea r ly, a s th e fu n ction s
of sch ools becom e m or e com plex, a dm in istr a tor s a n d tea ch er s n eed to be better pr epa r ed
to fa ce th eir ch a n gin g r oles. At pr esen t, it is
u n lik ely th a t tea ch er s h ave th e a ppr opr ia te
k n ow ledge, a ttitu de, com m itm en t a n d com peten ce to su ppor t th e m u ltiple fu n ction s in
th eir sch ools a n d to ca r r y ou t ta sk s effectively. Ign or a n ce of th e ch a n ges in th e
sch ool’s r ole a n d of th e m u ltiplicity of th e
sch ool’s fu n ction s ca n h in der th e developm en t of SBTE .
All sch ools a r e u n iqu e. Differ en t sch ools
h ave distin ct expecta tion s a n d beliefs a bou t
wh ich fu n ction s a r e m ost im por ta n t to th em .
Cer ta in sch ools, for exa m ple, m ay be m or e
con cer n ed w ith th e tech n ica l a n d econ om ic
fu n ction s, bu t oth er s w ith th e politica l fu n ction s. Yet oth er sch ools m ay pay a tten tion to
th e fu n ction s a t th e in dividu a l levels a n d
som e focu s m or e on th e com m u n ity or

societa l level. Su ch va r yin g em ph a ses m ay
lea d to differ en t design s of SBTE . Wh er ea s
th is is a ccepta ble, a n d cer ta in ly u n der sta n da ble, sch ools sh ou ld k eep in m in d th e follow in g:
• differ en t em ph a ses sh ou ld be pla ced on th e
specific ch a r a cter istics a n d n eeds of th e
sch ool a t a cer ta in developm en ta l sta ge;
• a fu ll u n der sta n din g of th e spectr u m of
sch ool fu n ction s is n ecessa r y; a n d
• a ba la n ced SBTE pr ogr a m m e sh ou ld a im ,
in th e lon g ter m , to a ddr ess ea ch of th e
fu n ction s, even if a t differ en t levels of
em ph a sis.
We m ove n ow to exa m in in g th e m u lti-fu n ction s, specifica lly a t a sch ool level.

Multi-functions of SBTE within
the school organization
F r om a sch ool per spective, SBTE m ay in clu de
differ en t fu n ction s wh ich con tr ibu te to th e
in ter n a l oper a tion of th e sch ool in a ddition to
th e levels n oted a bove. Th ese m ay be viewed
u sefu lly th r ou gh th e gu ise of a str a te gic m a n a gem en t pr ocess wh ich h a s r ecen tly becom e
a n in te gr a l pa r t of th e m ove tow a r ds sch oolba sed a n d m u lti-level self-m a n a gem en t in
sch ools (Ca ldwell a n d Spin k s, 1988, 1992;
Ch en g, 1996; Ch en g a n d N g, 1994; Ch eu n g a n d
Ch en g, 1996). Gr ea ter tea ch er pa r ticipa tion in
sch ool developm en t pla n n in g a n d th e str a tegic m a n a gem en t pr ocess in clu des m ea n in gfu l
r oles in en vir on m en t a n a lysis, pla n n in g a n d
str u ctu r in g, sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g, a n d m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tin g. Th r ou gh in volvem en t
in th ese pr ocesses, th e tea ch er ’s r ole sh ifts
fr om a n in dividu a l im plem en ter to a tea m or ien ted pla n n er, pa r tn er, lea der a n d pr ofession a l (Ba r th , 1988; Ch en g, 1993a ). In volvem en t in th ese pr ocesses m ay h elp m a k e
sch ool en vir on m en ts m or e con du cive to
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g.
SBTE ca n play a n im por ta n t r ole in em pow er in g tea ch er s to sh ift th eir r oles a n d
in cr ea se th eir pa r ticipa tion in sch ool m a n a gem en t. Th r ou gh SBTE , fr a m ed by m u ltiple
sch ool fu n ction s, tea ch er s ca n develop k n ow ledge, con fi den ce, com m itm en t a n d com peten ce lea din g, idea lly, to im pr oved sch ool
per for m a n ce. In oth er wor ds, SBTE ca n con tr ibu te to m or e effective in ter n a l sch ool per for m a n ce. Ba sed on th e or ga n iza tion a l per spective (Bolm a n a n d Dea l, 1991; Ch en g, 1994;
Ser giova n n i, 1984), th e con tr ibu tion of SBTE
to sch ool str a te gic m a n a gem en t pr ocesses
ca n be divided in to five differ en t fu n ction s:
th e tech n ica l fu n ction , th e h u m a n fu n ction ,
th e politica l fu n ction , th e cu ltu r a l fu n ction

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Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
Multi-func tio ns o f sc ho o lbase d te ac he r e duc atio n
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Table II
Classific atio n o f SBTE c o ntributio n to the strate gic manage me nt pro c e ss

Strategic management process

Technical
function

M ulti-functions of SBTE
Human
Political
Cultural
function
function
function

Educational
function

Environmental analysis
Planning and structuring
Staffing and directing
M onitoring and evaluating

a n d th e edu ca tion a l fu n ction (Ta ble II). Th is
cla ssifica tion fi ts n ea tly w ith th e m or e gen er a l sch ool fu n ction s discu ssed ea r lier. E a ch
fu n ction of SBTE ca n con tr ibu te to th e str a tegic m a n a gem en t pr ocess in ter m s of en vir on m en t a n a lysis, pla n n in g a n d str u ctu r in g,
sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g, a n d m on itor in g a n d
eva lu a tin g.

Technical function of SBTE
Th e tech n ica l fu n ction of SBTE r efer s to th e
con ten t a n d a ctivities of tea ch er edu ca tion
wh ich ca n pr ovide th e n ecessa r y tech n ica l
su ppor t for tea ch er s to pla n , or ga n ize, coor din a te a n d im plem en t tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a ctivities in th e sch ool. Tea ch er s a r e
em power ed to m a n ipu la te str a te gies a n d
situ a tion s to en su r e optim u m tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g effectiven ess. Th e tech n ica l fu n ction
of SBTE for str a te gic m a n a gem en t in sch ool
ca n be expla in ed a s follow s.

Enviro nme ntal analysis
Th r ou gh th e a ctivities of SBTE , tea ch er s ca n
lea r n th e tech n iqu es for a n a lysin g th e sch ool
situ a tion , iden tifyin g th e pr oblem s or n eeds
of th e sch ool a n d ga th er in g in for m a tion
a bou t th e exter n a l a n d in ter n a l in flu en cin g
fa ctor s.
Planning and struc turing
In SBTE a ctivities, tea ch er s ca n lea r n h ow to
r eflect on th e fin din gs of en vir on m en ta l
a n a lysis a n d cla r ify existin g va lu es a n d
beliefs, develop sch ool m ission a n d goa ls, a n d
esta blish pr ogr a m m es, policies a n d pr ocedu r es. Tea ch er s ca n a lso exper ien ce tech n iqu es to m a xim ize effectiven ess a n d efficien cy in pla n n in g h u m a n r esou r ces for
sch ool m a n a gem en t a n d pr ogr a m m e im plem en ta tion . SBTE ca n h elp tea ch er s to en su r e
r ole cla r ity a n d a ccou n ta bility in th e or ga n iza tion a l str u ctu r e.
Staffing and dire c ting
SBTE a ctivities often in clu de sta ff in du ction ,
job or ien ta tion or tr a in in g th a t ca n h elp
tea ch er s to im plem en t pr ogr a m m es effectively. Tea ch er s lea r n to a ccept m ea n in gfu l
[ 84 ]

r espon sibilities a n d u se th eir discr etion in
ca r r yin g ou t wor k a ctivities, h a n dlin g pr oblem s a n d m a k in g im por ta n t decision s to
com plete th eir ta sk s a n d a tta in sch ool goa ls.
Th e pr ocess of SBTE ca n pr ovide oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s to cla r ify r ole r espon sibilities a n d wor k dir ection s, a n d a ppr opr ia tely
co-or din a te a n d com m u n ica te w ith oth er
sch ool m em ber s in a r ea s su ch a s pr ogr a m m e
im plem en ta tion .

Mo nito ring and e valuating
Th r ou gh SBTE , tea ch er s ca n lea r n
tech n iqu es for a ssessin g sch ool per for m a n ce.
Tea ch er s u tilize va r iou s in dica tor s a ccor din g
to th e sch ool pla n s, pr ogr a m m e pla n s a n d
in dividu a l developm en ts. Th ey ca n a lso
becom e in volved in con du ctin g sch ool-ba sed
eva lu a tion a n d a pplyin g r esu lta n t fi n din gs
to develop m ech a n ism s for con tin u ou s
im pr ovem en t.
Human function of SBTE
Th e h u m a n fu n ction of SBTE r efer s to th e
con tr ibu tion of SBTE tow a r ds en h a n cin g
tea ch er s’ sa tisfa ction , com m itm en t, per son a l
gr ow th a n d in ter per son a l r ela tion sh ips.
Activities m ay in clu de wor k sh ops on socia l
sk ills, tea m bu ildin g, m en tor in g or ca r eer
cou n sellin g. Th ese sk ills a im to in cr ea se
colla bor a tion , wor k sa tisfa ction a n d pr ofession a l developm en t (Ha ck m a n , 1987). Specifi ca lly, th e h u m a n fu n ction of SBTE for th e
str a te gic m a n a gem en t pr ocess is a s follow s.

Enviro nme ntal analysis
Th r ou gh SBTE , tea ch er s ca n develop a positive clim a te a n d m or e open in ter per son a l
r ela tion sh ips. Th ese en cou r a ge m or e open
r efl ection on th e pr oblem s a n d n eeds of th e
sch ool, a n d gr ea ter pa r ticipa tion in a n a lysis
of en vir on m en ta l im pa cts on th e sch ool’s
fu tu r e.
Planning and struc turing
Th e a ctivities of SBTE ca n en cou r a ge tea ch er s to pa r ticipa te a ctively in esta blish in g
sch ool m ission a n d goa ls. Th r ou gh in volvem en t in pla n n in g, tea m spir it a n d a sh a r ed

Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
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sen se of ow n er sh ip a r e m or e lik ely to develop.
In a ddition , pla n n in g a ctivities ca n dou ble a s
SBTE oppor tu n ities a n d h elp tea ch er s to
lea r n , gr ow a n d develop.

Staffing and dire c ting
Sim ila r ly, SBTE h elps tea ch er s to u n der sta n d
th e im por ta n ce of pa r ticipa tion a n d solid
in ter per son a l r ela tion sh ips th r ou gh th e
pr ocess of sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g. Th r ou gh
SBTE , tea ch er s ca n develop con fiden ce a n d
com m itm en t to fa ce ch a llen ges a r isin g fr om
ch a n ges in per son n el a dju stm en ts a n d fl u ctu a tion . Sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g a ctivities th em selves ca n be per ceived a n d or ga n ized a s
im por ta n t com pon en ts of SBTE .
Mo nito ring and e valuatio n
SBTE ca n en h a n ce tea ch er s’ u n der sta n din g
of th e r ole of m on itor in g a n d a ssessm en t to
th e developm en t of h u m a n r esou r ces in th e
sch ool. F u r th er u n der sta n din g ca n h elp elim in a te tea ch er s’ tr a dition a l r esista n ce to
pr ocesses su ch a s tea ch er a ppr a isa l. With th e
su ppor t of a ppr opr ia te SBTE a ctivities, per for m a n ce a ppr a isa l ca n be con ceptu a lized
m or e ea sily a s a for m a tive pr ocess for tea ch er s’ pr ofession a l gr ow th a n d developm en t.
Political function of SBTE
Accor din g to th e politica l per spective, con flicts, com petin g in ter ests a n d dispu tes over
r esou r ce a lloca tion a r e in evita ble in sch ools
(Bolm a n a n d Dea l, 1991). SBTE ca n con tr ibu te
to con flict r esolu tion a m on g tea ch er s or va r iou s in ter est gr ou ps. Appr opr ia tely design ed
SBTE a ctivities ca n h elp tea ch er s to u n der sta n d th a t th e con flict ca n h ave con str u ctive
a s well a s destr u ctive effects. Con fl ict w ill
a lw ays be a pa r t of or ga n iza tion a l life; th er efor e, it is im por ta n t to su ppor t tea ch er s
th r ou gh SBTE to gea r con flict con str u ctively
(Covey, 1989; Tjosvold, 1992). Positive politics
m ay evolve wh en tea ch er s a n d oth er a dm in istr a tor s ca n select a ction s th a t a ppea l to
h igh er m otives a n d h igh er sta ges of m or a l
ju dgem en t (Block , 1987). Th r ou gh SBTE ,
tea ch er s ca n r ecogn ize a sh a r ed vision th a t
th ey m u st wor k togeth er to cr ea te a better
sch ool (Tjosvold, 1992). Specifica lly, th e politica l fu n ction of SBTE for str a te gic m a n a gem en t ca n be su m m a r ized a s follow s.

Enviro nme ntal analysis
SBTE ca n r a ise aw a r en ess of en vir on m en ta l
im pa cts on th e sch ool a n d pr om ote solida r ity
wh en fa ced w ith exter n a l or in ter n a l ch a llen ges. Tea ch er s lea r n to ba la n ce a n d in tegr a te th e diver se in ter ests a m on g sch ool
con stitu en cies th r ou gh iden tifyin g th e
str en gth s, wea k n esses, oppor tu n ities a n d

th r ea ts to th e sch ool. Th r ou gh SBTE a ctivities, tea ch er s ca n a ch ieve a ppr opr ia te a ttitu des a n d sk ills to fa cilita te th e r esolu tion of
con flicts a r ou sed in th e pr ocess of en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis in a “w in -w in ” m a n n er.

Planning and struc turing
Aga in , tea ch er s ca n lea r n to a dopt a con str u ctive view of con flict in pla n n in g a n d str u ctu r in g for sch ool developm en t. Th ey ca n a lso be
en cou r a ged to u n der sta n d th a t diver sity ca n
be a n im por ta n t a sset if m a n a ged sen sibly.
Th r ou gh SBTE , tea ch er s develop a ba sic
u n der sta n din g of com m on in ter ests in th e
pr ocess of goa l for m u la tion , cu r r icu lu m
developm en t a n d r esou r ce a lloca tion . Th ey
a ttem pt to m in im ize th e destr u ctive con flicts
between pr ogr a m m es in pla n n in g a n d
between r oles in str u ctu r in g.
Staffing and dire c ting
Th e a ctivities of SBTE ca n h elp tea ch er s to
bu ild con fiden ce a n d com peten ce to a ch ieve
con sen su s in sta ffin g a n d or ga n izin g. P r ogr a m m e con solida tion a n d con gr u en ce a r e
en cou r a ged th r ou gh colla bor a tion a m on g
sta ff.
Mo nito ring and e valuating
Th er e is often r esista n ce to th e m on itor in g
a n d eva lu a tin g of tea ch er a n d sch ool per for m a n ce. Su ch r esista n ce often for m s block a ges
to th e im plem en ta tion of eva lu a tion a n d
a ppr a isa l system s (Ch en g a n d N g, 1991).
SBTE ca n be th e veh icle for h elpin g tea ch er s
to u n der sta n d th e for m a tive r ole of eva lu a tion a n d to m in im ize r esista n ce to th e gr ow in g tr en d tow a r ds qu a lity a ssu r a n ce in
sch ools.
Cultural function of SBTE
Th e cu ltu r a l fu n ction of SBTE r efer s to th e
con tr ibu tion of SBTE to th e developm en t of a
str on g a n d positive sch ool cu ltu r e wh ich ca n
sh a pe tea ch er s’ beliefs, va lu es, a ttitu des a n d
beh aviou r s, a n d en cou r a ge th em to pu r su e
in cr ea sed in dividu a l a n d sch ool effectiven ess
(Bolm a n a n d Dea l, 1991; Ch en g, 1989, 1993b;
Ser giova n n i, 1984). Th r ou gh SBTE ’s cu ltu r a l
fu n ction , tea ch er s’ a tten tion ca n be focu sed
on wh a t is im por ta n t a n d ca n pr om ote th e
en du r in g va lu es a n d beliefs wh ich pr ovide
th e sch ool w ith its u n iqu e iden tity. Th e con tr ibu tion of th e cu ltu r a l fu n ction of SBTE to
str a te gic m a n a gem en t is su m m a r ized below.

Enviro nme ntal analysis
Th r ou gh SBTE , tea ch er s’ a tten tion ca n be
dr aw n to in ter n a l a n d exter n a l for ces wh ich
in fl u en ce th e sch ool’s oper a tion . Th r ou gh
explor in g th e sch ool’s str en gth s, wea k n esses,
oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts, tea ch er s ca n m a k e
[ 85 ]

Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
Multi-func tio ns o f sc ho o lbase d te ac he r e duc atio n
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sen se of th e sch ool’s position in th e en vir on m en t.

Planning and struc turing
SBTE pr ovides oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s to
r eflect on wh a t is m ost im por ta n t to th e
sch ool’s fu tu r e. Th e pr ocess of developin g th e
sch ool m ission , goa ls a n d a ction pla n s sh ou ld
be in itself a SBTE oppor tu n ity for tea ch er s to
develop sh a r ed m ea n in gs, va lu es a n d vision
for th e sch ool a n d tea ch er s. Th e SBTE ’s cu ltu r a l fu n ction ca n h elp to r a ise tea ch er s’ level
of aw a r en ess a bou t th e sch ool goa ls th a t tr a n scen d th eir ow n self-in ter ests (Ba ss, 1985).
Staffing and dire c ting
SBTE a ctivities ca n a r ticu la te th e m ea n in gs
of pr ofession a l gr ow th a n d developm en t of
tea ch er s. Th e pr ocess of sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g ca n be con ceptu a lized a n d or ga n ized a s
a n im por ta n t SBTE oppor tu n ity for th e developm en t of sch ool cu ltu r e.
Mo nito ring and e valuating
With th e su ppor t of SBTE , th e m ea n in g a n d
im por ta n ce of m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tion to
th e sch ool’s fu tu r e developm en t ca n be a r ticu la ted to tea ch er s, a n d th e va lu e of th e con tin u ou s lea r n in g in h er en t in su ch eva lu a tion
ca n be em ph a sized. Tea ch er s’ a tten tion ca n
be focu sed on wh a t is m ost im por ta n t to th e
sch ool’s developm en t.
Educational function of SBTE
Th e m a in r ole of tea ch er s is to im pr ove lea r n in g a n d tea ch in g. Tea ch in g qu a lity in evita bly
depen ds on tea ch er s’ pr ofession a l developm en t, th e lea r n in g en vir on m en t a n d cu r r icu lu m im pr ovem en t. As th e exter n a l a n d in ter n a l edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t ch a n ges, tea ch er s m ay n ot be em power ed to a da pt to th e
ch a n ge. Th r ou gh SBTE , tea ch er s ca n deepen
th eir u n der sta n din g of edu ca tion a l pr ocesses,
dia gn ose edu ca tion a l pr oblem s, im pr ove
tea ch in g str a te gies, develop n ew tea ch in g
com peten ces, co-oper a te w ith collea gu es a n d
oth er pr ofession a ls, a dva n ce pr ofession a l
k n ow ledge, develop n ew cu r r icu la to m eet
stu den ts’ n eeds a n d sch ool goa ls, a n d
im pr ove th e lea r n in g en vir on m en t for stu den ts. In oth er wor ds, th e edu ca tion a l fu n ction of SBTE is dir ectly r eleva n t to tea ch er s’
m a jor ta sk of im pr ovin g tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. Th e edu ca tion a l fu n ction of SBTE a lso
con tr ibu tes to lon g-ter m sch ool developm en t
a n d in str u ction a l effectiven ess.

Enviro nme ntal analysis
SBTE ca n h elp tea ch er s to becom e aw a r e of
th e socia l, econ om ic, tech n ologica l a n d politica l ch a n ges wh ich a ffect edu ca tion a n d th eir
[ 86 ]

a ppr oa ch es to tea ch in g. Th r ou gh SBTE ,
tea ch er s ca n develop th e com peten ce to iden tify th e str en gth s, wea k n esses, oppor tu n ities
a n d th r ea ts of th e sch ool’s edu ca tion a l
pr ocess a n d a lso to r ecogn ize th eir ow n a n d
stu den ts’ edu ca tion a l n eeds.

Planning and struc turing
SBTE h elps tea ch er s to en su r e th e developm en t of sch ool pla n s a n d in str u ction a l pr ogr a m m e pla n s wh ich r ela te closely to sh a r ed
edu ca tion a l goa ls. Tea ch er s ca n lea r n to m a xim ize oppor tu n ities for stu den t lea r n in g a n d
sta ff developm en t th r ou gh a ppr opr ia te or ga n iza tion a l a r r a n gem en ts a n d str u ctu r es.
Staffing and dire c ting
SBTE ca n em power tea ch er s to en su r e
sta ffin g m eets th e edu ca tion a l n eeds of
in str u ction a l pr ogr a m m e pla n s a n d to m a xim ize h u m a n r esou r ces for stu den t lea r n in g,
cu r r icu lu m developm en t a n d in str u ction a l
im pr ovem en t. Also SBTE m ay be a n im por ta n t m ea n s of dir ectin g tea ch er s’ tea ch in g
effor ts a n d in itia tive to th e pr ofession a l
developm en t of sta ff a n d th e lea r n in g effectiven ess of stu den ts.
Mo nito ring and e valuating
Th e SBTE pr ogr a m m e ca n str en gth en tea ch er s’ beliefs a n d sk ills for u sin g th e fin din gs of
tea ch in g eva lu a tion a n d su per vision to
im pr ove in str u ction a l pr ocess a n d sta ff developm en t. Th e SBTE a ctivities ca n h elp tea ch er s to becom e fa m ilia r w ith r ecen t developm en ts of edu ca tion a l eva lu a tion a n d th eir
a pplica tion s for en h a n cin g edu ca tion a l effectiven ess. Recen tly th er e h a s been a str on g
em ph a sis on u sin g th e tech n ology of edu ca tion a l in dica tor s to m on itor a n d im pr ove th e
tea ch in g pr ocess a n d edu ca tion a l ou tcom es.
SBTE ca n pr ovide th e n ecessa r y tech n ica l
su ppor t to tea ch er s.

Conclusion
Th e ch a n gin g edu ca tion a l en vir on m en t
dem a n ds con tin u ou s, sch ool-ba sed tea ch er
edu ca tion for sch ool developm en t, tea ch er
effectiven ess a n d qu a lity a ssu r a n ce. Th e
cla ssifica tion of sch ool m u ltiple fu n ction s a t
th e in dividu a l, in stitu tion a l, com m u n ity,
societa l a n d in ter n a tion a l levels pr ovides a
fr a m e to design a n d m a n a ge th e con ten t of
SBTE . SBTE sh ou ld h elp tea ch er s a n d th e
sch ool to per for m th e str u ctu r a l/ tech n ica l,
h u m a n / socia l, politica l, cu ltu r a l a n d edu ca tion a l fu n ction s a t th ese five levels. Ba sed on
th e specifi c ch a r a cter istics a n d n eeds of in dividu a l sch ools a t cer ta in sta ges of sch ool

Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Allan Walke r
Multi-func tio ns o f sc ho o lbase d te ac he r e duc atio n
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developm en t, th e em ph a ses of SBTE on th ese
fu n ction s a n d levels m ay be differ en t. It is
n ecessa r y to develop a lon g-ter m , ba la n ced
a n d in te gr a tive SBTE pr ogr a m m e if th e
sch ool w a n ts to be effective in m u ltiple fu n ction s fr om th e in dividu a l level to in ter n a tion a l level. An ign or a n ce of m u ltiple sch ool
fu n ction s m ay lim it th e effectiven ess of
SBTE .

‘...a solid aw a ren ess of th e m u lti-fu n ction s of S B T E a n d a n a ppropr ia te b a la n ce in d esign in g S B T E progra m m es m ay h elp to m a x im iz e th e b en efi t of S B T E a ctivities for tea ch er effectiv en ess a n d
sch ool d ev elopm en t...’
F r om a n or ga n iza tion -w ide per spective,
SBTE a lso in clu des m u lti-fu n ction s. Th ese
fu n ction s of SBTE ca n con tr ibu te to th e
str a te gic m a n a gem en t pr ocess wh ich , in
tu r n , ca n fa cilita te sch ool developm en t a n d
en h a n ce lon g-ter m sch ool effectiven ess. A
th or ou gh u n der sta n din g of th e m u lti-fu n ction s of SBTE is n ecessa r y for effective design
a n d im plem en ta tion of th e con ten t a n d a ctivities of tea ch er edu ca tion in sch ool. A solid
aw a r en ess of th e m u lti-fu n ction s of SBTE a n d
a n a ppr opr ia te ba la n ce in design in g SBTE
pr ogr a m m es m ay h elp to m a xim ize th e ben efit of SBTE a ctivities for tea ch er effectiven ess
a n d sch ool developm en t.
Th e five m u lti-fu n ction s of sch ools a t five
levels, a n d th e five m u lti-fu n ction s of SBTE
w ith in th e sch ool or ga n iza tion pr oposed in
th is pa per pr ovide a com pr eh en sive fr a m ewor k for pr a ctition er s a n d r esea r ch er s to
u n der sta n d th e com plex n a tu r e a n d poten tia l
con tr ibu tion of SBTE . Th e fr a m ewor k m ay be
u sed to gu ide th e design a n d im plem en ta tion
of SBTE . Also, ba sed on th is fr a m ewor k , differ en t r esea r ch con ception s a n d qu estion s
ca n be gen er a ted for in vestiga tion . Th e follow in g a r e som e exa m ples:
• to in vestiga te th e str en gth s a n d wea k n esses
of existin g tea ch er edu ca tion pr a ctices
(in clu din g exter n a l types a n d sch ool-ba sed
types) in ter m s of per for m in g th e five m u ltifu n ction s of sch ool a t th e fi ve levels;
• to explor e h ow SBTE ca n be design ed, m a n a ged a n d im plem en ted to su ppor t tea ch er s
a n d th e sch ool effectively to per for m th ese
sch ool fu n ction s;
• to stu dy th e poten tia l dilem m a s wh en
design in g a n d im plem en tin g SBTE to
a ch ieve a n d m a xim ize m u lti-fu n ction s
w ith in sch ool or ga n iza tion ;
• to in vestiga te th e r ela tion sh ip between
sch ool lea der sh ip a n d m a xim izin g th e
m u lti-fu n ction s of SBTE ;

• to explor e th e developm en t of SBTE ’s m u ltifu n ction s w ith in sch ool or ga n iza tion a n d
th e evolu tion of sch ool cu ltu r e;
• to stu dy th e im pa cts of differ en t SBTE pr ogr a m m es w ith differ en t em ph a ses on m u ltifu n ction s on tea ch er per for m a n ce a n d
stu den t ou tcom es, etc.
Th e fin din gs of th ese stu dies m ay h ave fu r th er im plica tion s for th e developm en t of th e
th eor y a n d pr a ctice of SBTE .
Alth ou gh th e fr a m ewor k is obviou sly in its
pr elim in a r y developm en ta l sta ge, we h ope
ou r in itia l idea s pr ovide a sta r tin g poin t to
stim u la te th e developm en t of r esea r ch on
SBTE fr om th e per spective of m u lti-fu n ction s
a n d fa cilita te its effective im plem en ta tion in
both loca l a n d in ter n a tion a l con texts.

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