PROS Rini Fatmawati The Making of English Assessment full text
THE MAKING OF ENGLISH ASSESSMENT
INSTRUMENTS
FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Dra. Rini Fatmawati, M. Pd.
Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta
2012
ABSTRACT
The result of analyzing the 2005/2006 national test for SMP/MTS was that the final
tests of English which correspond to the objective of teaching English in the thirdgrade of SMP Surakarta are most of the test items of reading skill and the final tests of
English which do not correspond to the objective of teaching English in the thirdgrade of SMP Surakarta are some of the test items of reading skill and all test items of
writing skill. it can be concluded that the objectives of teaching English that can be
achieved are only most of the objectives of reading skill, and the objectives of
teaching English that cannot be achieved are all the objectives of teaching listening,
speaking, and writing and some of the objectives of teaching reading skill. To know
whether or not the objectives of teaching English have been achieved, the English
assessment instruments are worth giving. The available ones can be taken or it is the
English teacher himself that have to make them. They depend on the technique of
assessment, viz. test only or test and non test, such as: observation, interview,
questionnaire, etc. They have to correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of
achieving the general ones contained in the Basic Competence (KD) and be arranged
in a certain order. The types of the specific objectives can be cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor objectives.
Introduction
English assessment instruments for Junior High School students are used to assess whether or
not the objectives of teaching English to them have been achieved. It is in accordance with
what an educational program states (Richards, J. et.al, 1985). One of what is stated is some
means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved. The educational
ends here are the contents of Competence Standard which are assessed through the Basic
Competence. The general objectives of teaching it are the contents of the Basic Competence,
and the specific objectives of teaching it are as indicators of achieving the general ones. The
general objectives of teaching it themselves are assessed through the specific objectives,
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340
whereas the specific objectives of teaching it are assessed by using the assessment
instruments.
The instruments usually used to assess the specific objectives of teaching English to Junior
High School students are test items since the technique of assessment is usually a test, not
non-test. The result of analyzing the 2005/2006 national test for SMP/MTS was that the final
tests of English which correspond to the objective of teaching English in the third-grade of
SMP Surakarta are most of the test items of reading skill and the final tests of English which
do not correspond to the objective of teaching English in the third-grade of SMP Surakarta
are some of the test items of reading skill and all test items of writing skill.
Based on the result of analysis, it can be concluded that the objectives of teaching English
that can be achieved in the third-grade of SMP Surakarta are only most of the objectives of
reading skill, and the objectives of teaching English that cannot be achieved are all the
objectives of teaching listening, speaking, and writing and some of the objectives of teaching
reading skill.
The Making of English Assessment Instruments
Test is one of the techniques of assessment the Junior High School English
teachers use to evaluate cognitive and psychomotor outcomes. According to Brown (2004: 3),
a test, in simple terms, is a method of measuring a person‘s ability, knowledge, or
performance in a given domain. It means that they need measurement instruments for
measuring their students‘ English ability to comprehend oral English, produce oral English,
comprehend written English, and produce written English. Besides, non-test is another
technique of assessment they use. According to Bloom, et.al (1981: 311), there are several
techniques included in non-test to evaluate affective outcomes. One of them is observation.
Teachers directly observe the students everyday in a variety of settings under all types of
conditions, and by observing the students in their daily routine, patterns of affective behavior
can be identified. The other one is unobtrusive technique. It is a related observational
technique and does not require the cooperation of the student in responding. Interview is also
included in non-test, involving a face-to-face encounter in which the interviewer asks
carefully developed questions of the student. In interviewing students, the interviewer
presents the question to them and records the answer. Open-ended questionnaire is also
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341
another technique included in non-test. This technique calls for a written statement which
may vary in length. Besides, closed-item questionnaire is included in non-test. The
questionnaire with fixed alternatives is similar to the structured interview except that the
respondents complete it without the aid of an interviewer.
Based on the technique of assessment they use, the English assessment instruments
can be taken for giving their students` evaluation, but the available ones cannot always be
used to evaluate them. Consequently, he himself has to make an English assessment
instruments to know whether or not the specific objectives have been achieved. They, of
course, have to correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general
ones contained in the Basic Competence (KD). It is in accordance with what Gronlund (1998:
8) says as to one of the principles that can provide a general framework for constructing
achievement tests that are most effective. Achievement test, which measures how much of a
language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of
instruction, is one of the types of test, and according to Hughes (1989: 10), achievement test
is of two kinds, viz. final achievement test administered at the end of a course of study and
progress achievement test given at the end of a chapter, course, or term. It means that
National Final Examination (UAN) is included in the final achievement test. One of the
principles is that achievement tests should measure clearly defined learning outcomes. The
learning outcomes here are defined as specific objectives, the type of which can be cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor objectives. According to Mager (1973), the formulation of the
specific objective must have the elements of behavior, conditions, and degree, and according
to Suparman (1997), students are the other elements it must also have. Therefore, they have
been defined clearly if they contain four elements, viz. audience, behavior, condition, and
degree. Besides, in the view of some testers, the content of a final achievement test should be
based directly on a detailed course syllabus or on the books or other materials used. It means
that the writing of it must be based on the syllabus-content approach, but it is possible for
them not to write it based on the course syllabus. It is better for them to know that syllabus is
well designed, and the books or other materials they choose should correspond to it in order
that the results of a test cannot be very misleading.
One of the English assessment instruments for Junior High School students,
notably for those in the third grade, is an English test item. It is the English test items the
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Junior High School teachers have to make if the technique of test is used. In making the
English test items, what they have to know is that instruction is the first part of the English
test. Through the instruction, who is tested knows what they are expected to do. According to
Bachman and Palmer (1996: 182), there are four essential components of the test instructions.
The first one is a statement of the purpose for which the test is intended. The different
purpose needs the different type of test, such as placement, diagnosis, achievement test, etc.
The second one is specification of the language abilities that the test is intended to measure.
In the test intended to measure different aspects of language ability, statements of the abilities
to be tested should be given in the specific instructions to the different parts. The example of
the statement is ‗This is a test of how well you can understand written English in lectures.
The third one is specification of the procedures and tasks. In doing the test, the test takers
have to follow the procedure of doing it. For the test consisting of several parts, there will be
general or specific instructions. It depends on whether the test follows the same or different
question format. In this case, each part can have different task type, such as short answer
questions, reading passage followed by short answer questions, etc. The last one is
specification of the scoring method, including criteria of correctness. The criteria for
correctness can be stated in the general or specific instructions. It depends on whether the test
including several parts will be scored in the same way or differently. In order that the
instructions are understandable, many considerations need to be taken. One of them is the
language and the channel through which the instructions are presented. The language
presented in the instructions can be the test takers‘ language or the target language. The
instructions are best presented in the native language if there is any doubt about
misunderstanding. On the contrary, they must be presented in the target language if the test
takers come from many different first language backgrounds. Besides that, the instruction
must be presented in the channel that is most appropriate to the purpose and abilities being
tested. The presentation can be oral or written, but it may be helpful for the test takers to
understand the instructions if they are presented both orally and in writing. The other one is
the need for providing examples. To facilitate test taking, the example of the English task can
be provided, particularly when the test takers are not accustomed to the specific task type, or
to complex question types. The need to pre-test the instructions with test takers is also needed
to be taken.
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The next thing they have to know is that the main part of the English test is, of course,
English test item. The test of English at Junior High School covers many skills, and it is in
accordance with what Heaton (1975) says as to testing English skills. He says that testing
English skills cover testing listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Those four skills belong
to the macro skills, whereas vocabulary and grammar belong to the micro skills.
In the first macro skill, viz. listening test, the listening assessment instruments are worth
knowing. They can be phoneme discrimination test item; asking the students to write the
letter of the most appropriate word for that picture, to write the letter of the most appropriate
picture, to put a circle round the appropriate groups of letters containing the same words, to
indicate which of the sentences are the same, to choose the written word which corresponds
to the spoken word, or to select the correct definition for the word spoken by the tester; stress
and intonation test item, asking them to indicate the syllable which carries the main stress of
the whole structure, to indicate the exchange which is inappropriate, or to select whether the
examiner‘s utterance is a statement, a question, surprise, annoyance, etc; the test item of
comprehension through visual materials, asking them to pick out true statements about the
picture, to select the appropriate picture being tested, to select the most appropriate picture, to
write down the appropriate letter for each statement, to do the instruction, to answer the
question, or to add to the incomplete picture pieces of visual information according to certain
oral instruction they are given; test item based on statements and dialogues, asking them to
choose the best option from four written paraphrases, to select the correct response from a
choice of four printed page, or to answer the third voice‘s question about the dialogue; or test
item of understanding talks and lectures, asking them to select the correct answer about the
talk, to complete the blanks from the talk they have listened to, or to answer questions on a
short talk or lecture.
In the second macro skill, viz. speaking test, the speaking assessment instruments can be the
ones enabling the students to read aloud, to repeat words, phrases, and sentences to which
they usually have to listen on tape; to transform sentences (e.g. positive to negative,
statements to questions, present tense to past tense, etc.), to add many words in the sentences,
to combine two sentences to be one sentence, to substitute a certain word in a sentence, to
respond to questions or statements, to construct sentences on the lines of a certain pattern or
group of patterns or to construct them using whatever patterns they wish, to respond to the
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tester by using a clue provided in the picture or to initiate the conversational exchange
serving as a stimulus provided in the picture, to describe the picture in a given time after
studying it for a few minutes, to continue to tell the picture that depicts a story or sequence of
events after being given one or two sentences as a starter, to discuss the picture with the
tester, to answer many questions on a certain topic, etc.
In the third macro skill, viz. reading test, the reading assessment instruments reading can be
matching test items; asking them to draw a line under the word which has the same meaning
as the word on the left, to recognize as quickly as possible sentences which consist of the
same words in the same order, or to identify the correct picture, to select the correct sentence,
or to select some of the sentences which match the picture; true/false reading test items,
asking them to put a circle round the letter T if the statement is true and to put it round the
letter F if it is not true or to put a tick √ in the box after each true statement and a cross X in
the box after false statement; multiple-choice test items, asking them to identify the correct
words presented in the context, to identify the paraphrase of a statement from a choice of four
or five, to answer only one comprehension test item on each reading passage containing only
a few sentences, to choose the word or phrase that best completes the statement according to
the information contained in the passage, or to answer the questions based on the passage;
completion test items, asking them to complete the sentences after reading the passage or to
complete the blank spaces in a reading text, to continue the initial letters of the missing word
to complete them in a reading text, or to complete them in a reading text by writing one of the
words given in each number; cloze procedure test items, asking them to fill in each blank in
the text itself by writing one word or more that fits in the blank after reading quickly through
the text; or cursory reading test items, asking them to answer the questions after being given a
limited time to read (reading speed), to answer a small number of questions concerning only
the major points and general outline of the text after being asked to glance through the text
and to note the broad gist of the contents (skimming), or to read the text for specific
information after being given the questions (scanning).
In the fourth macro skill, viz. writing test, the writing assessment instruments can be
composition writing test item; asking them to write free composition on carefully chosen
realistic topics; situational composition test item, asking them to write a reply to a letter, to
write an account using the conversation they have read as a guide, to write down the
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conclusions they draw from the figures about something presented in tables containing
information, to use a chart together with the information in the table to give a brief survey of
something relating to them, to use a note to write something, or to write a letter based on the
picture; asking them to replace the underlined words with the correct option, to complete the
sentence by choosing the correct option, or to complete it by writing one word or more;
objective test item of writing, asking them to write out the passage and to put in all the
punctuation and capital letters, to put the correct punctuation mark in each circle, to put a
circle round the letter of the correctly punctuated sentence, to write the words dictated by the
tester, to select the word which is incorrectly spelt, to write one or more letters in the spaces
in the words in which the definition of them is presented to recognize the correct words, to
identify (according to its letter) the part of the sentence in which a word has been spelt
incorrectly, to choose the grammatically correct English and representative English used by
an educated native speaker in a particular context in which it appears to replace some of the
available words underlined in the passage with much more suitable words, to match each
word in list A with a word in list B, to put the letter of the most appropriate sentence in list B
with the number of each sentence in list A, to select the sentences in the appropriate register
for the paragraph, to put a circle round the letter marking the beginning of one sentence
which they consider irrelevant to the paragraph as a whole, or to reassemble the scrambled
sentences in order to produce a coherent paragraph; or controlled writing test item, asking
them to write a similar paragraph using the notes they have been given after being given a
short reading extract, to rewrite a story given to them by copying with minor alterations,
changing the point of view, changing the style and register, or adding further information, to
practice subordination by linking the sentences involving subordination and coordination
features, using the connection given, or to complete the composition by writing several
sentences of their own after being provided sentences and clauses to help them to start
writing.
In the micro skill, viz. vocabulary, testing vocabulary can be via speaking, reading, or writing
(Valette, 1977). In testing it via speaking, the vocabulary assessment instruments the Junior
High School teachers have to make can be the ones enabling the students to answer the
questions which elicit the desired lexical items, to give a synonym for the words they listen
to, to continue the suggested sequence, to listen to a definition and to provide the key word,
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to respond to a given word by giving as many related words as possible within a six-second
interval, etc. In testing it via reading, the vocabulary assessment instruments they have to
make can be the ones enabling the students to select the sentence that best describes the
picture (using pictures), to select the appropriate category (vocabulary test out of context), to
indicate which of the words has the opposite meaning of the underlined words in the sentence
(vocabulary test in context), etc. In testing it via writing, the vocabulary assessment
instruments they have to make can be the ones enabling the students to look at the picture and
write out the names of the parts of it (using pictures), to write in the words that completes the
series (vocabulary test out of context), to construct the sentences using the words given
(vocabulary test in context), etc.
In the micro skill, viz. grammar, testing grammar can also be via speaking, reading, or
writing. In testing it via speaking, the grammar assessment instruments the Junior High
School teachers have to make can be the ones enabling the students to describe what the
teacher or classmate doing (using visual cues), to follow commands given in the cue (using
oral cues in the target language), to give the English language equivalents of the sentences
spoken in the native language (oral cues in the native language), etc. In testing it via reading,
the grammar assessment instruments they have to make can be the ones enabling the students
to indicate the proper articles, to complete the sentences, to determine whether the underlined
verb is the subjunctive or in the indicative, etc. In testing it via writing, the grammar
assessment instruments they have to make can be the ones enabling the students to complete
conversation, to replace the underlined words with the expression in parenthesis, to transform
sentences according to a specific pattern, etc.
Furthermore, the method of testing itself can be oral or written test. Speaking test always
constitutes oral test, and writing test always constitutes written test. Listening, reading,
vocabulary, and grammar test can constitute oral or written test. Oral tests are most often
given in the same way essay tests are conducted, except the student must talk rather than
write (Buttler 1972: 103). It means that the students are asked to tell all he knows about
something, so oral tests have the same difficulties as the essay ones.
The other English assessment instruments are observation seed, partial checklist, interview
item, open-ended question, ranking or forced choice item, and scales. In using the technique
of observation, observation seed is made. In making an observation seed, what is assessed
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must correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general objectives
contained in the Basic Competence. The specific objectives in this case are not cognitive or
psychomotor objectives, but affective objectives. The aspects assessed can include the
seriousness in listening, doing exercises, discussing actively, helping students‘ difficulties,
etc.
In using the unobtrusive technique, partial checklist is made. In making partial checklist,
what has to be measured can be school records, such as: attendance, tardiness, library
checkouts, etc., students‘ products, such as: papers, notebooks, etc., or physical evidence,
such as: voluntary seating arrangements, the library books or class materials that are most
worn from use, etc.
In using the technique of interview, interview item is made. In structured interview items,
many questions in a certain sequence are made, and each question is followed by the
alternative, whereas in unstructured interview, key questions without alternative are made.
In using the technique of open-ended questionnaire, open-ended question is made. In making
the open-ended question, statements which may vary in length are written. They can be used
to get at attitudes, beliefs, activities, and values and has been widely used to measure attitude
structure and socialization.
In using the technique of closed-item questionnaire, ranking or forced choice and scale can be
made. The questionnaire with fixed alternatives is similar to the structured interview except
that the respondent completes it without the aid of an interviewer. In making ranking or
forced choice, statements are made to require students to rank or choose in terms of their
appeal. Alternatively three or more statements are made to require them to choose among
them that one that is most appealing and the one that is least appealing. Another type of
forced-choice item asks them simply to check off from a longer list of statements describing
an activity, job, etc., a limited number that are most interesting, appealing, important, etc. A
more complicated form of ranking asks them to read through an extensive list of statements
and pick a fixed number that are most important or appealing, then go back and rank the
statements chosen in order of importance. A common item type is asking them to choose
from a point on a scale that corresponds to their answer to a question. The scales, which can
take many forms, consist of two or more points. For example, they might be asked to answer
yes or no to a question--a two-point scale-- or to indicate whether they strongly agree with,
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agree with, are uncertain about, disagree with, or strongly disagree with a particular
statement--five-point scale.
The English assessment instruments the Junior High School teachers have to
make must correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general ones
contained in the Basic Competence, but they have to be arranged appropriately, viz. from the
easiest one. To recognize the appropriate arrangement, what is included in each type of
specific objectives is worth recognizing.
According to Montague (1987: 16), the classifications of cognitive objectives are knowledge,
the ability to remember facts in a form similar to that in which they were presented;
comprehension, the ability to translate some knowledge into your own words; application, the
ability to apply learning to new situations; analysis, the ability to break down a situation into
its component parts and to detect relationship between the parts or a part to the whole;
synthesis, the ability to organize or assemble parts to form a new whole; and evaluation, the
ability to make judgments based on identified criteria or standards.
According to Bloom, et. al (1981: 305), affective objective is categorized into five types. One
of them is receiving or attending. It is defined as sensitivity to the existence of certain
phenomena and stimuli, that is, willingness to receive or attend to them. The second one is
responding. It refers to a behavior which goes beyond merely attending to the phenomena; it
implies active attending, doing something with or about the phenomena, and not merely
perceiving them. The third one is valuing. Behavior which belongs to this level of the
taxonomy goes beyond merely doing something with or about certain phenomena. It implies
perceiving them as having worth and consequently revealing consistency in behavior related
to these phenomena. The fourth one is organization. It is defined as the conceptualization of
values and the employment of these concepts for determining the interrelationship among
values. The last one is characterization. It is an organization of values, beliefs, ideas, and
attitudes into an internally consistent system. This goes beyond merely determining
interrelationships among various values and implies their organization into a total philosophy
or world view.
The psychomotor objective, according to School of Education at University of Mississippi
(2001: 1), is categorized into five types, and the categorization is the work modified by
Simpson, Grondlund, etc. The first one is imitation. It is an early stage in learning a complex
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skill, overtly, after the individual has indicated a readiness to take a particular type of action.
It includes repeating an act that has been demonstrated or explained and includes trial and
error until an appropriate response is achieved. The second one is manipulation. In this
category, individual is asked to continue to practice a particular skill or sequence until it
becomes habitual and the action can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
The third one is precision. In this case, individual has attained the skill and there is some
proficiency indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate performance, requiring a minimum of
energy. The fourth one is articulation. In this category, the skills are so well developed that
the movement patterns can be modified to fit special requirements or to meet a problem
situation. The last one is naturalization. In this case, individual starts to experiment, creating
new motor acts or ways of manipulating materials out of understandings, abilities, and skills
developed.
Conclusion
English assessment instruments the Junior High School English teachers have to give
greatly depend on the indicators stated in the curriculum. The ones which do not correspond
to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general ones contained in the Basic
Competence cannot be used to assess whether or not the goal contained in the Competence
Standard has been achieved. English teachers for Junior High School have to make them by
themselves if the available ones do not correspond to them. The ones they have to make must,
of course, correspond to them, but they have to be arranged based on the order of
categorization of each type of specific objectives.
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REFERENCES
Bachman, Lyle F. dan Adrian S. Palmer. 1996. Language Testing in Practice:
Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Bloom, Benjamin S., George F. Madaus, dan J. Thomas Hastings. 1981. Evaluating to
Improve Learning. USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Brown, Douglas H. 2004. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom
Practices. USA: Pearson education, Inc.
Buttler, F. Coit. 1972. Instructional System Development for Vocational and
Technical Training. USA: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.
Gronlund, Norman E. 1993. How to Make Achievement Tests and Achievements. Edisi
kelima. USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Heaton, J. B. 1975. Writing English Language Tests: A Practical Guide for Teachers
of English as a Second or Foreign Language. London: Longman Group
Limited.
Hughes, Arthur. 1989. Testing for Language Teachers. New York: Cambridge
University Press
Mager, R. F. 1973. Measuring Instructional Intent. Belmont, CA: Fearon Pitman
Publishers, Inc.
Montague, Earl J. 1987. Fundamentals of Secondary Classroom Instruction.
Columbus, Ohio: Merril Publishing Company.
Richards, Jack; John Platt; and Heidi Weber. 1985. Longman Dictionary of Applied
Linguistics. England: Longman Group Limited.
School of Education at the University of Mississippi. 2001. The Psychomotor
Domain.
http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/educ_school/CI/seced/psychomotor.htm. (June
15, 2005).
Suparman, A. 1997. Desain Instruksional. Jakarta: PAU untuk PPAI Ditjen Dikti
Depdikbud.
Valette, Rebecca M. 1977. Modern Language Testing. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Inc.
Research in Teacher Education : What, How, and Why?, November 21-22, 2012, UKSW
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BIODATA:
NAME
: DRA. RINI FATMAWATI, M. Pd.
BIRTH
: Surakarta, February 23rd, 1966
AFFILIATION
: MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY OF
SURAKARTA
S1
: English Education Program of UMS (1989)
S2
: English Education Program of UNNES (2006)
S3
: English Education Program of UNNES (2007 - …)
MAIL ADDRESS
: DOSEN JURUSAN BAHASA INGGRIS FKIP UMS
Jln. A. Yani Pabelan Surakarta
PHONE NUMBER
: 081 328 537 889
FAX NUMBER
: (0271) 7653311
E-MAIL ADDRESS
: [email protected]
Research in Teacher Education : What, How, and Why?, November 21-22, 2012, UKSW
352
INSTRUMENTS
FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Dra. Rini Fatmawati, M. Pd.
Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta
2012
ABSTRACT
The result of analyzing the 2005/2006 national test for SMP/MTS was that the final
tests of English which correspond to the objective of teaching English in the thirdgrade of SMP Surakarta are most of the test items of reading skill and the final tests of
English which do not correspond to the objective of teaching English in the thirdgrade of SMP Surakarta are some of the test items of reading skill and all test items of
writing skill. it can be concluded that the objectives of teaching English that can be
achieved are only most of the objectives of reading skill, and the objectives of
teaching English that cannot be achieved are all the objectives of teaching listening,
speaking, and writing and some of the objectives of teaching reading skill. To know
whether or not the objectives of teaching English have been achieved, the English
assessment instruments are worth giving. The available ones can be taken or it is the
English teacher himself that have to make them. They depend on the technique of
assessment, viz. test only or test and non test, such as: observation, interview,
questionnaire, etc. They have to correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of
achieving the general ones contained in the Basic Competence (KD) and be arranged
in a certain order. The types of the specific objectives can be cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor objectives.
Introduction
English assessment instruments for Junior High School students are used to assess whether or
not the objectives of teaching English to them have been achieved. It is in accordance with
what an educational program states (Richards, J. et.al, 1985). One of what is stated is some
means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved. The educational
ends here are the contents of Competence Standard which are assessed through the Basic
Competence. The general objectives of teaching it are the contents of the Basic Competence,
and the specific objectives of teaching it are as indicators of achieving the general ones. The
general objectives of teaching it themselves are assessed through the specific objectives,
Research in Teacher Education : What, How, and Why?, November 21-22, 2012, UKSW
340
whereas the specific objectives of teaching it are assessed by using the assessment
instruments.
The instruments usually used to assess the specific objectives of teaching English to Junior
High School students are test items since the technique of assessment is usually a test, not
non-test. The result of analyzing the 2005/2006 national test for SMP/MTS was that the final
tests of English which correspond to the objective of teaching English in the third-grade of
SMP Surakarta are most of the test items of reading skill and the final tests of English which
do not correspond to the objective of teaching English in the third-grade of SMP Surakarta
are some of the test items of reading skill and all test items of writing skill.
Based on the result of analysis, it can be concluded that the objectives of teaching English
that can be achieved in the third-grade of SMP Surakarta are only most of the objectives of
reading skill, and the objectives of teaching English that cannot be achieved are all the
objectives of teaching listening, speaking, and writing and some of the objectives of teaching
reading skill.
The Making of English Assessment Instruments
Test is one of the techniques of assessment the Junior High School English
teachers use to evaluate cognitive and psychomotor outcomes. According to Brown (2004: 3),
a test, in simple terms, is a method of measuring a person‘s ability, knowledge, or
performance in a given domain. It means that they need measurement instruments for
measuring their students‘ English ability to comprehend oral English, produce oral English,
comprehend written English, and produce written English. Besides, non-test is another
technique of assessment they use. According to Bloom, et.al (1981: 311), there are several
techniques included in non-test to evaluate affective outcomes. One of them is observation.
Teachers directly observe the students everyday in a variety of settings under all types of
conditions, and by observing the students in their daily routine, patterns of affective behavior
can be identified. The other one is unobtrusive technique. It is a related observational
technique and does not require the cooperation of the student in responding. Interview is also
included in non-test, involving a face-to-face encounter in which the interviewer asks
carefully developed questions of the student. In interviewing students, the interviewer
presents the question to them and records the answer. Open-ended questionnaire is also
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another technique included in non-test. This technique calls for a written statement which
may vary in length. Besides, closed-item questionnaire is included in non-test. The
questionnaire with fixed alternatives is similar to the structured interview except that the
respondents complete it without the aid of an interviewer.
Based on the technique of assessment they use, the English assessment instruments
can be taken for giving their students` evaluation, but the available ones cannot always be
used to evaluate them. Consequently, he himself has to make an English assessment
instruments to know whether or not the specific objectives have been achieved. They, of
course, have to correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general
ones contained in the Basic Competence (KD). It is in accordance with what Gronlund (1998:
8) says as to one of the principles that can provide a general framework for constructing
achievement tests that are most effective. Achievement test, which measures how much of a
language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of
instruction, is one of the types of test, and according to Hughes (1989: 10), achievement test
is of two kinds, viz. final achievement test administered at the end of a course of study and
progress achievement test given at the end of a chapter, course, or term. It means that
National Final Examination (UAN) is included in the final achievement test. One of the
principles is that achievement tests should measure clearly defined learning outcomes. The
learning outcomes here are defined as specific objectives, the type of which can be cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor objectives. According to Mager (1973), the formulation of the
specific objective must have the elements of behavior, conditions, and degree, and according
to Suparman (1997), students are the other elements it must also have. Therefore, they have
been defined clearly if they contain four elements, viz. audience, behavior, condition, and
degree. Besides, in the view of some testers, the content of a final achievement test should be
based directly on a detailed course syllabus or on the books or other materials used. It means
that the writing of it must be based on the syllabus-content approach, but it is possible for
them not to write it based on the course syllabus. It is better for them to know that syllabus is
well designed, and the books or other materials they choose should correspond to it in order
that the results of a test cannot be very misleading.
One of the English assessment instruments for Junior High School students,
notably for those in the third grade, is an English test item. It is the English test items the
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Junior High School teachers have to make if the technique of test is used. In making the
English test items, what they have to know is that instruction is the first part of the English
test. Through the instruction, who is tested knows what they are expected to do. According to
Bachman and Palmer (1996: 182), there are four essential components of the test instructions.
The first one is a statement of the purpose for which the test is intended. The different
purpose needs the different type of test, such as placement, diagnosis, achievement test, etc.
The second one is specification of the language abilities that the test is intended to measure.
In the test intended to measure different aspects of language ability, statements of the abilities
to be tested should be given in the specific instructions to the different parts. The example of
the statement is ‗This is a test of how well you can understand written English in lectures.
The third one is specification of the procedures and tasks. In doing the test, the test takers
have to follow the procedure of doing it. For the test consisting of several parts, there will be
general or specific instructions. It depends on whether the test follows the same or different
question format. In this case, each part can have different task type, such as short answer
questions, reading passage followed by short answer questions, etc. The last one is
specification of the scoring method, including criteria of correctness. The criteria for
correctness can be stated in the general or specific instructions. It depends on whether the test
including several parts will be scored in the same way or differently. In order that the
instructions are understandable, many considerations need to be taken. One of them is the
language and the channel through which the instructions are presented. The language
presented in the instructions can be the test takers‘ language or the target language. The
instructions are best presented in the native language if there is any doubt about
misunderstanding. On the contrary, they must be presented in the target language if the test
takers come from many different first language backgrounds. Besides that, the instruction
must be presented in the channel that is most appropriate to the purpose and abilities being
tested. The presentation can be oral or written, but it may be helpful for the test takers to
understand the instructions if they are presented both orally and in writing. The other one is
the need for providing examples. To facilitate test taking, the example of the English task can
be provided, particularly when the test takers are not accustomed to the specific task type, or
to complex question types. The need to pre-test the instructions with test takers is also needed
to be taken.
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The next thing they have to know is that the main part of the English test is, of course,
English test item. The test of English at Junior High School covers many skills, and it is in
accordance with what Heaton (1975) says as to testing English skills. He says that testing
English skills cover testing listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Those four skills belong
to the macro skills, whereas vocabulary and grammar belong to the micro skills.
In the first macro skill, viz. listening test, the listening assessment instruments are worth
knowing. They can be phoneme discrimination test item; asking the students to write the
letter of the most appropriate word for that picture, to write the letter of the most appropriate
picture, to put a circle round the appropriate groups of letters containing the same words, to
indicate which of the sentences are the same, to choose the written word which corresponds
to the spoken word, or to select the correct definition for the word spoken by the tester; stress
and intonation test item, asking them to indicate the syllable which carries the main stress of
the whole structure, to indicate the exchange which is inappropriate, or to select whether the
examiner‘s utterance is a statement, a question, surprise, annoyance, etc; the test item of
comprehension through visual materials, asking them to pick out true statements about the
picture, to select the appropriate picture being tested, to select the most appropriate picture, to
write down the appropriate letter for each statement, to do the instruction, to answer the
question, or to add to the incomplete picture pieces of visual information according to certain
oral instruction they are given; test item based on statements and dialogues, asking them to
choose the best option from four written paraphrases, to select the correct response from a
choice of four printed page, or to answer the third voice‘s question about the dialogue; or test
item of understanding talks and lectures, asking them to select the correct answer about the
talk, to complete the blanks from the talk they have listened to, or to answer questions on a
short talk or lecture.
In the second macro skill, viz. speaking test, the speaking assessment instruments can be the
ones enabling the students to read aloud, to repeat words, phrases, and sentences to which
they usually have to listen on tape; to transform sentences (e.g. positive to negative,
statements to questions, present tense to past tense, etc.), to add many words in the sentences,
to combine two sentences to be one sentence, to substitute a certain word in a sentence, to
respond to questions or statements, to construct sentences on the lines of a certain pattern or
group of patterns or to construct them using whatever patterns they wish, to respond to the
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tester by using a clue provided in the picture or to initiate the conversational exchange
serving as a stimulus provided in the picture, to describe the picture in a given time after
studying it for a few minutes, to continue to tell the picture that depicts a story or sequence of
events after being given one or two sentences as a starter, to discuss the picture with the
tester, to answer many questions on a certain topic, etc.
In the third macro skill, viz. reading test, the reading assessment instruments reading can be
matching test items; asking them to draw a line under the word which has the same meaning
as the word on the left, to recognize as quickly as possible sentences which consist of the
same words in the same order, or to identify the correct picture, to select the correct sentence,
or to select some of the sentences which match the picture; true/false reading test items,
asking them to put a circle round the letter T if the statement is true and to put it round the
letter F if it is not true or to put a tick √ in the box after each true statement and a cross X in
the box after false statement; multiple-choice test items, asking them to identify the correct
words presented in the context, to identify the paraphrase of a statement from a choice of four
or five, to answer only one comprehension test item on each reading passage containing only
a few sentences, to choose the word or phrase that best completes the statement according to
the information contained in the passage, or to answer the questions based on the passage;
completion test items, asking them to complete the sentences after reading the passage or to
complete the blank spaces in a reading text, to continue the initial letters of the missing word
to complete them in a reading text, or to complete them in a reading text by writing one of the
words given in each number; cloze procedure test items, asking them to fill in each blank in
the text itself by writing one word or more that fits in the blank after reading quickly through
the text; or cursory reading test items, asking them to answer the questions after being given a
limited time to read (reading speed), to answer a small number of questions concerning only
the major points and general outline of the text after being asked to glance through the text
and to note the broad gist of the contents (skimming), or to read the text for specific
information after being given the questions (scanning).
In the fourth macro skill, viz. writing test, the writing assessment instruments can be
composition writing test item; asking them to write free composition on carefully chosen
realistic topics; situational composition test item, asking them to write a reply to a letter, to
write an account using the conversation they have read as a guide, to write down the
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conclusions they draw from the figures about something presented in tables containing
information, to use a chart together with the information in the table to give a brief survey of
something relating to them, to use a note to write something, or to write a letter based on the
picture; asking them to replace the underlined words with the correct option, to complete the
sentence by choosing the correct option, or to complete it by writing one word or more;
objective test item of writing, asking them to write out the passage and to put in all the
punctuation and capital letters, to put the correct punctuation mark in each circle, to put a
circle round the letter of the correctly punctuated sentence, to write the words dictated by the
tester, to select the word which is incorrectly spelt, to write one or more letters in the spaces
in the words in which the definition of them is presented to recognize the correct words, to
identify (according to its letter) the part of the sentence in which a word has been spelt
incorrectly, to choose the grammatically correct English and representative English used by
an educated native speaker in a particular context in which it appears to replace some of the
available words underlined in the passage with much more suitable words, to match each
word in list A with a word in list B, to put the letter of the most appropriate sentence in list B
with the number of each sentence in list A, to select the sentences in the appropriate register
for the paragraph, to put a circle round the letter marking the beginning of one sentence
which they consider irrelevant to the paragraph as a whole, or to reassemble the scrambled
sentences in order to produce a coherent paragraph; or controlled writing test item, asking
them to write a similar paragraph using the notes they have been given after being given a
short reading extract, to rewrite a story given to them by copying with minor alterations,
changing the point of view, changing the style and register, or adding further information, to
practice subordination by linking the sentences involving subordination and coordination
features, using the connection given, or to complete the composition by writing several
sentences of their own after being provided sentences and clauses to help them to start
writing.
In the micro skill, viz. vocabulary, testing vocabulary can be via speaking, reading, or writing
(Valette, 1977). In testing it via speaking, the vocabulary assessment instruments the Junior
High School teachers have to make can be the ones enabling the students to answer the
questions which elicit the desired lexical items, to give a synonym for the words they listen
to, to continue the suggested sequence, to listen to a definition and to provide the key word,
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to respond to a given word by giving as many related words as possible within a six-second
interval, etc. In testing it via reading, the vocabulary assessment instruments they have to
make can be the ones enabling the students to select the sentence that best describes the
picture (using pictures), to select the appropriate category (vocabulary test out of context), to
indicate which of the words has the opposite meaning of the underlined words in the sentence
(vocabulary test in context), etc. In testing it via writing, the vocabulary assessment
instruments they have to make can be the ones enabling the students to look at the picture and
write out the names of the parts of it (using pictures), to write in the words that completes the
series (vocabulary test out of context), to construct the sentences using the words given
(vocabulary test in context), etc.
In the micro skill, viz. grammar, testing grammar can also be via speaking, reading, or
writing. In testing it via speaking, the grammar assessment instruments the Junior High
School teachers have to make can be the ones enabling the students to describe what the
teacher or classmate doing (using visual cues), to follow commands given in the cue (using
oral cues in the target language), to give the English language equivalents of the sentences
spoken in the native language (oral cues in the native language), etc. In testing it via reading,
the grammar assessment instruments they have to make can be the ones enabling the students
to indicate the proper articles, to complete the sentences, to determine whether the underlined
verb is the subjunctive or in the indicative, etc. In testing it via writing, the grammar
assessment instruments they have to make can be the ones enabling the students to complete
conversation, to replace the underlined words with the expression in parenthesis, to transform
sentences according to a specific pattern, etc.
Furthermore, the method of testing itself can be oral or written test. Speaking test always
constitutes oral test, and writing test always constitutes written test. Listening, reading,
vocabulary, and grammar test can constitute oral or written test. Oral tests are most often
given in the same way essay tests are conducted, except the student must talk rather than
write (Buttler 1972: 103). It means that the students are asked to tell all he knows about
something, so oral tests have the same difficulties as the essay ones.
The other English assessment instruments are observation seed, partial checklist, interview
item, open-ended question, ranking or forced choice item, and scales. In using the technique
of observation, observation seed is made. In making an observation seed, what is assessed
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must correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general objectives
contained in the Basic Competence. The specific objectives in this case are not cognitive or
psychomotor objectives, but affective objectives. The aspects assessed can include the
seriousness in listening, doing exercises, discussing actively, helping students‘ difficulties,
etc.
In using the unobtrusive technique, partial checklist is made. In making partial checklist,
what has to be measured can be school records, such as: attendance, tardiness, library
checkouts, etc., students‘ products, such as: papers, notebooks, etc., or physical evidence,
such as: voluntary seating arrangements, the library books or class materials that are most
worn from use, etc.
In using the technique of interview, interview item is made. In structured interview items,
many questions in a certain sequence are made, and each question is followed by the
alternative, whereas in unstructured interview, key questions without alternative are made.
In using the technique of open-ended questionnaire, open-ended question is made. In making
the open-ended question, statements which may vary in length are written. They can be used
to get at attitudes, beliefs, activities, and values and has been widely used to measure attitude
structure and socialization.
In using the technique of closed-item questionnaire, ranking or forced choice and scale can be
made. The questionnaire with fixed alternatives is similar to the structured interview except
that the respondent completes it without the aid of an interviewer. In making ranking or
forced choice, statements are made to require students to rank or choose in terms of their
appeal. Alternatively three or more statements are made to require them to choose among
them that one that is most appealing and the one that is least appealing. Another type of
forced-choice item asks them simply to check off from a longer list of statements describing
an activity, job, etc., a limited number that are most interesting, appealing, important, etc. A
more complicated form of ranking asks them to read through an extensive list of statements
and pick a fixed number that are most important or appealing, then go back and rank the
statements chosen in order of importance. A common item type is asking them to choose
from a point on a scale that corresponds to their answer to a question. The scales, which can
take many forms, consist of two or more points. For example, they might be asked to answer
yes or no to a question--a two-point scale-- or to indicate whether they strongly agree with,
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agree with, are uncertain about, disagree with, or strongly disagree with a particular
statement--five-point scale.
The English assessment instruments the Junior High School teachers have to
make must correspond to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general ones
contained in the Basic Competence, but they have to be arranged appropriately, viz. from the
easiest one. To recognize the appropriate arrangement, what is included in each type of
specific objectives is worth recognizing.
According to Montague (1987: 16), the classifications of cognitive objectives are knowledge,
the ability to remember facts in a form similar to that in which they were presented;
comprehension, the ability to translate some knowledge into your own words; application, the
ability to apply learning to new situations; analysis, the ability to break down a situation into
its component parts and to detect relationship between the parts or a part to the whole;
synthesis, the ability to organize or assemble parts to form a new whole; and evaluation, the
ability to make judgments based on identified criteria or standards.
According to Bloom, et. al (1981: 305), affective objective is categorized into five types. One
of them is receiving or attending. It is defined as sensitivity to the existence of certain
phenomena and stimuli, that is, willingness to receive or attend to them. The second one is
responding. It refers to a behavior which goes beyond merely attending to the phenomena; it
implies active attending, doing something with or about the phenomena, and not merely
perceiving them. The third one is valuing. Behavior which belongs to this level of the
taxonomy goes beyond merely doing something with or about certain phenomena. It implies
perceiving them as having worth and consequently revealing consistency in behavior related
to these phenomena. The fourth one is organization. It is defined as the conceptualization of
values and the employment of these concepts for determining the interrelationship among
values. The last one is characterization. It is an organization of values, beliefs, ideas, and
attitudes into an internally consistent system. This goes beyond merely determining
interrelationships among various values and implies their organization into a total philosophy
or world view.
The psychomotor objective, according to School of Education at University of Mississippi
(2001: 1), is categorized into five types, and the categorization is the work modified by
Simpson, Grondlund, etc. The first one is imitation. It is an early stage in learning a complex
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skill, overtly, after the individual has indicated a readiness to take a particular type of action.
It includes repeating an act that has been demonstrated or explained and includes trial and
error until an appropriate response is achieved. The second one is manipulation. In this
category, individual is asked to continue to practice a particular skill or sequence until it
becomes habitual and the action can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
The third one is precision. In this case, individual has attained the skill and there is some
proficiency indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate performance, requiring a minimum of
energy. The fourth one is articulation. In this category, the skills are so well developed that
the movement patterns can be modified to fit special requirements or to meet a problem
situation. The last one is naturalization. In this case, individual starts to experiment, creating
new motor acts or ways of manipulating materials out of understandings, abilities, and skills
developed.
Conclusion
English assessment instruments the Junior High School English teachers have to give
greatly depend on the indicators stated in the curriculum. The ones which do not correspond
to the specific objectives as indicators of achieving the general ones contained in the Basic
Competence cannot be used to assess whether or not the goal contained in the Competence
Standard has been achieved. English teachers for Junior High School have to make them by
themselves if the available ones do not correspond to them. The ones they have to make must,
of course, correspond to them, but they have to be arranged based on the order of
categorization of each type of specific objectives.
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REFERENCES
Bachman, Lyle F. dan Adrian S. Palmer. 1996. Language Testing in Practice:
Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Bloom, Benjamin S., George F. Madaus, dan J. Thomas Hastings. 1981. Evaluating to
Improve Learning. USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Brown, Douglas H. 2004. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom
Practices. USA: Pearson education, Inc.
Buttler, F. Coit. 1972. Instructional System Development for Vocational and
Technical Training. USA: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.
Gronlund, Norman E. 1993. How to Make Achievement Tests and Achievements. Edisi
kelima. USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Heaton, J. B. 1975. Writing English Language Tests: A Practical Guide for Teachers
of English as a Second or Foreign Language. London: Longman Group
Limited.
Hughes, Arthur. 1989. Testing for Language Teachers. New York: Cambridge
University Press
Mager, R. F. 1973. Measuring Instructional Intent. Belmont, CA: Fearon Pitman
Publishers, Inc.
Montague, Earl J. 1987. Fundamentals of Secondary Classroom Instruction.
Columbus, Ohio: Merril Publishing Company.
Richards, Jack; John Platt; and Heidi Weber. 1985. Longman Dictionary of Applied
Linguistics. England: Longman Group Limited.
School of Education at the University of Mississippi. 2001. The Psychomotor
Domain.
http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/educ_school/CI/seced/psychomotor.htm. (June
15, 2005).
Suparman, A. 1997. Desain Instruksional. Jakarta: PAU untuk PPAI Ditjen Dikti
Depdikbud.
Valette, Rebecca M. 1977. Modern Language Testing. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Inc.
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BIODATA:
NAME
: DRA. RINI FATMAWATI, M. Pd.
BIRTH
: Surakarta, February 23rd, 1966
AFFILIATION
: MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY OF
SURAKARTA
S1
: English Education Program of UMS (1989)
S2
: English Education Program of UNNES (2006)
S3
: English Education Program of UNNES (2007 - …)
MAIL ADDRESS
: DOSEN JURUSAN BAHASA INGGRIS FKIP UMS
Jln. A. Yani Pabelan Surakarta
PHONE NUMBER
: 081 328 537 889
FAX NUMBER
: (0271) 7653311
E-MAIL ADDRESS
: [email protected]
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