Urban and regional development (1)

ENCYCTI]PEDI,A
OF

ENCTCI-oI'EDIAOF

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ENCYCLOPEDhOT

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ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF

BARNEYVARF, EDITOR
University of Kansas

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Los Angebq I trondon I New Delhi
Singaporefwashington DC

ENCYCI'PEDIAOF

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ELACKWELL
LIERARY
S.ALISBURY
UNIVERSIW
sA[tsBURY,tt4D. 21801

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CONTRIBTJTORS
ScottR. Abella
Uniuersityof Neuada,
Las Vegas

John All
Human EnuironmentLinkages
Program

YohannesAberra
Addis Ababa Uniuersity

John LoganAllen
Uniuersityof Wyoming

DamianAbsalon
Uniuersityof Silesia

ScottAnderson
StateUniuersityof New York
at Cortland

MichaelAdams
'Wollongong
IJniuersityof
FendaAminataAkiwumi
Florida
Uniuersityof So,wth
Todd H. Albert
Bowling GreenStateUniuersity
JochenAlbrecht
Hunter CollegeCUNY

JosepAntoni Alcover
Institut Mediterranid'Estudis
Auangats(CYC-UIB)

SharolynAnderson
Uniuersityof Denuer
GennadyAndrienko
Fraunhofer lnstitute lAlS
NataliaAndrienko
Fraunhoferlnstitute IAIS
Yuko Aoyama
Clark Uniuersity
SethAppiah-Opoku
[Jniuersityof Alabama

DerekH. Alderman
East Carolina Uniuersity

J. Clark Archer
IJniuersityof N ebraska-Lincoln

JaredAldstadt
StateUniuersityof New York
at Buffalo

Kevin Archer
[Jniuersityof SouthFlorida

David E. Alexander
Uniuersityof Florence
MelindaAlexander
Arizona StateUniuersity
SaleemH. Ali
Uniuersityof Vermont

SantaArias
Uniuersityof Kansas
RichardPeterArmitage
Uniuersityof Salford
MichaelChristopher

Armstrong
DePaul Uniuersity

David L. Arnold
FrostburgStateUniuersity
JenniferS.Arrigo
East Carolina Uniuersity
R. RochelleArrington
Florida StateUniuersity
YasushiAsami
Uniuersityof Tokyo
Bjorn Asheim
Lund Uniuersity
'Walker
S.Ashley
Northern lllinois Uniuersity
GenevieveAtwood
Uniuersityof Utah
IvonneAudirac
Flo ri da State Uniuer sity

Louis Awanyo
Lwther College,Uniuersityof
Regina
Rikke Baastrup
Danish CancerSociety
Andrew J. Bach
'Western.Washington
Uniuersity
Bagchi-Sen
Sharmistha
of New York
[Jniuersity
State
at Buffalo
John E. Bailey
Uniuersityof Alaska

CONTRIBUTORS

BrettChristoPhers
{Jppsala(JniuersitY

Dennis Conway
Indiana Uniuersity

ScottCurtis
East Carolina Uniuersity

Robert\7. ChristoPherson
ArnericanRiuer College/
Geosystems

Michael P. Conzen
Uniuersity of Chicago

Donald C. Dahmann
GeorgeWashington
Uniuersity

Cidell
Julie
't
Jniuersityof lllinois
Eric Clark
Lund UniuersitY
JenniferClark
Georgialnstitute of
Technology
AbigailR. Clarke-Sather
Mi chigan Technological
Uniuersity
Cobarrubias
Scbastian
[Jniuersityof North Carolina
C. Cobb
Sl'raron
.tJniuersity
of North Florida
CraigA. Coburn
IJniuersity of Lethbridge
DavidM. CochranJr.
{Jniuersity of Southern
MississiPPi
Alisa\7. Coffin
U.S.GeologicalSuruey
David Cohen
Indiana Uniuersityof
Pennsyluania

Karen S. Cook
Uniuersity of Kansas
Jon Corbett
Uniuersity of British
Columbia-Okanagan

PeterH. Dana
Uniuersityof Texasat Austin
RajuJ. Das
York Uniuersity

Dov Corenblit
King's College London

ConnyDavidsen
Uniuersityof Calgary

Marci Cottingham
lndiana Uniuersity of
Pennsyluania

FionaM. Davidson
Uniuersityof Arkansas

Lloyd L. Coulter
San Diego State Uniuersity
Rosie Cox
B irkb eck, U niuersity of
London
JamesCraine
California State U niuersity,
I'lorthridge
Valorie A. Crooks
Simon FraserUniuersity
John A. Cross
Uniuersity of
Wisconsin-Oshkosh
SeanM. Crotty
San Diego State Uniuersity

I(im M. Cohen
Utrecht Uniuersity

Jeff R. Crump
Uniuersity of Minnesota

Iill S.M. Coleman
Ball StateUniuersity

Karen Culcasi
'W
est Vir ginia Uniuersity

AshleyR. Coles
Uniuersityof Arizona

Julie Cupples
[Jniuersity of Canterbury

ElizabethR. Congdon
Georgia Southern Uniuersity

Judd Michael Curran
Grossmont College

HeatherCongdonFors
[Jniuersityof Gotbenbwrg

Giorgio Hadi Curti
San Diego State Uniuersity

JamisonConley
PennsyluaniaStateUniuersity

Kevin M. Curtin
George Mason Uniuersity

JoyceDavidson
Queen'sUniuersity
JasonDavis
[Jniuersityof California,
SantaBarbara
AlastairDawson
AberdeenInstitute for
CoastalScienceand
Management
ShariDaya
Uniuersityof CaPeTown
AnthonyP. D'Costa
Asia ResearcbCentre
Mark de Socio
SalisburyUniuersity
Keith G. Debbage
[Jniuersityof North
Carolina-Greensboro
Eric Delmelle
Uniuersityof Charlotte,North
Carolina
Urika Demiar
National [Jniuersityof lreland,
Maynooth
HannesDempewolf
IJniuersityof British Columbia
Mary Dengler
RoyalHolloway, Uniuersity
of London

XXXi'i

URBAN

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Suite, Compurers in Teaching Initiative Centre
Geography (codirected with David Magu_
for
ire), Visualisation for the Social Sciences(a
Leicester-Birkbeck collaboration), and the Vir_
tual Field Course project (a Leicester_Birkbeck
collaboration). Outside geography, his adminis_
trarive responsibiiitiesaiglr-kbeck and UK eUni_
versities were related to both teaching
and
technology.
Unwin's most notable ser.viceto the research
com_munitywas for the
euantitative Methods
Study Group of the Institure of British Geo_
graphers as the secretary/treasurer
(1974_1,976),
as chair (1976-1979), and as editor of
the

and Techniques
of
91TMO9 series(Concepts
Modern.Geography,
1979-L9g2).
He alsopar_

ticipated in establishingthe first European
Collo_
quium on Theoreticaland
euantirativ" Geogr"phy,
in 1978.

Unwin's MPhil researchwas in climatology,
and he maintainedinterestin this ur." throuih_
out his career.Merging this with a lifelJng
interestin fell running and mountaineering,
ii
1978, Unwin authoredMountain .Weatbei'for
Climbers.
peter Fisher

@ Unsnx AND RscloNer
T\

L'EVELOPMENT
Studentsof urban and regionaldevelopment
con_
sider the social,economic,and poliiical forces
that shape,and are shapedby, the physical
and
social landscapesof meftopolitan areas.Urban
and regional developmenrL a multidisciplinary
rylj:.r of study that draws interestfro- ..hol"r,
affiliatedwith a broad rangeof socialard physical sciences,including planning, sociology,geog_
r aphy, p oIi ti caI sci ence, anth r opoIogy, r,a h-.
tti
"
andenvironmental
"
sciences.
fhe muliiaisciplinarf
natureof urbanand regionaldevelopment
shouli
not be surprising given the significanceof the
city, and more recently_the
.orrcipt of the region,
in each of thesedisciplines.placing u bouniurf
around the rerm urban and regionaldeuelopmeit
i:.,.91:.q"ently,a difficulttu.k. Ind..d, giventhe
disciplinaryinrersecrionsinherent in uiban and
regionaldevelopmen
t, anyeffort at delimitingthe
literaturewould unfortunatelyresultin omissions
that some may find problematic.Nevertheless,
what follows is an attemptto be as inclusive
as
possibleconcerningurban and regionaldevelop_
mentand its theoreticalevolution.

Seealso GeographyEducation;GlScience;Spatial
Analysis;Spatial Statistics

FurtherReadingsfi
'lgqfl
fi!*q.ry!4iiiryryifi

titsffi ,6#.iin##,

Dawson,J.A., & Unwin, D. (1976).Computing
for
geographers.New Abbot, UK: David & Charles.
Dawson,J. A., & Unwin, D. (19gS).Computer
programming for geographers.Harlow, IJK:
Longman,
Fisher,P., & Unwin, D. (2001). Virtual reality in
geography.London: Taylor & Francis.
Hearnshaw,H., & Unwin, D. (Eds.).(1994).
Visualisationand GIS. Chichester,UK: Viley.
O'Sullivan, D., & Unwin,D. (2002). Geographic
information analysis. New york: Viley.
Unwin, D. (1978). Mountain weather
for climbers.
Leicester,UK: Cordee.
Unwin, D. (1981). Introductory spatial analysis.
London: Methuen.

'll:l4lne\''

Like most academicconcepts,the originsof urban
and regional develop-errt .un b-e traced to
broader intellectualpursuits combined with
changesin wider economic,cultural, and politi_
cal, conditions.In geography,studentsof urban
and regionaldevelopmenremergedfrom the sub_
disciplinesof urban arrd econlmic geography.
Early geographicalmodelsof urban aJu.t"op-.rrt
were often econometric.rX/alterChristalleriscen_
tral place theory, for example,focusedon the
placing and spacing of urLan settlements
bv
examiningthe geographicaldraw of hierarchies
ot economicgoodsthat, in turn, producedhierar_
chiesof settlementsspaced.quidirt"rrt from each
other by virrue of the mix of goods and services
found in them. Brian Berry ised central place
theory to understanddistributionsof urban set_
tlementsand economicactivitiesin the Midwest
of the United States.

URBAN AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
'

requirements arose from the rapid and haphazEurly contributions from sociology include
of
in
studies
Chicago,
which
he
ard development of thickly settled tenement
ErnestBurgess's
for
a
laboratory
the
study
as
city
of
housing in cities such as New York in the 1800s.
the
uir*.d
problems.
urban
social
Cities
and
Health
and environment concerns drove the creform
wban
expanding
and
changing
in
organic,
as
ation
infrastructure such as sewage, water
of
were seen
process
form
in
a
similar
to
supply, and ordinances for the designing and
social and physical
spacing of buildings to allow sunlight to penethe successionof plant life. The structure of urban
to
be
in
concentric
appeared
growth
trate
densely constructed urban areas.The need
and
torm
(CBD)
district
at
central
business
for
the
such
planning became evident after the outwith
zofles)
from
surrounded
by
a
transition
breaks
and
of diseasessuch as cholera, typhoid, yelthe center
low fever, and dysentery in the crowded and
the CBD to more residential areas,which in turn
into
zones
by
levels
of
concentric
unsanitary quarters of industrializing cities such
structured
were
measured
in
mobility
of
citizens,
as New York and London.
The
affluence.
'Vfar
Following rJ(orld
commutes' use of telephones,
journey-to-work
II, planning practices
'andland
(and
change
shifted toward accommodating the fast-growing
values at strategic locations
in the number and spatiality of strategic loca-, su$urban populations. Planned private suburban
corhrnunifies such as the Levittowns of New York,
tions), is couched in terms of a city's "metaboand
of
a
New
reflects
the
"health"
"vitality"
and
lism"
Jersey,and Pennsylvania-along with others
"dislife.
Additionally,
scatteredabout the United States-were aimed at
city'seconomicand social
accommodating the high demand for housing for
organization" of urban life in the form of vice,
a bourgeoning middle classin the postwar United
poverty,concentrationsof minority populations,
is
States. In the latter part of the 20th century,
in
the
built
environment
disinvestment
and
population
public
planning became more prevalent in the
actual
attributed to the "excess" of
United Statesas environmental concerns emerged
growth over natural increase(i.e., immigration).
in the 1,970sand 1980s against the backdrop of
Disorganizationalong with the demand for labor
increasing pollution and other negative externaliareseenas natural to urban life and appearto act
ties
creatassociated with rampant leapfrog suburban
as "stirnulants" for the mobility of citizens,
ing pressuresfor urban expansionand succession development. In Europe, where national governments are generally more centralized than in the
of land uses.
United States, planning practices laryely focused
Anthropological contributions to urban and
regional development focus on the cultural and
on decreasingdensitiesaround public transportasocial life of cities. Urban cultures and subcultion nodes and expanding the public transportatures are examined within the context of specific
tion infrastructure. It should be evident here that
groupsnavigating and shaping the built environthe United Statesand Europe diverged in development through everyday life practices, providing
ing their respectivetransportation infrastructures.
The United Statesfocused primarily on construct"the city" with vibrancy-different smells, ethnic
cuisines,cultural and religiousactivities,markets,
ing and maintaining its interstate highway system
tempo, entertainment, and family and social gathto accommodate the growth of privately owned
erings.Particular groups, whether ethnic enclaves automobiles. Suburbanization, including leapfrog
in specific neighborhoods or organizational units
development, generally follows the contours of
such as corporations and civic institutions, are
the interstate highway system. Europe's preindusexamined to identify the cultural practices that
trial and pre-automobile cities with narrow streets
collectively provide individual cities with their
and high densitieswere not easily malleable to the
uniquesenseof place.
kinds of urban structural change required to
Planning and health and environmental sciaccommodate limited-access highway systems.
ence concerns arose largely in response to the
Consequently, the major focus in Europe was
rapid urban growth associatedwith industriallargely on public transportation such as highization in the L9th century. The need to regulate
speed trains, subway systems, and light rail sysand spatially segregatevarious kinds of urban
tems, which are less intrusive on the built
development and provide for infrastructural
environment. The planning professions in the

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U R B A N A N D R E G I O N A LD E V E L O P M E N T

United Statesand Europe thus reflect the social
and cultural implications associatedwith these
differing transportation infrastructures.

of class awarenessfor new generations of businessand social leadersat the national scale.
The political scientistRobert Dahl's rYho Gouerns?(publishedin 1961) refocusedon rhe urban
scale and challengedthe bourgeoning school of
community power structure. Dahl's book was a
The 1950s and 1960s saw the publication of a
long-term study of the governance of the city of
seriesof works that broadenedthe scopeof urban
New Haven in Connecticut. Rather than finding
and regional developmentto include urban gova small classof businessor social eliteswho overly
ernance.The publication of Floyd Hunter's book
influence urban policy making in New Haven,
Commwnity Power Strwcturein 1.953-a Marxist
Dahl describeda tumultuous processof negotiaanalysis of a "Regional City's" (largely undertions and quid pro quos among myriad social and
stood to representthe city of Atlanta) close ties
business interests. Additionally, Dahl found a
betweenthe city's businessclassand the city govvery dynamic set of actors whose composition
ernment-launched a new theoreticalframework
changesdramatically with the rise of the indusfor studies of urban and regional development. trial revolution, rapid immigration, and the subRather than viewing the social and built environbequentchangesin urban form and structure.The
ment as "natural" or organic, the new focus was
processof urban governanceover time that Dahl
on how class dynamics (re)producesthe social describesis one of transition from an era of elite
and economic landscapein modern capitalist citleadershipin the early days of British colonialism
ies. The businesscommunity, for example, was
and then U.S. independenceto a steady rise of
recognizedas pivotal in a city's social and politiinterest groups that increasingly diminishes the
cal strLrcture.The leadersof the businesscommupower of any one group to overly influence urban
nity are seenas more than representirtives
government. In other words, urban governments
of their
particular company or industry; rather, they are
must be responsiveto a widening array of interseen as representativesof a class of capitalists ests. The result, then, is a process of municipal
who police and act on behalf of classinreresrsin
governanceand urban developmentthat appears
addition to the interestsof their parricular busito be chaotic but in actuality represents"a miranesses.This is done through the establishrnentof
cle of democracy" in rhe sensethar political influbusinesspolicy organizationsin which local firms
ence is effectively diluted by the need for urban
offer their expertise and resourcesto local govgovernmentsto be responsiveto a widening, pluernment officials to help shapeurban policies.In
ralistic range of voters.
addition, businessleaders financially back proThe work of Robert Dahl effectivelylaunched
businesscandidates for office and tend to head
what in political scienceis known as the "plurallocal community foundations, arts councils, and
ist school," which remains a powerful framework
other eleemosynaryorganizations to merge the
for contemporary studies.Indeed,throughout the
resourcesthey command, including social and
1.970s and 1980s, urban scholars generally
political networks, for the purposeof fund-raising worked within the framework of either rhe "elire
andlor mobilizing the kinds of support that such
school" of community power structure or the
organizations require to function.
"pluralist school," with little overlap betweenthe
The publication of C. Wright Mills's Tbe
two. The two models are largely separated by
Power Elite in 1956 and G. nililliam Domhoff's
epistemology-that is, they differed in their
Who Rules America? in 1967 broadened the
expectationsof what can be researched.Pluralscope of the community power structure literaists, for example, take a "decisional" approach
ture beyond the confines of "the city" to include
and analyzeactual decisions (e.g., legislation and
national governance.Much of this broadenedlitthe decision-making processes behind them)
erature considersthe socializationmechanismsof
regardingurban policies.They generallyconclude
preparatory schools, elite universities, and excluthat political influenceis decentralizedbut imbalsive social clubs as componentsof a social strucanced among a range of competing interests.
ture organizedfor the inculcationand maintenance Meanwhile, anything beyond concrete decision

DEVELOPMENT
URBAN AND REGIONAL

!T

a unified-tTtit-T
of interestsostensibly"ti l.t
making by virtue of
-.. -conrrrrc>
,
--rmethat the desiresof local | ,.gion"ilohti."l decision resources
at tnerr
'ti"d;..1l]t"ss
the myria? financialand social
,t
political
the
guide
elites)
I
",rttt
(us-ualt.y
command.
elites(usuar'.v
e[tes
?TIi'
limit the scope
scooe II command'
, | --,.1^r^^ritinel
-,"1.J:-;;.;;;;tr?
[mit
"-.1
behtnd.tne
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and
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termsof the
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in.tr.li-*or.,r,nno"rn,il?'i..,- |
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develop,nent,o
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r9"i" 991 details'"capital"has
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conceprr:alir",
i"ut'ting
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they refer
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rn 1989
Sto"tl' book Regime Politics

machine concept'
,,'o". 'o- t"n"n the growth
in.r.ur.Jurrai|
,..king
long-termstudvof the
phila'thropyinstitutiorrr,
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encesand contributions.These

@wr,1,r

2920 wt-:.

URBAN AND REGIONALDEVELOPMENT

city of Atlanta' Georgia, largely covering the
Hunter's work in
years
't953. since the publication of
The urban regime concept's breakthrough
in bridging the gap between communrty power
of
structuie Ind pl,ri"lism lies in its situating
the
of
political leadeis wrrhin the constraints
iemocr"tic process;that is, regime.theoryrecognizes that urban politicians must be responsrve
to myriad interesis as the pluralists contend' At
recthe same time, however, regime theory also
to
wield
appear
ognizes that businessinterests
m"ore influence than others over the formulation of urban policies. In capitalism, business
leaders-through no action of their own-are
porr.rring "systemic power" by virtue of
r;;;
"tpiivate ownership over
productive
their -of
-the
States,
United
the
in
Particularly
assets society.
business
their
on
reliant
are
urban governments
commrinities for fiscal solvency becauseof the
vital resources they command-namely, iobs
and capital. Municipal governments' therefore,
have traditionally been more responsiveto the
community leaders
long-term needs of br'rsiness
ou.-, the needs of other constituents and have
actively engaged with businessleaders through
informal ,r!t*otk. to develop various political
platforms. In short, gouernance is a more apt
iescription of urban management and development ;iven that urban governments.alone lack
the resourcesrequired to effectivelydevelop and
implement policies. Therefore, political leaders
*ust ,each out to the broader community-typically the businesscommunity-to mobilize t'he
necessaryresourcesfor effectivegovernance'
The regime concept proved to be problematic
to British or other European cities,
when
"pp1i.d
where gw.ttt-.ttts are more centralized and generally iessdependenton local resourcesfor effective governance. In Britain, regulation theory
fouttJ more fertile academicground than the concept of urban regimes.Led by the geographerBob
modesof "social
Jerrop, regulationistsexplore the
i.g"tuiioJ' and their roles in urban and regional
de"velopm.nt. Social relations-labor markets,
capitalistcompetition' consumption,socialmovements, and so on-are seen as being mediated
through governmental, social, and -civic institutions it varying and interlocking scalesof interaction. How thlse relations are mediated and
directed help shape and direct the forms that

urban and regional development takes' Agglomeration economies,deindustrialization' the rise of
"cultural" economies,and the like are attributed
to specific locally based arrangements of regulatory institutions and social relations' Ash Amin
and Nlgel Thrift have referred to these arrangements ai "institutional thickness" and attribute a
locality's capacity to secure inward investments
and "embed" global forces of production in particular placesai contingent on a locality's level of
institutional thickness.
Regulation theory brought to the fore the issue
of sca'iethat was hitherto undeveloped and largely
absent from studiesof urban and regional development. The concept of institutional thicknessis
cognizant and inclusive of various institutions,goiernmental, economic, social, and otherwiseoperating at a range of scales'The "region" as
oppo..d to the "city" is seen as particularly
important for harnessingand directing the powers of regulation and social interaction toward
embedding global processesin particular places'
Authors havi drawn from the works of others in
the broader discipline of economic geography,
including the coniept of the "city-region," for a
better frimework for understanding institutional
thicknessacross scales.Others have called for a
new politics of the "region" as opposed to the
"city;' so that cities and regions are be better
.qr;ipp.d to respond to the changing scales of
global production and exchange'

The multidisciplinaryfield of urban and regional
developmentii a rich and dynamicfield of study'
Althoughmuch of the work has beenpresented
,orn.*f,", in a linearfashion,it shouldbe noted
to urbanand regional
that thevariousapproaches
developmentoutlined abovecontinueto flourish
both independentlyand with much crossfertilizationof concepts,insights,and methodologies.Eachapproachofferspromisinginsightsfor
future directionsof inquirY.
One particularlypromisingapproachto urban
has emergedfrom the
and regiorraldevelopment
broader discipline of human geography' Th'
attentionto issuesof scaleas outlinedabovehas
permeatedmuch of social inquiry in human
The concept
geographyand othersocialsciences'

',fr
:.,lti

U R B A N A N D R E G I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N TT

of scale as networks and the "return" of graph
theory in broader social science,along with new
for
software technologies created specifically
methods for
interesting
offer
analyses,
n.t*otk
models
isolating specific interests identified in
such as urban regime theory, regulation theory,
and
and "institutional thickness" in urban
for
examwork,
Recent
regional development.
oll. s.eks to identify specific businessinterests
ihrt .-t'tloycentrality in urban regime coalitions
through social network analysis' Others demon"amorstrate the utility of viewing previously
g
l
o
b
a
l
i
z
a
t
ion as
a
s
s
u
c
h
Dhous" concepts
specific
through
i.on.r.i. transactionsmediated
socialrelzrtionsand networks across space,linking regions and localities to "global" capital'
So"ci,ll-iret*orksand relations take the form of
Dotentialsuppliers and businesspartners bridging global capital with local or regional markets
nf cLlstomersrepresentingforward and back"n--a linkages up and down the production
ward
chain. This new thrust of inquiry promises to
situate urban and regional development amid
specificsocial, economic, and political actors
tirat, collectively, constitute "coalitionsr" "institutional thickness," and other structllresof social
relations. By teasing out specific actors from
these broader social forms, new possibilities
emerge,with implications for human agency'
urban socialmovements,and political action'
Mark de Socio
,,i'

,,..:
ii't

i:,i
t!,

':i1,
,
ir'r:

CentralBusiness
Economies;
SeealsoAgglomeration
District;ChicagoSchool;Circuitsof Capital;
Deindustriali
zationEconomicBaseAnalysis;Economic
Impactsof Cities;
Geography;
Environmental
Envirorrrnental
Planning;GrowthMachine;Growth
Poles;
HousingandHousingMarkets;Industrial
of;
Districts;Infrastructure;
Innovation,Geography
Urbanism;
Knowledge,
New
of;
Geography
of;
Postinclustrial
Society;PublicPolicy,Geography
Public-Private
RegionalEconomic
Partnerships;
Planning;RentDevelopment;
RegionalEnvironmental
Gap;Rural-UrbanMigration;SquatterSettlements;
Suburbs
Transportation
and Suburbanization;
Geography;
UrbanandRegional
UnevenDevelopment;
Planning;
UrbanHierarchy;
UrbanGeography;
Urbanization;
UrbanSprawl;
UrbanSpatialStructure;
World Cides;Zoning

Further Readings i1
,:i&i-..4f

rri i,rL,

!4Ui\i{fws4id4q{s$ir

Anrin. A., 6< Thrift, N. (1995).Globalization,institu'
ilons, and regionaldeuelopmentin Europe'
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press'
Cox. K. (1995).Globalization'competitionand the
politics of local economicdevelopment' Urban
Stwdies, 3 2 (2), 21,3-224.
Cox, K., & Mair' A' (1988).Locality and community
in the politicsof local economicdevelopment'
Annals of the Associationof American Geographers, 78(21,307-325.
Cox, K., & Wood, A. (1997). Competition and cooperation in mediatingthe global: The caseof local
economicdevelopment. Cc)mpetitionand Change,
2,65-94.
Dahi;,R. (tg61'). Who gouerns?Demoqacy and
poluer in an American city. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press'
Domhoff, G. (1967)' Who rules America?Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
Florida, R. (2003). Cities and the creative class'City
6 Comrnunity,2(ll, 3-19'
to entrepreHarvey,D. (1939).From managerialism
neurialism:The transformation in urban governancein late capitalism,GeografiskaAnnaler B,
71(1.\,3-1"7.
Hunter, F. (1953).Communitypower structure:A
study of decisionmakers,Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press.
Logan,J., 6c Molotch, H. (1987). Urban fortunes:
The political econamyof place.Berkeley:University of California Press.
Mills, C. (Lg56l. The power elite.New York: Oxford
University Press.
Peck,J. (2005). Strugglingwith the creativeclass'
InternationalJournal of tJrban and Regional
Research,29 (4), 740-770.
Scott,A. (2001). Globalizationand the riseof cityregions.Europ ean Planning Studies,9 (7l, 813-825'
Stone,C. (1989). Regimepolitics: GouetningAtlanta,
1946-1988.Lawrence:University of KansasPress'
!7ood. A. (1'996).Analysingthe politics of local economic development:Making senseof cross-national
5'
u rban Studies,33 (8 ), 1'281-1,29
convergence.
\Wood,A. (2005). Comparativeurban politics and the
questionof scale.Spaceand Poli4t' 9(3),201'-21'5'
\food, A., & Valler,D. (Eds.).(20041.Gouerninglocal
and regionaleconomiesInstitutions, politics and
economicdeuelopment.Burlington, VT: Ashgate'