silesr2015 016.
A Brief Survey among the Adi
of Arunachal Pradesh
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A Brief Survey among the Adi of Arunachal Pradesh
Tutum Padung and Kara Sako
SIL International
®2015
SIL Electronic Survey Report 2015-016, September 2015 © 2015 SIL International®
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Abstract
The Adi language consists of fourteen or fifteen sub-groups. Currently language development and translation work have been conducted in one of these varieties, called Padam. The purpose of this sociolinguistic survey was to determine whether further language development work should be carried out in any of the other varieties. For this purpose, wordlist comparisons were used as well recorded text questions, questionnaires and interviews. The results showed that the Adi have a positive attitude towards their mother tongue and are actively using it especially in the home. The survey showed that there are largely two groupings of Adi and that the more geographically and linguistically divergent language varieties would benefit from a separate translation and literacy project.
(This survey report written some time ago deserves to be made available even at this late date. Conditions were such that it was not published when originally written. It has not been peer reviewed. The reader is cautioned that more recent research may exist. Historical data is quite valuable as it provides a basis for a longitudinal analysis and helps us understand both the trajectory and pace of change as compared with more recent studies, Ed.)
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Contents
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 People and language
2 Results
2.1 Dialects
2.1.1 Wordlists
2.1.2 Recorded text questions 2.1.3 Questionnaires
2.1.4 Interviews 2.2 Language use
2.3 Language attitudes and vitality 2.4 Bilingualism
3 Conclusions and recommendations
Appendix A: International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Appendix B: Wordlists
Appendix C: Language use, attitudes, vitality and bilingualism questionnaires Appendix D: Questionnaire Responses
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1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
A brief survey among the Adi, a scheduled tribe distributed in Arunachal Pradesh of India, was carried out in order to determine whether besides the Padam any other Adi groups would benefit from
translation work into their mother tongue. A team of two members conducted the research from July 10 to 17, 2004, and covered the following districts: East Siang, West Siang and Upper Siang.
Sociolinguistic survey helps to assess whether language development and translation should be carried out for a particular people group. It looks at issues such as the relatedness of the language to other language varieties, whether the people are continuing to speak their language, how well the community understands a more widely spoken language, and the attitudes that the group has about their language.
Thus the goals of this particular survey were the following:
• To investigate language relationships in Adi, particularly the relationship between the Padam variety and more distinct Adi varieties (such as Milang).
• To find out the geographical areas where some of the smaller and lesser-known groups are living (such as Tangam, Pailibo and Ramo).
• Among Adi sub-groups for which there is doubt, find out patterns of language use, vitality and attitudes towards their own variety and other Adi varieties.
• To investigate issues related to the impact of the Scriptures in Adi.
During the course of the trip, a number of people were asked for their assistance in giving
information, including college students as well as villagers. In addition, pastors and church leaders were contacted for their insights and assistance. Other people contributed to help complete the study. The researchers want to thank all those who assisted in various ways.
1.2 People and language
The Adi people are distributed in East Siang, West Siang, Upper Siang, Dibang Valley and some parts of Upper Subansiri districts of Arunachal Pradesh. According to the 1981 census, the total population of Adi, including all sub-groups, was 121,052. According to the 1991 census, the population rose to 158,409.
The Adi community is predominantly rural with more than 98 percent of the population living in rural areas. The Adi live in the rugged mountainous and hilly terrain, which is covered by streams and tropical, dense evergreen, and semi-deciduous forests. The area abounds with bears, deer, wolves, hornbills, elephants, tigers and snow-bears. It enjoys a moderate climate with cool temperatures and heavy rainfall.
Adi is a generic term, meaning ‘hill men’. Formerly the Adi were called Abor (Roy 1967). They disliked the term because it meant ‘unruly’ or ‘savage’. According to Adi legend, Abo Tani was the first man from whom the community descended. The people originally came from the northern region and settled in the present area (Singh 1995).
The Adi are divided into fifteen major sub-groups, namely Ashing, Bokar, Bori, Gallong (Galo, Gallo), Karko, Komkar, Milang, Minyong, Padam, Pailibo, Pangi, Pasi, Ramo, Shimong and Tangam (Singh 1995:53).1
1The Galo have separated themselves from the Adi community, and do not consider themselves as Adi. (The
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Among the Adi sub-groups, Ashing, Karko, Komkar, Milang, Minyong, Padam, Pailibo, Pangi, Pasi and Shimong are concentrated in the East Siang district.2 Padam is concentrated in Dibang Valley district
also. Bokar, Bori, Gallong, Ramo and Tangam are concentrated in West Siang district. Gallongs are found in some parts of Upper Subansiri as well.
A council called kebang is common among Adi for resolving various disputes. There are three types of councils: bane-kebang (village council), banggo-kebang (comprising more than two villages), and bogum-bokang (comprising the whole community of the state). A dispute is first taken before the village council, the bane-kebang. If the dispute is not resolved, it then moves to the higher councils.
The Adi speak a language which is classified as Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, North Assam, Tani (Lewis et al. 2015). According to the Ethnologue, alternative names of Adi are Abor, Arbor, Lhoba, Luoba and Bogaer. For writing in Adi, Roman script is mostly used, with some Devanagri. For speaking with non-Adi people of the state, Hindi, Assamese and Nepali are used.
2 Results
2.1 Dialects
2.1.1 Wordlists
Comparing wordlists is a common method of determining the relationship among speech varieties. The degree of similarity in wordlist vocabularies is referred to as lexical similarity. Speech communities that have more terms in common (thus a higher percentage of lexical similarity) are more likely to
understand one another than speech communities that have fewer terms in common—assuming there is no contact between speakers of the communities. Lexical similarity findings through wordlists give a broad overview of the relationships among speech varieties, and when percentages are low, signify distinct languages.
In this survey, a wordlist consisting of 307 items was collected among nine Adi language groups. Because of limitations of travel and access to the rural areas, many wordlists were elicited in the town where speakers of the varieties live. Wordlists were transcribed using the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA). The following wordlist information is found in the appendices: IPA charts (appendix A), the nine wordlists, information about each wordlist and lexical similarity counting procedures (appendix B).
Figure 1 is a matrix of the wordlist comparisons, expressed as a percentage of lexical similarity. Padam
83 Shimong 76 80 Minyong
74 76 72 Ashing (Bogum-Bokang) 63 68 70 72 Bori
55 57 58 61 65 Pailibo 51 53 51 53 57 69 Bokar 49 50 49 51 54 65 72 Ramo 34 33 28 32 27 24 23 22 Milang Figure 1. Lexical similarity percentages of all speech varieties
compared in this study.
2During interviews with some Ashing people, they said Ashing are found somewhere in China, and they do not use
that term for themselves. The people interviewed said they call themselves Bogum-Bokang (the same term used for the state council among Adis). Since it is not certain how common this viewpoint is, and whether this term has been accepted officially, Ashing will be the term used in this report.
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The overall lexical similarity percentages among all Adi wordlists ranges from 22 to 83 percent. The wordlist from Milang is the most divergent of all, with low percentages of 22–34 percent between it and the other wordlists.
Two main clusters emerge in the matrix. One cluster is comprised of wordlists from Padam, Shimong, Minyong, Ashing and Bori, with lexical similarity percentages ranging from 63 to 83 percent. The Ashing wordlist has a higher similarity than expected, since the language is reported to be difficult for some people to understand. In general, the wordlists in this cluster represent language groups that are geographically closer to one another than they are to the language groups from other locations.
The other cluster is comprised of the Pailibo, Bokar and Ramo wordlists, with lexical similarity percentages ranging from 65 to 72 percent. As with the other cluster, these language groups are
generally close to one another geographically. The similarity between these two clusters is relatively low, ranging from 49 to 65 percent. (It should be noted that the threshold for deciding whether intelligibility is possible is 60 percent.)3
2.1.2 Recorded text questions
An additional method, termed recorded text questions, was used to gather further information about Adi dialects. Passages of Scripture in the Padam variety of Adi were recorded and played for six people from five other Adi groups.4 Questions were asked regarding the subjects’ understanding of the Padam speech
variety and attitudes toward it.
Two of the six subjects correctly identified the language in the passages as Padam. The other four subjects said Minyong. Half of the subjects said that they were able to recognise the place where the storyteller was from because of the language/dialect he used. Some subjects gave other reasons, such as his pronunciation or style.
Five out of the six subjects said that the speech on the recording was good, and one said it was average. Four subjects said that the speech was pure. The two subjects who felt that the language was not pure said it was mixed, one saying with Minyong and Padam.
In response to the question “Is the storyteller’s speech a little or very different from your speech?” two subjects said it was a little different, and the remaining four said that it was very different. Subjects felt that the speech was different from their own because of pronunciation, words and style.
Five of the six subjects said that they understood half or more of the Adi-Padam passage. The Ramo person said she could understand only 30 percent of the text.
2.1.3 Questionnaires
A questionnaire was used to gather general information about dialect perceptions (as well as language use, language attitudes and vitality, and bilingualism, discussed below). Subjects were asked questions regarding the speech of different Adi groups, such as how well they understood the people and how different it was from their own speech.
A total of eight subjects representing eight different Adi groups were administered the
questionnaires; one questionnaire was administered in each group. The questionnaire subjects were the same as the wordlist subjects, except that no questionnaire was administered to the Padam subject. Almost all the subjects were young and educated. Figure 2 gives the locations where the questionnaires (and wordlists) were administered.
3According to Blair (1990:23), any speech varieties above 60 percent lexical similarity indicate the possibility of
adequate comprehension, but intelligibility testing would be necessary to confirm this. Speech varieties that have less than 60 percent lexical similarity are typically considered to represent different languages.
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Dialect District Adi-Minyong East Siang
Adi-Ramo East Siang
Adi-Ashing Upper Siang Adi-Pailibo West Siang Adi-Shimong Upper Siang
Adi-Bokar West Siang
Adi-Bogum Bokang Upper Siang Adi-Milang East Siang
Figure 2. Sites where wordlists and questionnaires were administered.
In response to the question of whether there are areas where Adi is spoken very differently from the way subjects speak, all subjects except one said yes. Five subjects mentioned that it is Milang people who live in these areas.
Subjects were asked if they had met Adi people from different areas and how much they can understand of their language. In response, subjects mentioned Milang as being different, with such comments as, “I will not understand Milang.”
Subjects were asked whether they had met people from groups that are relatively unknown such as Tangam, Pailibo and Ramo. Whatever group people mentioned, half said the group’s language is very different. Subjects were also asked how much those people understand of their language. The responses were mixed, but there was a general acknowledgement that other groups have difficulty understanding them. The Shimong subject said that Milang can understand all.
Two questions were asked about where the purest/sweetest Adi is spoken.5 Subjects were not able to
say unanimously a particular place. Padam is the dialect in which most Adi literature is found, which might be a reason that two subjects, who are not mother tongue speakers of Padam, mentioned that as the purest variety. Another person mentioned Padam as the second purest variety. The most common reasons given for people’s selection was that they understand the variety and therefore consider it to be pure.
2.1.4 Interviews
Interviews with members of the Adi community also helped to understand more about the Adi people and the relationship among various Adi sub-groups.
A church official from Shimong area said that the people who live in the Tangam area (in Tuting Circle in Upper Siang) speak in Shimong dialect. He further said that Milang and Bokar speak very differently from the other Adi groups. A literacy program or any other language development program would be very helpful for these groups, he added.
Another speaker, who is Bokar, said that if we provided the Bible, Bible portions, song books, books, and other materials in their mother tongue, we would be most welcome and they would help us in whatever way they could. He said that, though the church uses the Adi Bible (which is in the Padam variety), people are not able to understand it. He himself uses the Bible in English and Hindi. Though this person has been living for 19 years among Padam speakers, he is unable to understand their language fully.
Another speaker, who is Ramo, said that they rarely read the Adi Bible because they can’t understand it. Even in worship services they use Hindi songs, and some Bokar and English.
5The two questions were, “In which area do you think the purest/sweetest Adi is spoken?” and, “Where is the second
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According to another church official, Milang can easily understand the Padam dialect, but Padam people cannot understand Milang. Milang are concentrated in East Siang, Upper Siang and Dibang Valley districts, and number approximately 11,000.
2.2 Language use
A study of language use patterns attempts to describe which languages the members of a community use in different social situations, called domains. Speakers were asked a number of questions about the various languages they choose to speak in selected domains.
The mother tongue was reported by all subjects to be the language used at home with family members, with children, and with neighbouring villagers (who are mother tongue speakers of the same language). For puja (worship), the mother tongue was reported to be used by six out of the eight subjects. Hindi shows a higher level of reported use with friends who are from a different group, with neighbouring villagers (if they speak a different language) and in the market.
2.3 Language attitudes and vitality
A study of language attitudes attempts to describe people’s feelings and preferences towards their own language and other speech varieties around them. Language vitality looks at indications of whether people’s mother tongue will continue to be spoken in future generations. A few questions were asked about these concepts.
Responses to the language attitudes questions were overall positive towards Adi. For the question, “What language do you want your children to learn first?” everyone said Adi, except for one person who would prefer his children to learn English first. All subjects were favourable towards reading and writing in the mother tongue—both for themselves and for their children.
There were corresponding positive attitudes towards Hindi. When it was asked whether it is good for a person to speak only Adi, everyone said no, it is not good. This is likely because people recognise the importance of knowing Hindi. In fact, seven out of eight people said that they need to speak Hindi (along with English) in order to get a job.6 However, speaking only Hindi appears not to be acceptable.
All subjects said no to the question of whether they would be happy if their child spoke only Hindi. In terms of language vitality, it was asked, “After 50 years, do you think Adi will be spoken?” All eight subjects said yes, definitely. And how would subjects feel if the younger generation stopped speaking Adi? Everyone said they would feel bad if this were to happen.
2.4 Bilingualism
Bilingualism is the ability to speak and understand a language other than one’s mother tongue. A few questions were included in the questionnaire to gain an overall understanding of Adi people’s
bilingualism levels. As mentioned earlier, eight subjects representing eight Adi groups were administered the questionnaire.
Six out of the eight subjects said there are people in their village who do not speak Hindi. These kinds of people are uneducated and older men and women. Four people claimed they could speak Hindi as well as they speak Adi, three felt they could not speak Hindi as well as Adi, and one person said she could speak Hindi half as well as she speaks Adi. Subjects were asked how well they understand the Hindi or Assamese programmes broadcast on radio and TV. Six said they could understand half. One person said 80 percent. Another said she could understand Hindi fully but Assamese not at all. Subjects said they use Hindi at the market, in offices and schools, and with outsiders.
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3 Conclusions and recommendations
Based on wordlists, recorded text questions, questionnaires and interviews, there is sufficient information to conclude that the language of some Adi groups, particularly Milang, is considerably divergent from other Adi varieties. Bokar, Pailibo and Ramo also appear to be quite different from other Adi varieties looked at in this research.
Based on questionnaire responses in the areas of language use, language attitudes and vitality, and bilingualism, it is evident that Adi is well used in many situations, particularly the home and village domains. It is apparent that Adi people believe their language will continue to be spoken in generations to come. Attitudes of Adi people are overall positive towards their mother tongue, as well as towards Hindi. Though the usage of Hindi is fairly extensive throughout the Adi region, there are people, particularly the uneducated and elderly, who have difficulties in understanding and speaking Hindi adequately.
The Adi New Testament is based on the Padam dialect. During the course of this research, a number of people commented that they and others cannot fully understand the Scriptures in Adi. In some cases the Bible in Hindi and English are used. Groups such as Ashing (Bogum Bokang), Bokar, Bori, Milang, Pailibo and Ramo may need separate translation work into their own mother tongue. Literacy work, which various people expressed an interest in assisting with, should be considered as an important complement to any language development efforts.
Largely because of difficulties in understanding the existing Adi Scriptures, people from different groups such as Bokar, Milang, Pailibo and Ramo expressed an interest and desire to have the Scriptures in their own mother tongue. In Rayang village in East Siang district, one person said his group, Milang, do not fully understand the Adi Bible. He said almost all the Milangs are Christians, and that it would be very helpful if they could have the Bible in their own mother tongue—and if not the whole Bible, at least some books or portions.
For certain Adi groups such as Minyong, Pasi and Shimong, it is believed that the current New Testament in the Padam variety may effectively be used. Understanding of Padam seems to be adequate among these groups. These groups also do not appear to have negative attitudes toward the Adi-Padam variety. There are other Adi subgroups where research was not done who also may be able to understand the Padam Scriptures. Further study would be helpful to clarify these uncertainties.
Initiating Bible translation work among a particular group is a decision that should not be taken without considering a number of factors and implications. The intent of this survey among the Adi was to gather information, particularly in sociolinguistic areas, to help make more informed decisions about language development work.
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Appendix A
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
Consonants Bila-bial
Labio-dental
Dental Alveo-lar
Post alveo-lar
Alveo-palatal
Retro-flex
Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn- geal
Glottal
Plosive p b t̪ d̪ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k g q ɢ ʔ
Nasal m ɱ n̪ n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ
Fricative ɸ β f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ
Affricate pɸ bβ t̪s d̪z ts dz tʃ dʒ tɕ dʑ
Lateral l ɭ ʎ ʟ
Lateral
fricative ɬ ɮ
Flap ɾ ɽ
Trill ʙ r ʀ
Approxi-mant
w ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ
Consonant Diacritics
Aspirated h tʃh
Velar/Pharyn-
gealised ̴ l̴
Labialised w bw
Palatalised j nj
Ejective ' p'
Unreleased ̚ ʈ̚
Voiced ̬ k̬
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Vowels7
Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded
Close i y ɨ ʉ ɯ u
Near-close ɪ ʏ ʊ
Close-mid e ø ɤ o
Mid ə ɵ
Open-mid ɛ œ ɜ ʌ ɔ
Near-open æ ɐ
Open a ɶ ɑ ɒ
Vowel Diacritics
Nasalisation ̃ ẽ
Long ː iː
Centralised ̈ ö
7Wordlists and recorded text tests were transcribed using different phonetic systems, particularly in regard to
vowels. For the purposes of the data in this report and its appendices, the symbols /ə/, /ɐ/, /ʌ/, and /ɑ/ are interchangeable and no phonemic distinction is assumed.
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Appendix B
Wordlists
Lexical Similarity Counting Procedures8
A standardised list of 307 vocabulary items was collected from speakers at key locations for each of the speech varieties studied in this survey. In standard procedure, the 307 words are elicited from a person who has grown up in the target locality. Ideally, the list is then collected a second time from another speaker at the same site. Any differences in responses are examined in order to identify (1) inaccurate responses due to misunderstanding of the elicitation cue, (2) loan words offered in response to the language of elicitation when indigenous terms are actually still in use, and (3) terms which are at different places along the generic-specific lexical scale. Normally, a single term is recorded for each item of the wordlist. However, more than one term is recorded for a single item when more than one specific term occupies the semantic area of a more generic item on the wordlist.
The wordlists are compared to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound
correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1), and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two more are rather similar. The criteria applied are as follows:
Category 1
• Contoid (consonant-like) segments which match exactly
• Vocoid (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature • Phonetically similar segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones) which are
seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words Category 2
• All other phonetically similar non-vocalic pairs of segments which are not supported by at least three pairs of words
• Vowels which differ by two or more articulatory features Category 3
• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar
• A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item and position Blair (1990:32) writes, “In contextualizing these rules to specific surveys in South Asia, the following differences between two items are ignored: (a) interconsonantal [ə], (b) word initial, word final, or intervocalic [h, ɦ], (c) any deletion which is shown to be the result of a regularly occurring process in a specific environment.”
The following table summarises lower threshold limits for considering words as phonetically similar with a specified length (number of segments or phones):
8This description of lexical similarity counting procedures is partially adapted from that found in appendix A of
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Word Length
Category One
Category Two
Category Three
2 2 0 0
3 2 1 0
4 2 1 1
5 3 1 1
6 3 2 1
7 4 2 1
8 4 2 2
9 5 2 2
10 5 3 2
11 6 3 2
12 6 3 3
Some modifications to the lexical similarity grouping procedures summarised in Blair were also applied to the wordlists compared in this study. The need for this came about for several reasons. First, the wordlists were often not checked with a second mother tongue speaker of each speech variety. Second, the wordlists could not always be consistently elicited. In addition, the field workers’ phonetic transcription ability varied with skill, experience and their own language background.
Modifications to lexical similarity procedures
1. Root-based groupings: Wordlists were not always consistently elicited. In some cases, generic terms appear to have been given, while in other cases, more specific terms have been given. Also, verb forms were not elicited consistently with regard to person or tense. Because of these factors, it was often necessary to group words based on what appears to be a common root morpheme, rather than based on words as a whole. This applied to the following glosses:
2. Loose consonantal groupings: The field workers eliciting the words may hear and transcribe the sounds slightly differently and probably with increasing ability to distinguish similar sounds as they gain experience. Thus, some consonant correspondences have been liberally grouped as similar. Those considered category 1 include:
3. Metathesis: In the case of metathesis words were grouped as similar. 4. Other exceptional rules:
• Aspirated and unaspirated sounds are considered as category one. • Nasalised and unnasalised vowels are considered as category one. • Lengthened and non-lengthened vowels are considered as category one • Doubling of consonants is ignored in counting.
• Inter vocalic [ h ] is not considered.
• [ h ] in the end of the word didn’t consider in some cases.
After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar or dissimilar according to the criteria stated above, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. This procedure was repeated for all linguistic varieties under consideration in the survey. The pair by pair counting procedure was greatly facilitated by use of the Wordsurv computer program. It should noted that the wordlist data as well as transcribed texts included in subsequent appendices are field
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Wordlist Information and Informant Biodata
Adi-Milang
Symbol in Wordsurv database: A Date: 24/07/04
Village: Rayang District: East Siang Sex: F
Age: 40 Education: 3rd
Occupation: House Wife Mother Tongue: Minyong Father’s MT: Minyong Mother’s MT: Minyong Adi-Bori
Symbol in Wordsurv database: B Date: 15/07/04
Village: Bogu/Payum Circle District: West Siang
Sex: M Age: 20 Education: B.A Occupation: Student Mother Tongue: Bori Father’s MT: Bori Mother’s MT: Bori Adi-Ramo
Symbol in wordsurv database: C Date: 11/07/04
Village: Ngorlung District: East Siang Sex: F
Age: 18 Education: 6th
Occupation: House Wife Mother Tongue: Ramo Father’s MT: Ramo Mother’s MT: Ramo Adi-Milang
Symbol in wordsurv database: D Date: 14/07/04
Village: Milang District: Upper Siang Sex: M
Age: 25 Education: B.A Occupation: Student Mother Tongue: Milang Father’s MT: Milang Mother’s MT: Milang
Adi-Pailibo
Symbol in wordsurv database: E Date: 15/07/04
Village: Irgo District: West Siang Sex: F
Age: 26
Education: M.A
Occupation: Govt. Service (Teacher) Mother Tongue: Pailibo
Father’s MT: Pailibo Mother’s MT: Pailibo Adi-Ashing
Symbol in wordsurv database: F Date: 17/07/04
Village: Ningging District: Upper Siang Sex: M
Age: 48 Education: 7th
Occupation: Govt.Service
Mother Tongue: Bogum Bokang (Ashing) Father’s MT: Bogum Bokang (Ashing) Mother’s MT: Bogum Bokang (Ashing) Adi-Padam
Symbol in wordsurv database: G Date: 16/07/04
Village: Siluk District: East Siang Sex: M
Age: 30
Education: 10th Occupation: Farmer Mother Tongue: Padam Father’s MT: Padam Mother’s MT: Padam Adi-Shimong
Symbol in wordsurv database: H Date: 17/07/04
Village: Mobuk District: Upper Siang Sex: M
Age: 21 Education: B.A Occupation: Student Mother Tongue: Shimong Father’s MT: Shimong Mother’s MT: Shimong
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Adi-Bokar
Symbol in wordsurv database: I Date: 16/07/04
Village: Manigong District: West Siang Sex: M
Age: 42
Education: 10th
Occupation: Govt.Service Mother Tongue: Bokar Father’s MT: Bokar Mother’s MT: Bokar
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Wordlist Transcriptions Abbreviations:
MN = Minyong BR = Bori RM = Ramo ML = Milang PL = Pailibo
AS = Ashing (Bogunm Bokang)
PD = Padam SM = Shimong BK = Bokar
The number in front of each word indicates lexical similarity as described in appendix B
1. sky
MN 1 t̪aləŋ BR 1 t̪aləŋ RM 2 med̪omo ML 1 t̪allə PL 1 t̪allə AS 1 t̪aləŋ PD 1 t̪aləŋ SM 1 t̪aləŋ BK 2 med̪oŋmo 2. sun
MN 1 d̪oŋi BR 1 d̪oŋi RM 1 d̪oŋi
ML 2 məɾuŋ
PL 1 d̪oŋi AS 1 d̪oŋi PD 1 d̪oŋi SM 1 d̪oŋi BK 1 d̪õɲi 3. moon
MN 1 polo
BR 1 polo
RM 1 põlo
ML 1 polu
PL 1 polo
AS 1 polo
PD 1 polo
SM 1 polo
BK 1 põlo
4. star
MN 1 t̪akaɾ
BR 1 t̪akəɾ RM 1 t̪akʌɾ ML 1 t̪akaɾ PL 1 t̪akəɾ AS 1 t̪akəɾ PD 1 t̪akaɾ SM 1 t̪akaɾ BK 1 t̪akaɾ 5. cloud
MN 1 d̪omuk
BR 2 hapon
RM 1 d̪omuk
ML 1 amuk
PL 1 d̪omuk AS 1 d̪omuk PD 1 d̪omuk SM 1 d̪omuk BK 1 d̪õmuk 6. rain
MN 1 pəd̪oŋ BR 1 pəd̪oŋ RM 1 med̪oŋ ML 2 badʒo PL 3 ɲid̪o AS 1 pəd̪oŋ PD 1 pəd̪oŋ SM 1 pəd̪oŋ BK 1 med̪oŋ 7. rainbow
MN 1 muɾeŋ
BR 1 muɾe RM 1 uɾe ML 2 bəkəbəle PL 1 uɾe
AS 1 mɯɾeŋ
PD 1 muɾe
SM 1 muɾeŋ
BK 1 uɾe 8. wind
MN 1 d̪oji BR 1 d̪oji RM 2 ɲilu
3 ɲilu ML 2 ləluŋ
PL 3 ilu
AS 1 d̪oji
PD 1 d̪oji 4 aʃar SM 1 d̪oji BK 2 ɲuluŋ 9. lightning
MN 1 jaɾi BR 1 joɾi RM 2 d̪ojak
ML 3 maɾlɯŋkapən PL 2 d̪ojak
AS 1 jaɾi PD 1 jaɾi SM 1 jaːɾi BK 2 d̪ojap 10. thunder MN 1 d̪omɯɾ BR 1 d̪omɯɾ RM 3 d̪oŋgum ML 1 dʒomaɾ PL 2 d̪obum AS 1 d̪omɯɾjaɾi PD 1 d̪omɯɾ SM 1 d̪oːmɯɾ BK 3 d̪oŋgum 11. sea
MN 0 noentry BR 0 noentry RM 1 t̪əbənaiʃ ML 0 no entry PL 0 no entry AS 0 no entry PD 2 ʃɯjəŋ SM 0 no entry BK 0 no entry 12. mountain
MN 2 dit̪ə
BR 1 ad̪i
RM 2 d̪it̪uŋ
ML 1 ade
PL 1 ad̪i
AS 1 ad̪i
PD 2 d̪ɯt̪ə SM 2 d̪it̪ə BK 2 d̪it̪uŋ 13. water
MN 1 aʃɯ
(18)
RM 1 iʃ
ML 1 aʃɯ
PL 1 isi
AS 1 aʃɯ
PD 1 aʃɯ
SM 1 aʃɯ
BK 1 isi
14. river
MN 1 koɾoŋ
BR 3 ʃijon RM 4 tʃot̪oŋ ML 1 koɾo PL 3 ʃit̪o
AS 5 konə
PD 1 koɾoŋ
SM 1 koɾoŋ
BK 2 iʃijumbuŋ 15. soil/ground
MN 1 kedeŋ BR 1 ked̪e RM 1 ked̪e
ML 2 kaɾ
PL 1 ked̪e AS 1 kəd̪eŋ PD 1 kedeŋ SM 1 kədʒeŋ BK 1 kəd̪e 16. mud
MN 1 hɯjuŋ
BR 1 ʃijuŋ RM 1 ʃod̪o
ML 2 sokh
PL 3 sidʒa AS 1 d̪ejjuŋ PD 1 hijjuŋ 1 ʃujuŋ SM 1 hijjuŋ BK 1 ʃod̪o 17. dust
MN 1 dʒekɯɾt̪amɯɾ
BR 2 asukamuk
RM 3 mɯd̪bu
ML 4 amuk
PL 3 mibbu
AS 4 pəmuk PD 4 pəmuk SM 1 t̪akɯɾt̪amɯɾ BK 3 mid̪bu 18. stone
MN 1 əlɯŋ
BR 1 əlɯŋ
RM 1 ɯlɯŋ
ML 2 d̪abu
PL 1 ɯlɯ
AS 1 ɯlɯŋ
PD 1 əlɯŋ SM 2 d̪abu
BK 1 ɯlɯŋ
19. sand
MN 1 hɯjɯ BR 2 ʃij RM 4 lɯjit̪ ML 3 ʃapi PL 2 ʃili
3 ʃili 4 ʃili AS 2 ʃiji 3 ʃiji 4 ʃiji
PD 5 bali
SM 1 hɯjjə
BK 2 ʃi
20. gold
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry RM 1 dʒət̪ət̪əɾbum ML 0 no entry PL 2 ŋiseɾ AS 3 ʃuna PD 0 no entry SM 0 no entry
BK 2 ʃəɾ
21. silver
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry RM 1 dʒet̪ət̪əɾbum ML 0 no entry PL 2 ŋiseɾ AS 3 tʃand̪i PD 0 no entry SM 0 no entry
BK 4 ɲi
22. today
MN 1 hɯlo BR 1 ʃɯlo RM 1 ʃolo
ML 2 ɯnə
PL 1 ʃɯlo AS 1 ʃilo PD 1 ʃilo
SM 1 hilo
BK 1 ʃolo 23. yesterday MN 1 məlo BR 1 məlo
RM 1 mojo
ML 2 banə
PL 1 məlo AS 1 məlo PD 1 məlo SM 1 məlo BK 1 məjo 24. tomorrow
MN 1 ɲampo
BR 2 ɾoɾo RM 2 aɾo ML 3 tʃõnaph PL 2 aɾo
AS 1 ɲampo
PD 1 ɲampo
SM 1 ɲampo
BK 2 aɾe 25. week
MN 0 no entry BR 1 ɲopə
RM 2 hopta
ML 0 no entry PL 1 ɲopə AS 0 no entry
PD 2 hopta
SM 2 hopta
BK 0 no entry 26. month
MN 1 polo
BR 1 polo
RM 1 põlo
ML 1 polu
PL 1 polo
AS 1 polo
PD 1 polo
SM 1 polo
BK 1 põlo
27. year
MN 1 d̪ɯt̪ak BR 1 d̪ɯt̪ak
RM 2 eɲɯ
ML 3 t̪aɾak
PL 2 aɲɯ
AS 1 d̪ɯt̪ak PD 1 d̪ɯt̪ak SM 1 d̪ɯt̪ak
(19)
BK 4 ɲiŋ 28. day
MN 1 loŋa
BR 1 lo
RM 1 alo
ML 2 ane
PL 1 alo
AS 1 loŋə
PD 1 loŋə
SM 1 loŋə
BK 1 lo
29. morning
MN 1 ɾo
BR 1 ɾo
RM 1 aɾo
ML 2 anap
PL 1 aɾo
AS 1 ɾokom
PD 1 ɾo
SM 1 ɾo
BK 1 aɾo 30. noon
MN 1 loŋa
BR 2 d̪oɲɯ̃kɯd̪ɯ
RM 3 ʃɯjum
ML 4 nəɾa PL 1 aloloji AS 1 loŋəjiɾaŋ PD 1 loŋəɾadʒaŋ SM 1 loŋəjiɾaŋ BK 1 lopoŋ 31. evening
MN 1 jumd̪əŋ
BR 1 jumə
RM 1 ʃujum
ML 1 ajem
2 ajem PL 2 ad̪um
AS 1 jumə
PD 2 ad̪əŋ SM 1 jumd̪əŋ
BK 1 ajum
2 ajum 32. night
MN 1 jo
BR 1 jo
RM 2 kənə
ML 1 aju
PL 2 kənə AS 1 jomaŋ
PD 1 jo
SM 1 jo
BK 1 ajo
33. paddy rice
MN 1 ammo
BR 2 anʃik
RM 1 am
ML 3 pimɾumu PL 1 amʃɯk
2 amʃɯk
AS 1 ammo
PD 1 am
SM 1 ammo
BK 1 amʃɯk 2 amʃɯk 34. uncooked rice MN 1 d̪obɪn BR 1 abɯn
RM 2 amə
ML 3 d̪ukɯ
PL 1 ambin
AS 1 ambin
PD 1 ambɯn SM 1 ambɯn
BK 2 amə
35. cooked rice
MN 1 amah
BR 1 amə
4 apin
RM 2 akke
ML 3 d̪una PL 2 d̪okke
AS 1 amə
4 apin
PD 4 apim
SM 4 apin
BK 2 akke
36. Wheat
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry
RM 1 ompiɾ
ML 0 no entry PL 0 no entry AS 0 no entry PD 0 no entry
SM 2 gẽhu
BK 1 omjiŋ 37. corn
MN 1 həʔa
BR 2 papo
RM 2 pepo
ML 4 ɾokʃin PL 3 t̪apu AS 2 ʃapə 3 ʃapə PD 2 ʃapa SM 1 həpa
2 həpa
BK 2 pepo
38. potato
MN 0 no entry
BR 1 alu
RM 2 d̪obuɾ
ML 1 alu
PL 2 d̪obuɾ 3 popse
AS 1 alu
PD 1 alu
SM 1 alugut̪i BK 3 poptʃe 39. cauliflower MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry
RM 1 kobi
ML 0 no entry
PL 1 kobi
AS 1 kobi
PD 1 phulkobi
SM 1 kobi
BK 1 kobi
40. cabbage
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry
RM 1 kobi
ML 0 no entry
PL 1 kobi
AS 1 kobi
PD 1 band̪akobi
SM 1 kobi
BK 1 kobi
41. eggplant
MN 1 bajom
BR 1 bajom
RM 1 bajom
ML 1 bajom
PL 1 bajom
AS 1 bajon
PD 1 bajom
SM 1 bajom
(20)
42. peanut
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry RM 1 bad̪am ML 1 bad̪am PL 0 no entry AS 0 no entry PD 0 no entry SM 1 bad̪am BK 1 bad̪am 43. tree
MN 1 əsɯŋanə
BR 1 əʃɯŋ
RM 1 ʃɯ̃n ML 2 haŋɲi PL 1 ʃɯnə AS 1 əsɯŋanə
PD 1 əʃɯŋ
SM 1 əʃɯŋ
BK 1 ʃɯŋne 44. branch
MN 1 aːk
BR 1 aːk
RM 2 hokkekh
ML 1 akh
PL 1 akkək
AS 3 agbe
PD 1 aːk
SM 1 aːk
BK 1 aok
45. leaf
MN 1 annə
BR 2 aboɾ
RM 1 ənɯ
ML 4 t̪annom
PL 1 anɯ
AS 1 annə
PD 1 annə
SM 1 annə
BK 1 anə
46. thorn
MN 1 t̪aːŋ
BR 2 pabu
RM 2 pəbu ML 1 t̪anu
3 t̪anu
PL 2 pabu
AS 3 t̪ad̪ɯ PD 1 t̪aːŋ SM 1 t̪aːŋ
BK 2 pabu
47. root
MN 1 ɑʔɯɾ
BR 1 apɯɾ
RM 1 pəpɯɾ ML 1 t̪apɯɾ PL 1 pəpɯɾ
AS 1 appɯɾ
PD 1 appɯɾ
SM 1 appɯɾ
BK 1 papɯɾ
48. bamboo MN 1 d̪ibaŋ
BR 2 ee
RM 5 ja
ML 6 ahu
PL 2 ee
AS 4 eŋ
PD 3 ej
SM 4 eŋ
BK 5 ja
49. fruit
MN 1 apɯaɾɯ BR 1 apɯaje 3 apɯaje
RM 1 əpɯ
ML 2 baŋɲiaʃi
PL 3 aje
AS 1 apɯaje 3 apɯaje PD 1 əʃɯŋaje 3 əʃɯŋaje SM 1 apɯaje 3 aɯaje BK 1 əʃɯŋaje
3 əʃɯŋaje 50. jack fruit
MN 1 bəlaŋ BR 1 balaŋ RM 0 no entry
ML 1 bala
PL 1 bəla AS 1 bəlaŋ PD 1 bəlaŋ SM 1 bəlaŋ BK 1 balaŋ 51. coconut (ripe) MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry RM 1 naɾijal ML 0 no entry PL 0 no entry
AS 0 no entry PD 0 no entry SM 0 no entry BK 0 no entry 52. banana
MN 1 koʔak
BR 1 kopak
RM 1 kopakh
ML 2 pagbe
PL 1 kopak
AS 1 kopak
PD 1 kopak
SM 1 kopak
BK 1 kopak
53. mango
MN 1 t̪aguŋ BR 1 t̪aguŋ RM 0 no entry ML 1 t̪ahuŋ PL 1 t̪agu AS 1 t̪aguŋ PD 1 t̪aguŋ SM 1 t̪aguŋ
BK 2 am
54. flower
MN 1 aʔun
BR 1 appun
3 appun RM 2 põpin
ML 1 appun
3 appun
PL 3 apu
AS 1 appun
3 appun
PD 1 appun
3 appun
SM 1 appun
3 appun BK 2 põpin 55. seed
MN 1 amɯ
BR 1 amɯ
RM 2 əlɯ
ML 1 ɾamɯ
PL 3 aje
AS 1 amɯ
PD 1 amɯ
SM 1 amɯ
BK 3 aje
(21)
MN 1 t̪abat̪ BR 1 t̪abət̪ RM 2 bəpi ML 3 pɯɾɯp
PL 2 bapak
AS 1 t̪abət̪ PD 1 t̪abat̪ SM 1 t̪abat̪
BK 2 bapi
57. betelnut
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry RM 1 t̪amul ML 0 no entry PL 0 no entry AS 0 no entry
PD 2 gujə
SM 0 no entry BK 0 no entry 58. lime (for betelnut) MN 1 t̪aɲio BR 1 t̪aɲo RM 2 tʃuna
ML 3 ɯŋʃun
PL 1 t̪aɲo AS 4 ɲoku PD 2 tʃun SM 4 ɲoku BK 1 t̪aɲo 59. liquor
MN 1 aʔoŋ
BR 1 apoŋ
RM 1 opõŋ
2 opõŋ
ML 3 aju
PL 2 opo
AS 1 apoŋ
PD 1 apoŋ
SM 1 apoŋ
BK 4 oh
60. milk
MN 1 gakɯɾ
BR 2 at̪ʃuŋ
RM 3 om
ML 0 no entry
PL 3 omo
AS 1 gakɯɾ
PD 1 gakɯɾ
SM 4 aɲun
BK 3 omə
61. oil
MN 1 t̪ulaŋ BR 1 t̪ulaŋ RM 1 t̪ulaŋ
ML 2 t̪el
PL 0 no entry AS 1 t̪ulaŋ PD 1 t̪ulaŋ SM 1 t̪ulaŋ
BK 2 t̪el
62. meat
MN 1 mənə BR 2 ad̪ɯn RM 2 id̪in ML 2 ad̪ɯn PL 2 ad̪in AS 2 ad̪ɯn PD 2 ad̪ɯn SM 1 mənə BK 2 id̪in 63. salt
MN 1 alo
BR 1 alo
RM 1 olo
ML 2 t̪apu
PL 1 alo
AS 1 alo
PD 1 alo
SM 1 alo
BK 1 olo
64. onion
MN 1 d̪ilap BR 0 no entry RM 2 pɪjadʒ ML 1 d̪əlap PL 3 dʒakup AS 0 no entry PD 1 d̪ilap SM 1 d̪ilap BK 3 dʒaʃuŋ 65. garlic
MN 0 no entry BR 1 t̪alap RM 2 dʒəkukh ML 0 no entry PL 1 t̪alap AS 1 t̪alap PD 0 no entry SM 1 t̪alap BK 2 dʒakuk
66. red pepper, chilli MN 1 maɾhɯ BR 2 dʒaluk RM 2 dʒəlukh
ML 1 maɾʃɯ
PL 2 dʒaluk
AS 1 maɾʃɯ
PD 1 maɾtʃɯ SM 1 maɾhi BK 2 dʒaluk 67. elephant
MN 1 hɯt̪ə BR 1 ʃitə RM 1 ʃɯt̪ə ML 1 ʃɯt̪a PL 1 ʃot̪ə AS 1 ʃɯt̪ə PD 1 ʃɯt̪a SM 1 hit̪e BK 2 mojiŋʃot̪ə 68. tiger
MN 1 hɯmjo BR 1 ʃiɲĩo RM 1 ʃimjo ML 2 pat̪hɯ PL 3 ɲoɾe AS 1 ʃimijo PD 1 ʃimijo
SM 1 himjio
BK 1 ʃomjeo 69. bear
MN 2 hɯt̪um BR 2 ʃit̪um RM 2 ʃut̪um ML 1 at̪ɯm PL 2 ʃot̪t̪um AS 2 ʃɯt̪um PD 2 ʃit̪um SM 2 hit̪um BK 2 ʃut̪um 70. deer
MN 2 hɯd̪um BR 2 ʃid̪um RM 2 ʃud̪um ML 1 ad̪um PL 2 ʃod̪um AS 2 ʃɯd̪um PD 2 ʃid̪um SM 2 hid̪um BK 2 ʃud̪um
(22)
71. monkey
MN 2 hɯbeŋ
BR 1 ʃibe 2 ʃibe RM 1 ʃebe
2 ʃebe
ML 1 abe
PL 1 ʃobe 2 ʃobe AS 1 ʃɯbej
PD 1 ibe
2 ʃibe SM 2 hibeŋ BK 1 ʃəbe
2 ʃəbe 72. rabbit
MN 1 ahuːpimuŋ BR 0 no entry RM 0 no entry ML 0 no entry
PL 2 kopu
AS 0 no entry PD 3 ʃit̪oɾud̪oŋ SM 1 ahipumuŋ BK 0 no entry 73. snake
MN 1 t̪abɯ BR 1 t̪abɯ RM 1 t̪əbɯ ML 1 d̪abɯ PL 1 t̪abɯ AS 1 t̪abɯ PD 1 t̪abɯ SM 1 t̪abɯ BK 1 t̪abɯ 74. crocodile
MN 1 hoɾmon BR 0 no entry RM 2 iʃbɾu ML 0 no entry PL 2 buɾu AS 1 ʃoɾmon PD 1 ʃoɾmon SM 0 no entry BK 2 buɾu 75. house lizard (gecko) MN 1 əkumuɲiŋ BR 0 no entry RM 2 ʃõŋkɯŋ ML 3 tʃobɯlɯ PL 4 ʃodʒɯɾ
AS 5 ʃomen
PD 6 ʃipadʒondʒo
SM 5 homen
BK 0 no entry 76. turtle
MN 1 raŋkop BR 1 mot̪oɾaŋkot̪ RM 2 t̪atʃɯpad̪ɯɾ ML 1 koʃuɾaŋkop PL 1 ɾakop AS 1 raŋkop PD 1 raŋkop SM 1 raŋkop BK 1 raŋkop 77. frog
MN 1 t̪at̪ɯk BR 1 t̪at̪ɯk RM 1 t̪ət̪ɯk ML 2 pud̪uk PL 1 t̪at̪ɯk AS 1 t̪at̪ɯk PD 1 t̪at̪ɯk SM 1 t̪at̪ɯk BK 1 t̪at̪ɯk 78. dog
MN 1 əki BR 1 əki
RM 1 ikki
ML 1 akhe
PL 1 ikki
AS 1 əki PD 1 əki SM 1 əki
BK 1 iki
79. cat
MN 1 mimikuɾi BR 1 mekuɾi RM 3 əli ML 2 kand̪aɾi PL 1 amikuɾi AS 4 billi PD 2 kand̪aɾi SM 2 kad̪aɾi
BK 3 ali
80. cow
MN 1 hoɯ
BR 2 goru
RM 2 god̪a
ML 2 goru
PL 1 ʃoə
AS 1 ʃoɯ
PD 2 goru
SM 1 hoɯ
BK 3 balaŋ 81. buffalo
MN 1 bəndʒak BR 1 bendʒak RM 1 bəndʒak ML 1 bendʒak PL 1 mendʒik AS 1 bəndʒak PD 1 bəndʒak SM 1 bendʒak BK 1 bəndʒak 82. horn (of buffalo) MN 1 ɾəbuŋ BR 1 ɾəbuŋ
RM 2 aɾəŋ
ML 1 ɾəbuŋ PL 1 ɾəbu AS 1 ɾəbuŋ
PD 2 aɾəŋ
SM 1 ɾəbuŋ
BK 2 aɾəŋ
83. tail
MN 2 ammjo
BR 3 ɲobuŋ
RM 2 ãmjo
ML 1 t̪ami
PL 3 ɲobu
AS 3 mebuŋ
PD 1 t̪ame
SM 1 ame
BK 2 amɲio 84. goat
MN 1 hoben
BR 1 ʃoben
RM 1 sobin
ML 1 ʃoben
PL 1 sobin
AS 1 ʃoben PD 1 ʃoben
SM 1 hoben
BK 1 sobin
85. pig
MN 2 əjək BR 2 əjək RM 2 əjək
ML 2 ajek
(23)
AS 2 əjək
PD 1 eek
SM 1 eek
BK 2 əjək 86. rat
MN 1 kəbuŋ
BR 1 kəbuŋ
RM 1 kubuŋ 2 kubuŋ ML 1 gabuŋ
PL 2 kobu
AS 1 kəbuŋ
PD 1 kəbuŋ
SM 1 kəbuŋ
BK 1 kobuŋ 2 kobuŋ 87. chicken
MN 1 pəɾok BR 1 pəɾok RM 1 poɾok ML 2 atʃu PL 1 poɾok AS 1 pəɾok PD 1 pəɾok SM 1 pəɾok BK 1 poɾok 88. egg
MN 1 ɾokʔɯ BR 3 pəpɯ RM 3 pɯpɯ ML 2 tʃitʃi PL 3 pɯpɯ AS 1 ɾokpɯ PD 1 ɾokpɯ SM 1 ɾokpɯ BK 3 pɯpɯ 89. fish
MN 1 əŋo
BR 1 əŋo
RM 1 õŋo
ML 1 aŋu
PL 2 məne
AS 1 əŋo
PD 1 əŋo
SM 1 əŋo
BK 1 õŋo
90. duck
MN 1 pədʒap BR 1 pədʒap
RM 2 hãʃ
ML 1 pədʒap PL 1 pədʒap AS 1 pədʒap PD 1 pədʒap SM 1 pədʒap BK 3 bat̪ok 91. bird
MN 1 pət̪t̪aŋ BR 1 pət̪aŋ RM 1 pət̪aŋ ML 2 t̪apiu PL 1 pət̪a AS 1 pət̪t̪aŋ PD 1 pət̪t̪aŋ SM 1 pət̪t̪aŋ BK 1 pət̪aŋ 92. insect
MN 2 t̪aʔumt̪aɾuk BR 1 t̪apum RM 1 t̪əpum ML 1 t̪apum
PL 1 apum
AS 1 t̪apum PD 2 t̪akomt̪aɾi SM 2 t̪akomt̪aɾi BK 1 t̪apum 93. cockroach MN 1 t̪akʔha BR 0 no entry RM 4 tʃatʃɯbaj ML 3 gabuŋnəbaŋ PL 4 tʃapʃiabi AS 2 t̪aːʃi PD 2 t̪akʃi SM 2 t̪akʃi
BK 5 pĩanẽkopkop 94. bee
MN 1 t̪aŋut̪ BR 1 t̪aŋut̪ RM 2 t̪əjt̪uŋ
ML 3 t̪au
PL 1 t̪aɲit̪ AS 1 t̪aŋut̪ PD 1 t̪aŋut̪ SM 1 t̪aŋut̪
BK 2 t̪ũŋ
95. fly
MN 1 t̪ajiŋ BR 1 t̪amit̪ RM 1 t̪əmit̪
ML 2 amat̪h PL 1 t̪aji AS 1 t̪amit̪ PD 1 t̪amit̪ SM 1 t̪amit̪ BK 1 t̪amit̪ 96. spider
MN 1 t̪aɾum BR 1 t̪aːɾun RM 1 t̪aɾumsom ML 1 poput̪aɾam PL 1 t̪aɾum AS 1 t̪aɾun PD 1 mopɯt̪aɾum SM 1 popɯt̪aɾum BK 1 t̪aːɾun 97. ant
MN 1 t̪aɾuk BR 1 t̪aɾuk RM 1 t̪əɾuk ML 2 paŋkəɾ PL 1 t̪aɾuk AS 1 t̪aɾuk PD 1 t̪aɾuk SM 1 t̪aɾuk BK 1 t̪aɾuk 98. mosquito
MN 1 t̪ahuɾuŋgu BR 1 t̪aɾutʃuŋgu RM 1 t̪əɾuŋ ML 1 t̪aɾuʃuŋgu PL 1 t̪aɾu AS 1 t̪aɾutʃuŋgu PD 1 t̪aɾuhuŋhu SM 1 t̪aɾuhuŋhu BK 2 t̪amit̪ 99. head
MN 1 t̪ukku BR 2 d̪uppoŋ RM 2 d̪umpɯɾ ML 2 d̪umpo PL 2 d̪umpo AS 2 d̪umpoŋ PD 1 t̪ukku SM 2 d̪umpoŋ BK 2 d̪uppɯɾ 100. face
MN 1 miŋmo
BR 1 mimo
(24)
ML 1 miŋmu
PL 1 ɲikmo
AS 1 mimo
PD 1 miŋmo
SM 1 miŋmo
BK 1 mimo
101. neck
MN 1 lɯŋguŋ BR 1 lɯŋguŋ RM 1 lɯŋguŋ
ML 2 alaŋ
PL 3 lɯpo AS 1 lɯŋguŋ
PD 1 alɯŋ
SM 1 alɯŋ
BK 1 lɯŋguŋ 3 lɯpoŋ 102. hair
MN 1 d̪umɯt̪ BR 1 d̪umɯt̪
RM 1 d̪um
ML 1 d̪uma PL 1 d̪umɯ AS 1 d̪umɯt̪ PD 1 d̪umɯt̪ SM 1 d̪umɯt̪ BK 1 d̪ummɯ 103. eye
MN 1 amik
BR 1 amit̪
RM 1 mikh
ML 1 amik
PL 1 aɲik AS 1 imit̪
PD 1 amik
SM 1 amik
BK 1 mikh
104. nose
MN 1 ɲobuŋ BR 1 ɲobuŋ
RM 1 ɲɛpum
ML 1 nubuŋ PL 1 ɲapuŋ AS 1 ɲobuŋ PD 1 ɲobuŋ SM 1 ɲobuŋ
BK 1 ɲapum
105. ear
MN 1 ɲoɾuŋ BR 1 ɲoɾuŋ
RM 1 ɲɛɾuŋ ML 2 ɾaɲu PL 1 ɲaɾu AS 1 ɲoɾuŋ PD 1 ɲoɾuŋ SM 1 ɲoɾuŋ BK 1 ɲaɾuŋ 106. cheek
MN 1 molum
BR 2 mimo
RM 3 ɾud̪in
ML 4 kemkem
PL 3 ɾud̪in
AS 1 molum
PD 1 mopum
SM 1 mopum
BK 3 ɾud̪in 107. chin
MN 1 hoglə BR 2 ʃokkoɾ RM 2 ʃokloŋ ML 2 tʃokku PL 2 tʃokt̪am AS 2 tʃokko PD 2 ʃokkoɾ
SM 3 ahok
BK 4 malə
108. mouth
MN 1 nɑʔaŋ
BR 1 nappaŋ 2 na ppaŋ RM 1 nappaŋ
2 nappaŋ ML 3 tʃaŋtʃi
PL 2 nappha
AS 2 ɲjappaŋ PD 1 nappaŋ
2 nappaŋ SM 1 nappaŋ 2 nappaŋ BK 2 ɲjappaŋ 109. tongue
MN 1 ajo
BR 1 ajo
RM 1 ajo
ML 2 ʃid̪al
PL 1 ajo
AS 1 ajo
PD 1 ajo
SM 1 ajo
BK 1 ajo
110. tooth
MN 1 iːaŋ
BR 2 hid̪uŋ
RM 2 hidʒuŋ
ML 3 ʃippa PL 4 idʒu
AS 1 ipaŋ
PD 1 ipaŋ
SM 1 ipaŋ
BK 2 hidʒuŋ
111. elbow
MN 1 lagd̪ukoɲiŋ BR 1 lad̪u RM 1 loʔd̪u ML 1 lagdʒu PL 1 lagd̪u AS 1 lagd̪ukoɲiŋ PD 1 lagd̪ukoɲiŋ SM 1 lagd̪u BK 1 lukd̪u 112. hand
MN 1 alak
BR 1 alak
RM 1 alokh
ML 1 alak
PL 1 alak
AS 1 alak
PD 1 alak
SM 1 alag
BK 1 alokh
113. palm
MN 1 lakɯjo
BR 1 alak
RM 1 lokpjio
ML 1 lakpiu
PL 1 laktʃo
AS 1 lakpjo
PD 1 lokpjio
SM 1 lakpjo
BK 1 lokpjio 114. finger
MN 1 lakkeŋ BR 1 latʃəŋ RM 1 lokʃəŋ
ML 1 lakke
PL 1 laktʃə AS 1 lakkeŋ PD 1 lakkeŋ SM 1 lakkeŋ BK 1 lokʃəŋ
(25)
115. fingernail MN 1 lagjin BR 1 lajin RM 1 lokjin
ML 2 lakhan
PL 1 lagjin AS 1 lagjin PD 1 lagjin SM 1 lagjin BK 1 lukjin 116. knee
MN 1 ləbɯŋpoːe BR 1 ləbɯŋ RM 1 ləbɯŋ ML 2 bjabaŋ PL 1 ləbɯ AS 1 ləbɯŋ PD 1 ləbɯŋ SM 1 ləbɯŋ BK 1 lɯbɯŋ 117. foot
MN 4 lət̪ɯŋ
BR 1 alə
RM 1 alə
ML 5 bjapiu
PL 3 ləʃo AS 2 ləpio PD 2 ləpio SM 2 ləpio BK 2 ləpio 118. bone
MN 1 aloŋ
BR 1 aloŋ
RM 2 lõpoŋ
ML 1 alo
PL 2 lopo
AS 1 aloŋ
PD 1 aloŋ
SM 1 aloŋ
BK 2 lõpoŋ 119. fat
MN 1 una
BR 1 hunə
2 hunə
RM 1 hunə
2 hunə ML 2 ahuɲi
PL 1 unə
AS 1 unə
PD 3 oph
SM 1 unə
BK 1 hunə̃ 2 hunə̃ 120. skin
MN 1 ajo
BR 2 aʃik
RM 3 epin
ML 3 apan
PL 3 apin
AS 2 aʃɯk
PD 1 ajo
SM 2 ahɯk
BK 3 apin
121. blood MN 1 ijji
BR 1 iji
RM 1 uji
ML 1 ajji
PL 1 uji
AS 1 ɯjjɯ PD 1 ijji SM 1 ijji
BK 1 uji
122. sweat
MN 1 ɯɾnam
BR 2 hanʃɯɾ
7 hɯɾbut̪
RM 3 hõãɾ
ML 4 kalʃi PL 5 aːɾuk
AS 1 ɯɾnam
PD 1 ɯlnam
SM 1 ɯɾnam
BK 6 hõŋhaɾ 123. belly
MN 1 kiːoŋ
BR 1 aki
RM 1 kipoŋ
ML 2 t̪ha
PL 1 kipo
AS 1 kipoŋ
PD 1 aki
SM 1 aki
BK 1 kipo
124. heart (organ)
MN 1 aʔɯ
BR 3 aːŋ
RM 4 hinoŋ
ML 2 hapɯ
PL 2 aːpuk
AS 2 apuk
PD 1 apɯ
2 apɯ
SM 1 apɯ
2 apɯ BK 4 hinoŋ 125. back
MN 1 lamku
BR 1 laŋko
RM 1 lamko
ML 2 ɾamə
PL 1 lamko
AS 1 laŋku
PD 1 lamku
SM 1 lamku
BK 1 lamko
126. body
MN 2 amɯɾ
BR 2 amɯɾ
RM 1 eɯ
ML 2 amɯl
PL 1 aɯ
AS 2 amɯɾ
PD 2 amɯl
SM 2 amɯɾ
BK 1 aɯ
127. person
MN 1 ami
BR 1 ami
RM 1 mi
ML 1 mi
PL 1 ami
AS 1 ami
PD 1 ami
SM 1 ami
BK 1 mi
128. man
MN 1 miloko
BR 1 ami
RM 1 mit̪uɾ 3 mit̪uɾ
ML 2 malu
PL 3 ɲit̪uɾ
AS 1 miloko
PD 1 milokoŋ
SM 1 miloko
BK 1 mit̪uɾ 3 mit̪uɾ 129. woman
MN 1 miməko BR 1 ɲimə
(26)
RM 1 ɲẽmə
ML 1 mami
PL 1 ɲimə AS 1 miməko PD 1 miməko SM 1 miməko BK 1 ɲə̃mə̃ 130. father
MN 1 jai
BR 3 at̪e
RM 2 abo
ML 2 abe
PL 2 abo
AS 2 abu
PD 2 abu
SM 2 abu
BK 2 abo
131. mother
MN 4 ummo
BR 1 aji
RM 2 ane
ML 1 aji
3 adʒi
PL 2 ane
2 ɲene
AS 2 anə
PD 2 ane
SM 2 ane
BK 2 anə
2 nanə 132. husband
MN 2 midʒiŋ
BR 1 milo
RM 1 melo
ML 2 madʒaŋ
PL 1 ɲilo
AS 1 milo
PD 1 milo
SM 1 milo
BK 1 melo
133. wife
MN 1 mimə
BR 5 mijəŋ RM 5 mejaŋ
ML 2 mase
PL 4 ɲie
AS 1 mimə
PD 3 meŋ
SM 3 meŋ
BK 5 mejaŋ
134. son
MN 1 ao
BR 4 miloao
RM 3 hoɾo ML 3 oɾu PL 3 hoɾo
AS 1 ad̪o
PD 2 ue
SM 1 ao
BK 3 hoɾo 135. daughter
MN 1 omə
3 omə BR 2 ɲiməao
RM 1 home
ML 3 oɾmi
PL 1 omə
3 omə
AS 1 omə
3 omə
PD 1 omə
3 omə
SM 1 omə
3 omə
BK 1 omə
3 omə 136. elder brother (gen)
MN 2 baabi
BR 3 bɯbɯŋ
RM 3 ebɯŋ
ML 2 baba
PL 3 bɯbɯ
AS 1 at̪ə
PD 3 bɯbɯŋ
SM 3 abɯŋ
BK 3 abɯŋ
137. elder sister (gen)
MN 3 mame
BR 1 ame
3 ame
RM 1 ame
3 ame
ML 2 au
PL 3 meme
AS 1 aːbi
PD 1 ami
3 ami
3 m mi
SM 3 meme
BK 1 ame
3 ame
138. younger brother (gen) MN 2 bɯɾo
BR 1 anɯ
RM 2 bɯɾo
ML 1 ani
PL 2 bɯɾo
AS 3 ŋaŋa
PD 1 anijaŋbɯɾo
SM 1 ani
BK 2 niɾo 139. younger sister (gen) MN 1 bɯɾmə BR 1 bɯɾmə RM 1 bɯɾme ML 1 baɾmi PL 1 bɯɾmə
AS 1 bannə
PD 1 bɯɾmə SM 1 bɯɾmə BK 1 bɯɾmə 140. friend (male)
MN 2 aŋoŋ
BR 1 adʒoŋ
RM 1 adʒen
ML 2 aŋo
PL 1 adʒen
AS 1 adʒoŋ
PD 2 aŋoŋ
SM 2 aŋoŋ
BK 1 adʒen 141. name
MN 1 amɯn
BR 1 amin
RM 1 emin
ML 2 ɾaman
PL 1 amin
AS 1 amɯn
PD 1 amɯn
SM 1 amɯn
BK 1 amin
142. village MN 1 d̪oluŋ BR 1 d̪oluŋ RM 1 d̪õluŋ
ML 2 himbu
PL 1 d̪oulu AS 1 d̪oluŋ PD 1 d̪oluŋ SM 1 d̪oluŋ BK 1 d̪õluŋ
(27)
143. house
MN 2 əkum
BR 1 əɾaŋ
RM 3 ugu
ML 4 anuk
PL 1 əɾa
AS 1 əɾaŋ
PD 2 əkum
SM 2 əkum
BK 3 ugu
144. door
MN 2 jabgo
BR 2 joggo
RM 2 japgo
ML 3 ad̪ɯm
PL 2 japgo
AS 2 jaggo
PD 1 əjap SM 1 əjap
BK 2 japgo
145. window
MN 0 no entry BR 1 kiɾki RM 2 majeŋ ML 1 kiɾki PL 0 no entry AS 3 kotʃuŋ PD 0 no entry SM 0 no entry BK 4 gudʒuŋaɾuŋ 146. roof
MN 1 mɯmio
BR 1 mɯloŋ
RM 2 namkoŋ ML 4 kjaɾkio PL 1 mɯlo
AS 3 kumɯŋ
PD 1 mɯloŋ
SM 1 mɯloŋ
BK 1 mɯ̃loŋ 147. wall of house MN 1 t̪aluŋ BR 2 t̪od̪ɯk RM 0 no entry ML 3 paɾd̪ə PL 4 ʃɯksi AS 4 tʃuppaŋ PD 4 ʃuppi SM 0 no entry BK 4 tʃipi
148. pillow
MN 1 d̪umt̪ən BR 1 d̪umpəɾ RM 1 d̪umt̪om ML 1 d̪umkən PL 1 d̪umt̪an AS 1 d̪umpəɾ PD 1 d̪umt̪ən SM 1 d̪umt̪ən BK 1 d̪umt̪om 149. blanket
MN 1 əga
BR 1 ədʒe RM 3 d̪ɯʃaŋ
ML 2 jambu
PL 4 ʃube
AS 2 jombo
PD 2 jambo
SM 1 əga
BK 5 pamʃu 150. ring (on finger)
MN 1 lakkap
BR 0 no entry RM 4 ʃɯd̪u ML 2 laktʃi PL 3 lakʃət̪age AS 5 suɾd̪ut̪
PD 1 lakkap
SM 0 no entry BK 6 tʃiŋd̪u 151. clothing
MN 4 gənaməga BR 1 ədʒe RM 1 edʒekonam
ML 5 agu
PL 1 ədʒəəjok
AS 2 əga
PD 2 əgə 5 əgə SM 3 əbəgaluk BK 1 edʒekonam 152. cloth
MN 2 əga
BR 3 ədʒe RM 3 edʒe
ML 1 agu
PL 3 ədʒe
AS 2 əga
PD 1 əgə 2 əgə
SM 2 əga
BK 3 edʒe 153. medicine MN 3 kuʃeɾeŋ BR 2 d̪obaj RM 2 d̪obaj ML 3 kuseɾe
PL 1 men
AS 3 kuʃeɾeŋ PD 3 kuʃeɾeŋ SM 3 kuheɾeŋ BK 2 d̪obaj 154. paper
MN 1 kakot̪ BR 1 kagoʃ RM 1 kagədʒ ML 1 kakot̪ PL 1 kagoʃ AS 1 kakot̪ PD 1 kakot̪ SM 1 kakot̪ BK 1 kagoʃ 155. needle
MN 1 koɲɯŋ
BR 2 pəʃɯ
RM 2 pisi
ML 2 pesi
PL 2 pisi
AS 2 pəʃɯ
PD 2 pəʃɯ
SM 2 pəhi BK 2 pɯsɯ 156. thread
MN 2 ənno BR 6 t̪atʃak
RM 1 un
ML 3 aɲiu PL 4 nət̪u AS 2 ənno PD 2 ənno SM 5 nojiŋ BK 6 t̪apjak 157. broom
MN 2 hamʔək BR 1 əppək RM 2 ʃampək ML 2 ʃampek PL 2 ʃampek AS 1 əppək PD 1 əppək SM 1 əppək
(28)
BK 2 ʃampək 158. spoon (for eating) MN 4 lukuŋ BR 1 əgut̪ RM 2 əjup ML 4 lukuŋ
PL 2 ajup
AS 3 d̪aɾu PD 5 kot̪up SM 4 lukuŋ
BK 2 ajup
159. knife (to cut meat) MN 2 jokhɯk BR 2 joʃik RM 2 joʔʃikh
ML 1 jogu
PL 2 jokʃɯk 3 jokʃɯk AS 3 tʃɯkd̪o PD 2 joktʃɯk
3 joktʃɯk
SM 2 jokhik
BK 2 jokʃɯk 3 jokʃɯk 160. hammer
MN 0 no entry BR 1 mant̪ɾuŋ RM 2 məɾt̪um ML 2 maɾt̪ul PL 2 maɾt̪ul AS 2 maɾt̪ul PD 2 maɾt̪ul SM 2 maɾt̪ul
BK 3 t̪oh
161. axe
MN 1 əgɯŋ BR 1 həgɯŋ
RM 2 ja
ML 3 ɾapu
PL 1 əgɯ
AS 1 əgɯŋ PD 1 əgɯŋ SM 1 əgɯŋ
BK 2 ja
162. bow MN 1 ijjə BR 3 itʃe
RM 1 iji
ML 2 ɾabha
PL 1 uji
AS 1 ijpə PD 1 ɯjji SM 1 ijji
BK 1 iji
163. arrow
MN 2 əʔuk BR 2 əpuk
RM 4 upukh
ML 1 appha
PL 4 upukh
AS 3 pud̪ɯ PD 2 əpuk SM 2 əpuk
BK 2 opuk
164. spear
MN 1 ŋɯd̪ɯŋ 2 ŋɯd̪ɯŋ BR 2 mɯd̪ɯk
RM 3 nɯbuŋ
ML 4 ɾad̪aŋ PL 3 nɯbu
AS 1 ɯnɯŋ
PD 1 gɯnɯŋ SM 1 ŋɯd̪ɯŋ 2 ŋɯd̪ɯŋ BK 3 nɯŋbuŋ 165. fire
MN 1 əmə
BR 1 əmə
RM 1 em
ML 1 ami
PL 1 əmə
AS 1 əmə
PD 1 əmə
SM 1 əmə
BK 1 əmə
166. ashes
MN 3 mət̪ʔi BR 1 məpi RM 2 mid̪bu
ML 1 mipi
PL 3 mitʃo AS 1 məpio PD 1 məpi SM 1 mət̪pi 3 mət̪pi BK 1 məpio 167. smoke
MN 1 məjin BR 1 məjin
RM 1 məjin
ML 2 mɯkkhɯ
PL 1 məjin
AS 2 mɯkkhɯ
PD 2 mɯkkhɯ
SM 2 mɯkkhɯ
BK 2 mɯkkhɯ
168. candle
MN 0 no entry BR 0 no entry RM 0 no entry ML 0 no entry PL 0 no entry AS 0 no entry PD 0 no entry SM 0 no entry BK 0 no entry 169. boat
MN 2 əlluŋ
BR 3 ʃɯpɯ
RM 1 nau
ML 4 ət̪kuŋ
PL 3 ʃɯpɯ
AS 3 ʃɯpɯ
PD 4 ət̪kuŋ SM 4 ət̪kuŋ
BK 3 ʃɯpɯ
170. road
MN 2 d̪aːt̪ə BR 3 bəd̪aŋ RM 4 lamt̪ə ML 2 d̪apɯ
PL 1 ali
AS 2 daːpɯ PD 2 d̪apɯ SM 2 d̪apɯ
BK 4 lambə
171. path
MN 1 bəd̪aŋ BR 1 bəd̪aŋ
RM 2 lambə
ML 1 bɯd̪a PL 1 bəd̪a AS 1 bəd̪aŋ PD 1 bəd̪aŋ SM 1 bəd̪aŋ BK 2 lamt̪ə 172. to go
MN 1 gɯnam
(29)
RM 1 innam ML 2 hiːt̪un
PL 1 innam
AS 1 innam
PD 1 ənnam
SM 1 gɯnam
BK 1 innam
173. to come
MN 1 anam
BR 1 anam
RM 2 õjenam ML 3 haːt̪un
PL 1 anam
AS 1 anam
PD 1 anam
SM 1 anam
BK 1 onam
174. to stand
MN 1 d̪aŋnam BR 1 d̪aːnam RM 3 ɾopt̪onam ML 2 d̪ajapt̪un PL 1 d̪aknam AS 1 d̪agnam PD 1 d̪aknam SM 1 d̪aŋnam BK 3 ɾobnam 175. to sit
MN 1 d̪unam BR 1 d̪uːnam RM 1 d̪unam ML 2 dʒuŋt̪un PL 1 d̪unam AS 1 d̪unam PD 1 d̪unam SM 1 d̪unam BK 1 d̪unam 176. to lie down
MN 1 d̪unohɯnam BR 1 d̪unonam
RM 2 happenam
ML 3 dʒuŋkat̪un
PL 2 apenam
AS 2 apenam
PD 2 apenam
SM 2 d̪upenam
BK 2 apenam
177. to walk
MN 1 gɯnam BR 1 gɯnam
RM 3 ind̪əbəj ML 2 hiːma
PL 1 innam
AS 1 gɯnam PD 1 gɯnam SM 1 gɯnam
BK 1 innam
178. to fly
MN 1 d̪ənam BR 1 d̪ənam RM 3 biaɾd̪əbəj ML 2 beɾma PL 1 d̪ənam AS 1 d̪ənam PD 1 d̪ənam SM 1 d̪ənam BK 4 bjaɾnam 179. to enter
MN 2 aːnam BR 2 aːnam
RM 1 ojẽ
ML 3 aɾahama PL 4 ɾabuanam AS 2 aːnam PD 2 aːnam SM 2 aːnam BK 5 naŋonam 180. to kick
MN 1 t̪unam BR 1 t̪unam RM 1 t̪unam ML 2 tʃima PL 1 t̪unam AS 1 t̪unam PD 1 t̪unam SM 1 t̪unam BK 1 t̪unam 181. to swim
MN 1 bjanam
BR 2 dʒanam
RM 1 bjonam
ML 1 bjama
PL 2 dʒanam
AS 1 bjanam
PD 1 bjanam
SM 1 bjanam
BK 1 bjonam
182. to see
MN 1 kanam
BR 1 kanam
RM 1 kõnam
ML 1 kama
PL 1 kanam
AS 1 kanam
PD 1 kanam
SM 1 kanam
BK 1 khõnam 183. to hear
MN 1 t̪annam BR 1 t̪ənnam RM 1 t̪anam ML 2 tʃuma PL 1 t̪ət̪nam AS 1 t̪annam PD 1 t̪annam SM 1 t̪annam BK 1 t̪anam 184. to wait
MN 2 t̪ojanam BR 2 t̪ojanam RM 1 khə̃janam ML 3 dʒuŋkala PL 2 t̪ojanam AS 2 t̪ojanam
PD 1 kajanam
SM 1 kajanam
BK 1 kjaŋnam 185. to cry
MN 2 kamnam
BR 2 konnam
RM 2 kapnam
ML 1 hɯma
PL 2 kapnam
AS 2 kannam
PD 2 kamnam
SM 2 kamnam
BK 2 kãpnam
186. to cook
MN 2 monam
BR 2 keːnam
RM 2 monam
ML 1 ɲuma
PL 2 kənam
AS 2 monam
PD 2 monam
SM 2 monam
BK 2 kə̃nam 187. to boil (water) MN 1 kiɾnam BR 1 tʃiɾnam
(30)
RM 2 əgut̪o ML 3 t̪utʃa PL 1 tʃɯɾnam AS 1 kiɾnam PD 1 kiɾnam SM 1 kiɾnam BK 4 kə̃nam 188. to eat
MN 1 d̪onam BR 1 d̪onam RM 1 d̪onam ML 2 t̪uma PL 1 d̪onam AS 1 d̪onam PD 1 d̪onam SM 1 d̪onam BK 1 d̪õnam 189. to drink
MN 1 t̪ɯnam BR 1 t̪ɯnam RM 1 t̪ɯnam ML 2 tʃaŋma PL 1 t̪ɯnam AS 1 t̪ɯnam PD 1 t̪ɯnam SM 1 t̪ɯnam BK 1 t̪ɯ̃nam 190. to sing
MN 1 goknam
BR 1 gonam
RM 2 gãnã
ML 3 gioŋma
PL 4 menmennam
AS 1 gognam
PD 5 miɾilunam
SM 1 gognam
BK 6 bennam
191. to bite
MN 3 ɾəknam
BR 1 gonnam
RM 1 gamnam
ML 2 ŋonma
PL 1 gomnam
AS 1 gannam
PD 3 ɾəgnam
SM 1 gamnam
BK 1 gamnam
192. to laugh
MN 1 ŋiɾnam BR 1 ŋiɾnam
RM 1 ŋiɾnam ML 2 ŋalma PL 1 ɲiɾnam AS 1 ŋiɾnam PD 1 ŋiɾnam SM 1 ŋiɾnam BK 1 ɲiɾnam 193. to speak
MN 1 lunam
BR 1 lunam
RM 2 bennam
ML 3 gaŋma PL 4 dʒabnam
AS 1 lunam
PD 5 ponam
SM 2 mannam
BK 2 bennam
194. to tell
MN 3 lubinam
BR 3 lubinam
RM 1 benbinam
ML 2 poluma
PL 4 mendʒinam
AS 3 lubinam
PD 3 lubinam
SM 1 t̪ombinam
BK 1 benbinam
195. to know
MN 1 kennam
BR 1 kinnam
RM 2 tʃennam ML 3 huːma PL 2 tʃennam
AS 1 kennam
PD 1 kennam
SM 1 kennam
BK 2 tʃennam 196. to forget
MN 5 kensikumanam
BR 1 mit̪pennam RM 3 mɯ̃põŋkumanam ML 4 miaŋpok PL 1 mɯppennam AS 1 mit̪pennam PD 5 kenʃijimanam SM 2 mɯɲokhinam BK 1 mit̪pennam 197. to sleep
MN 2 jupnam
BR 2 junnam
RM 2 jupnam
ML 3 ɯmma
PL 2 jupnam
AS 2 junnam
PD 1 ipnam
SM 4 imnam
BK 2 jupnam
198. to dream
MN 2 jummamanam
BR 2 jummaŋmanam RM 2 jupmõŋmanam
ML 1 ɯmma
PL 2 jupmamanam
AS 2 jummamanam
PD 2 immaŋmanam SM 2 immaŋmanam BK 2 jupmõŋmanam 199. to do/make
MN 1 inam
BR 1 inam
RM 1 inam
ML 2 luoma
PL 1 inam
AS 1 inam
PD 1 inam
SM 1 inam
BK 1 inam
200. to work
MN 3 ageɾinam BR 3 ageɾgeɾnam
RM 2 leginam
ML 3 ageɾluma PL 4 aŋoinam AS 3 ageɾinam PD 3 ageɾinam SM 3 ageɾinam
BK 1 inam
201. to play
MN 2 imannam
BR 2 imennam
RM 2 somennam
ML 3 kelima
PL 2 somennam
AS 2 imennam
PD 2 imannam
SM 2 imannam
BK 1 sõnam 202. to dance
MN 6 nit̪ommonam BR 1 ponuɳmonam
(31)
RM 1 ponumonam ML 2 mad̪aɾluma
PL 4 somennam
AS 4 somennam
PD 3 paksomonam
SM 1 ponuɳmonam BK 5 naʃinam 203. to throw
MN 1 əɾʔaknam
BR 2 joppaknam
RM 3 nanam
ML 4 juɾma PL 1 əɾpanam
AS 2 joppaknam
PD 1 əɾpaknam 2 əɾpaknam SM 5 bjaɾnam BK 6 oɾnam 204. to lift
MN 1 dʒoŋonnam BR 5 latʃaŋnam RM 2 d̪eiennam ML 1 dʒojaphma PL 1 dʒoɾəpnam AS 3 laɾepnam PD 1 dʒoŋonnam SM 1 dʒonam BK 4 ʃeːnam 205. to push
MN 2 nɯnam BR 2 nɯnam
RM 4 numanam
ML 1 namma
PL 2 nɯnam AS 3 nɯpaknam PD 2 nɯnam SM 2 nɯnam BK 5 nũmnam 206. to pull
MN 1 honam
BR 1 ʃonam
RM 3 tʃẽt̪unam
ML 2 senma
PL 1 ʃonam
AS 1 ʃonam
PD 1 ʃonam
SM 1 honam
BK 1 ʃenam
207. to tie
MN 1 ɾɯnnam
BR 3 jenam
RM 4 t̪aʔpanam
ML 5 jama
PL 6 puʃumnam AS 3 jənam
PD 2 eejnam
SM 1 ɾɯnnam
BK 1 pũnam
208. to wipe
MN 2 t̪ɯd̪bɯnnam BR 2 t̪ipbinnam RM 1 t̪ikkhanam ML 4 pekkut̪ma PL 3 t̪ippaknam AS 2 t̪ɯd̪bɯnnam PD 5 ɲot̪bɯnnam SM 2 t̪ɯd̪bɯnnam BK 3 t̪it̪kaknam 209. to weave (on loom)
MN 1 humnam
BR 1 tʃunnam RM 1 uʃumsumnam ML 2 tʃimma
PL 1 ʃumnam
AS 1 tʃunnam
PD 1 ʃumnam
SM 1 humnam
BK 1 tʃumnam 210. to sew
MN 1 omnam
BR 1 honnam
2 honnam
RM 2 homnam
ML 2 homma
PL 1 amnam
AS 1 onnam
PD 1 omnam
SM 1 omnam
BK 2 hõmnam 211. to wash
MN 1 əd̪bɯnnam BR 2 hɯɾbɪnnam RM 3 nikʔkhapha
ML 4 pamma
PL 5 ɯɾkaknam
AS 6 nunam
PD 1 əd̪bɯnnam SM 1 əd̪bɯnnam BK 5 ɯɾkaknam 212. to take bath
MN 1 ɯɾhɯnam
BR 3 mosusunam
RM 1 iʃsunam ML 2 hamtʃuma PL 1 iʃisunam
AS 1 ɯɾʃunam
PD 1 ɯlʃunam SM 1 ɯɾʃinam BK 1 hɯɾʃunam 213. to cut something
MN 2 lonnam
BR 3 peːnam RM 3 peːnam
ML 1 pima
PL 4 ganam
AS 4 gannam
PD 2 lot̪nam
SM 4 gannam
BK 3 peːnam 214. to burn
MN 1 ɾomnam
BR 1 ɾonnam
RM 1 ɾomnam
ML 2 giuma
PL 1 ɾamnam
AS 1 ɾomnam
PD 1 ɾomnam
SM 3 paɾnam
BK 1 ɾumnam
215. to buy
MN 1 ɾənam
BR 1 ɾənam
RM 1 ɾənam
ML 2 dʒaŋma
PL 1 ɾənam
AS 1 ɾənam
PD 1 ɾənam
SM 1 ɾənam
BK 1 ɾənam
216. to sell
MN 2 konam
BR 2 konam
RM 3 phuʔʃenam
ML 1 kuma
PL 4 puknam
AS 2 konam
PD 2 konam
SM 2 konam
BK 4 puknam
(32)
MN 1 d̪oʔionam BR 1 d̪otʃonam RM 1 d̪opioŋnam ML 3 t̪iuma PL 1 d̪otʃonam
AS 2 pjonam
PD 2 pjonam
SM 2 pjonam
BK 1 d̪opioŋnam 218. to lie, fib
MN 1 mənam BR 1 mənam
RM 1 menam
ML 2 jat̪ma
PL 1 menam
AS 1 mənam PD 3 jad̪nam SM 3 jad̪nam BK 1 mənam 219. to take
MN 1 lanam
BR 1 lanam
RM 1 lõnam ML 2 dʒakt̪un
PL 1 lanam
AS 1 lanam
PD 1 lanam
SM 1 lanam
BK 1 lõŋnam 220. to give
MN 1 binam
BR 1 binam
RM 1 binam
ML 2 ɾamt̪un PL 1 dʒinam
AS 1 binam
PD 1 binam
SM 1 binam
BK 1 binam
221. to kill
MN 1 pənnam
BR 4 ikenam
RM 2 mukhenam
ML 5 luat̪ma
PL 2 mokenam
AS 3 kejnam
PD 1 pət̪nam SM 1 pənnam
BK 1 mennam
222. to die
MN 1 hɯnam BR 1 ʃinam
2 ʃinam RM 1 ʃinam 2 ʃinam ML 2 ʃima PL 1 ʃinam
2 ʃinam
AS 1 ʃɯnam
2 ʃɯnam PD 1 ʃinam
2 ʃinam
SM 1 hinam
BK 1 ʃinam 2 ʃinam 223. to love
MN 1 ajanam
BR 1 ajanam
RM 1 ajanam
ML 2 ajanma
PL 1 ajanam
AS 1 ajanam
PD 1 ajanam
SM 1 ajanam
BK 1 ajanam
224. to hate
MN 1 mɯɾenam BR 2 kaŋkinam RM 3 kõlõɾnam ML 4 miaŋɯma PL 3 kaɾoɾnam
AS 5 ajamanam
PD 2 kaŋkinam SM 2 kaŋkinam BK 3 kõlõɾnam 225. one
MN 1 aʔiɾ
BR 2 akon
RM 2 akhɪn
ML 2 akan
PL 2 akhen
AS 2 akon
PD 3 at̪əl SM 3 at̪əl
BK 2 akhen
226. two
MN 1 anɲɪ
BR 1 anɲɪ
RM 1 eɲi
ML 2 nə
PL 1 aɲi
AS 1 anɲi PD 1 anɲi SM 1 anɲi BK 1 aɲi 227. three
MN 3 aum
BR 3 aun
RM 3 eum
ML 4 ham
PL 3 aum
AS 1 ad̪un
PD 2 aŋum
SM 3 aum
BK 3 aum
228. four
MN 2 aʔi
BR 3 appi
RM 3 epi
ML 1 pə
PL 3 appi
AS 3 appi
PD 3 appi
SM 3 appi
BK 3 appi
229. five
MN 1 aŋŋo
BR 1 aŋŋo
RM 1 aŋo
ML 2 paŋu
PL 1 aŋo
AS 1 əŋo
PD 1 pilŋo SM 1 piɾŋo
BK 1 õŋo
230. six
MN 1 akkeŋ
BR 1 akke
RM 1 ekhɪ
ML 2 saːp
PL 1 akkhe
AS 1 akkhɯ
PD 1 akkeŋ SM 1 akkeŋ
BK 1 akkhɯ
231. seven
MN 1 kənɯt̪ BR 1 kinit̪ RM 1 kɯ̃nɯ ML 2 ɾaŋal
(1)
6. a. Is there anyone in your village who does not speak Hindi?
b. (If yes) what kind of people (Male/female, old/young, educated/uneducated)? 7. a. Can you speak Hindi as well as you speak Adi?
b. On what occasions do you use Hindi?
8. How well do you understand the Hindi / Assamese programmes broadcasted on radio and TV (Everything/half of it/not at all)?
Language attitude and vitality
9. a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking Adi? b. (Only asked if answer to 9a is “happy/good”) Why?
10. What language do you want your children to learn first (If no children, if ever you had children)? 11. Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language?
12. Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue? 13. Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job? 14. Is it good for a person to speak only Adi?
15. a. Would you be happy if your child speaks only Hindi? b. (Only asked if answer to 11 is “yes”) Why?
(2)
Appendix D: Questionnaire Responses
Subject BiodataDistrict Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex
1 East Siang Adi-Milang 14/07/04 Maryang 25 Y M
2 West Siang Adi-Pailibo 15/07/04 Tato Village 26 y F
3 West Siang Adi-Bokar 16/07/04 Manigong 42 O M
4 Upper Siang Adi-Ashing 16/07/04 Ningging 48 O M
5 Upper Siang Adi-Shimong 17/07/04 Mobuk village 21 Y M
6 West Siang Adi-Ramo 11/07/04 Ngorlung village 18 Y F
7 East Siang Adi-Milang 23/07/04 Rayang village 30 Y M
8 Upper Siang Adi- BogumBokang 14/07/04 Miging 20 Y M
Subject Biodata continued…
MT F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E
Milang Milang Milang NA Milang Maryang 14 Years BA-I year E
Pailibo Pailibo Pailibo Padam Tato,W/Siang Pasighat 1 Year M.A. E
Bokar Bokar Bokar Bokar Manigong Pasighat 19 Years 10 E
Ashing(Bogum-Bokang)
Ashing(Bogum-Bokang)
Ashing Ashing Ningging Pasighat 2 Years 8 E
Shimong Shimong Shimong NA Mobuk Pasighat 1 Years BA-II year E
Ramo Ramo Ramo Pangge Regong Ngorlung 8 months 6 E
Milang Milang Milang Milang Rayang Rayang Since birth BA E
Bogum-Bokang Bogum-Bokang Bogum-Bokang NA Miging Miging Since birth BA-I year E Questionnaire responses
Q 1a Q 1b Q 1c Q 2a
Yes Padam, Minyong, Karko, Shimong, Pasi and Milang Very different Ashing
Yes Minyong, Padam, Milang(Yingkiong) Very different Milang, Not at all
Mix language Ramo, Milang, Upper Siang Very different Milang, few
(3)
Q 1a Q 1b Q 1c Q 2a
Yes Tuting, Miging, Mosing(Ashing) Same Not at all
Yes Milang Very different Milang area
Yes Padam, Minyong Very different Ashing, half of it
Yes Kuging, Mayung Very different I will not understand Milang
Questionnaire responses continued
Q 3c Q 4a Q 4b Q 4c Q 5a Q 5b Q 5c
Way of speech No NA NA Milang Milang Hindi/Adi
NA Yes Mechuka, Kaying(Payum Circle) Some difference MT MT Hindi/MT
It is pure Yes Payum to Tato Some difference Mt MT Hindi
They speak without mixing Yes Kuging village Very different MT MT MT
Because we understand them all Yes, Bokar Mechuka area Very different MT MT MT I can fully understand minyong Pasighat, Along, Ngorlung Very different MT MT Hindi I understand their language Bori,
Bokar-Yes
Kaying circle Some difference MT, mixed Adi Usually, Padam
Adi Language
I don’t know Yes Mishmi area Very different MT MT Hindi/MT
Questionnaire responses continued
Q 2b Q 3a Q 3b
Not at all Padam area Shimong
Not at all NA NA
I can’t say I can’t say Bokar
They also don’t understand Padam Minyong
They can understand all Maryang Shimong
Little bit Pailibo Galong
Not at all East siang district of AP Padam area, especially Mebo
(4)
Questionnaire responses continued
Q 5d1 Q 5d2 Q 5e Q 5f Q 6a Q 6b
MT Adi Milang/Adi Padam Yes Uneducated, old, men and women
Mt Hindi MT/Hindi MT/Hindi Yes Uneducated, old, men and women
MT Hindi Hindi Hindi and English No NA
MT Hindi Adi/Hindi MT Yes Uneducated, old, men and women
MT Hindi Hindi MT Yes Uneducated, old, men and women
MT Hindi Hindi Ramo No NA
MT Adi language Assamese/Hindi Adi Yes Uneducated, old, men and women
MT Hindi Hindi Bogum-Bokang Yes Uneducated, old, men and women
Questionnaire responses continued
Q 7a Q 7b Q 8 Q 9a Q 9b Q 10
No Market Hindi, half of it MT
Yes With outsiders Half of it MT
Yes Group discuss or worship Half of it English
Yes Office and bazaar Half of it MT
No Market Half of it Adi/MT
50% With outsiders Hindi full but Assamese not at all MT
No Schools and market 40% Adi/MT
Yes With outsiders 80%
Feel bad NA Feel bad NA
Feel bad MT should be learned
Feel bad We should not forget our own MT Feel bad Our MT should be kept
Feel bad NA
Feel bad I’ll lose my identity
Feel bad Because it is our MT MT
Questionnaire responses continued
Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 Q 14 Q 15a Q 15b Q 16 Remarks
Yes Yes English and Hindi
No No We must use MT Yes Positive attitudes towards own
MT Yes Yes English and
Hindi
No No NA Yes, definitely Good
Of course
Yes English and Hindi
(5)
Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 Q 14 Q 15a Q 15b Q 16 Remarks
Yes Yes Hindi and Adi No Feel bad Must know many language Yes Positive attitudes towards own MT
Yes Yes English and Hindi
No No MT must be known Yes Good
Yes Yes English and Hindi
Not at all
Feel bad Because they will forget own MT Yes Positive attitudes towards own MT
Yes Yes English and Hindi
No No Because English is also very important Yes, definitely Good Questionnaires Good Yes English and
Hindi
Not good
No Must know MT also Yes Good
Recorded Text Questionnaire responses
Number Variety 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 3a 3b
1 Ashing Minyong Pesing By the language Average NA Mixer of Minyong and Padam
Pronunciation
2 Bori Minyong Pasighat By his voice Good NA Yes NA
3 Pailibo Padam Motum and Mebo
Pronunciation Good NA Yes NA
4 Bokar Minyong Pasighat Common gathering Yes NA Yes NA
5 Ramo Minyong Ngorlung Tune, words Good NA Yes NA
6 Milang Padam Pasighat Words and sentences Good NA Mixed Pronunciation, words, sentences Recorded Text Questionnaire responses continued
4a 4b 5 6 7 Remarks
Not much different NA Half No May not be Little different
Very different Pronunciation More than 50% Daily No Very different
Very different Pronunciation, words 50% Two times No Very different
Few different In words 50% Daily Exactly I don’t remember Little different
Very different Pronunciation, words, style 60% Daily I am here for 8 months Very different Very different Pronunciation, words, style 30% Many times Many times Very different
(6)
References
Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig, eds. 2015. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Eighteenth edition. Dallas: SIL International.
Roy, Sachin. 1967. Anthropometrics of the Adis of East Siang District. Shillong: North-East Frontier Agency. Singh, K. S. 1994. Arunachal Pradesh. People of India. Volume XIV. Delhi: Oxford University Press.