Designing a set of English speaking instructional materials for Kartika Dewi gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta - USD Repository
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank to Allah SWT, who always guide, bless andstrengthen me in finishing this thesis. I truly thank for everything given to me and my
family.I also would like to express my deepest gratitude to Christina Kristiyani,
S.Pd., M.Pd., my sponsor, for reading, criticizing, contributing ideas and correcting
my work, from the beginning until the end of this thesis. I am sure that without her
contribution, I would not be able to finish my thesis. In adition, I am very grateful to
Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd., M.Hum., Ch. Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed.,
Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., F. Chosa Rastu Handani, S.Pd., Drs. Y.B. Gunawan,
M.A., Yuseva Aryani, S.Pd., M.Ed., Vonny Indriawati, S.Pd., Indra Nugraha,
S.Pd., and Yosep Lintangakoso, N., S.Pd. for their wilingness to evaluate my
designed materials and give some suggestions on my designed materials.My special gratitude is also addressed to the manager of Kartika Dewi
Gymnasium Yogyakarta, Riza Harvini, S.Pd. who has given me a permission to
conduct my study in Kartika Dewi Gymnasium Yogyakarta. I also thank the
gymnastics instructors of Kartika Dewi Gymnasium Yogyakarta who have become
the respondents of my questionnaires. I thank them for their willingness to fill in my
questionnaires.I am deeply grateful to all lecturers of the English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University for their dedication, guidance, experiences,
vii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
and knowledge they have shared. I also thank mbak Tari and mbak Danik for their
help during my study.My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Anis Eko Dwi Daswantini
and Nuch Topo Broto, who always inspire my life. I thank them for their endless
love, support, advice, prayers, and patience in every step of my life. I also thank to
my beautiful sisters, Ayik, Rani, Anggun and Mayang who have become my
motivation in finishing my thesis. My deepest gratitude also goes to my beloved
grandparents, eyang Sunardjo and eyang Isti Handayani, who always give me the
endless love and care.My special thank goes to I Made Wira Adi Santika, who has given much
spirit, love and inspiration for my life. I thank him for his advice and support in doing
my thesis.I would like to thank Hana, Adi, Bertha, Witri, Patrice, Ana, Fika, Vonny,
Agung, Flora, Heni, Dede and all PBI 2004 students for the wonderful friendships. I
thank for every beautiful moments and great experiences when I was studying in PBI.
There are other people who I cannot mention individually but surely without their involvement, directly or indirectly, this thesis would not have been completed.
Prima Desinta Rengganis
viii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page TITLE PAGE ....................................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................................... ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ................................................... iv ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... v
ABSTRAK ............................................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background .............................................................................. 1 B. Problem Formulation ............................................................................... 3 C. Problem Limitation .................................................................................. 3 D. Research Objectives ................................................................................. 4 E. Research Benefits ..................................................................................... 4 F. Definition of Terms .................................................................................. 5 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ............................................................................. 7
1. Instructional Design Models .............................................................. 7
a. Kemp’s Model ............................................................................... 7
b. Yalden’s Model ............................................................................. 9
2. The Theory of Teaching Speaking...................................................... 12
a. Principle for Teaching Speaking.................................................... 13
b. Factors Affecting Adult EFL Learners’ Oral Communication ..... 14
c. Components Underlying Speaking Effectiveness ......................... 15
ix
x
4. Selecting the Syllabus Type ............................................................... 52
D. The Presentation of the Designed Materials ............................................. 63
C. The Discussion of the Designed Materials ............................................... 62
3. The Respondents’ Comments and Suggestions ................................ 60
2. The Data Presentation ....................................................................... 59
1. The Description of the Respondents ................................................. 58
B. The Findings of the Designed Materials Evaluation ................................ 58
8. Revising ............................................................................................. 57
7. Evaluating .......................................................................................... 57
6. Selecting Teaching and Learning Activities ...................................... 53
5. Listing the Subject Content ............................................................... 52
3. Formulating Learning Objectives ....................................................... 50
3. English for Specific Purpose (ESP) .................................................... 16
2. Considering the Goals, Listing Topics, and General Purpose ............ 48
1. Conducting Needs Survey ................................................................. 43
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ....................................................................................... 33 B. Research Participants ................................................................................. 34 C. Research Instruments ................................................................................. 35 D. Data Gathering Techniques ....................................................................... 37 E. Data Analysis Techniques ......................................................................... 38 F. Research Procedures .................................................................................. 40 CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. The Steps of Designing a Set of English Speaking Instructional Materials for Kartika Dewi Gymnasium in Yogyakarta ........................................... 43
B. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 29
c. The Activities and Materials of CLT ............................................ 26
b. The Characteristics of CLT ........................................................... 24
a. The Definition of CLT ................................................................... 23
4. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ....................................... 23
c. Needs Analysis............................................................................... 19
b. The Criteria of ESP ........................................................................ 18
a. The Definition and Categorization of ESP .................................... 17
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions .............................................................................................. 67 B. Suggestions .............................................................................................. 69
1. English Instructors in Gymnasium..................................................... 69
2. Gymnastic Instructors In Kartika Dewi Gymnasium......................... 69
3. Other Researchers .............................................................................. 69 REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 71 APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 74 Appendix A: Questionnaire for Needs Analysis .................................................. 75 Appendix B: List of Questions for Interviews .................................................... 79 Appendix C: Questionnaire for Expert Validation .............................................. 81 Appendix D: The Result of Questionnaire for Expert Validation........................ 85 Appendix E: The Final Version of the Designed Materials ................................. 88
xi
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Necessities, Lacks and Wants ........................................................................ 20
3.1 The Points of Agreement ............................................................................... 39
3.2 The Table of Descriptive Statistics ................................................................ 40
4.1 The Data of the Respondents ........................................................................ 44
4.2 The Result of Informal Interview with Gymnastics Instructors .................... 45
4.3 The Learners’ Needs ...................................................................................... 46
4.4 The Learning Topics of the Materials ............................................................ 49
4.5 Topics and General Purposes ......................................................................... 50
4.6 The Learning Indicators ................................................................................. 50
4.7 The Teaching Learning Activities .................................................................. 54
4.8. The Description of the Respondents ............................................................. 58
4.9 The Descriptive Statistics of the Materials Evaluation Survey ...................... 59
4.10 The Topics, the Titles, the Sections and the Subsections of Designed Materials ....................................................................................................... 63
5.1 The Final Version of the Designed Materials ................................................ 68
xii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ................................................................ 9
2.2 Yaldens’s Instructional Design Model ........................................................... 10
2.3 The Division of Language Teaching Based on the Learner Purpose ............. 18
2.4 Function to Form (allen, 1997) ...................................................................... 30
2.5 The Steps in Conducting the Design .............................................................. 32
xiii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the writer would like to present the research background, the problem formulation, and the problem limitation. Besides, this chapter also presents the objectives of the study, the benefit of the study, and definition of terms.
A. The Research Background
English is an important language in this world especially in Indonesia. It is becoming more and more important because English has role as international language. Indonesia is expanding some cooperations with other countries around the world. It demands Indonesian should be able to communicate with foreigners in order to develop the cooperation with other countries. They have to be ready for globalization era. There are some working fields that require the staffs to master English.
Gymnasia are also the ones that demand their gymnastics instructors to master English since gymnastics instructors have direct contact with the customers frequently. They have to understand how to use English in their job because they realize the importance of English mastery for their gymnastics instructors in order to improve their service quality. Reinforcement is needed for them because they are not only required to study English but also they required to use English in their job.
1
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2 There are some gymnasia in Yogyakarta. One of them is Kartika Dewi Gymnasium. Kartika Dewi Gymnasium is located at Bhayangkara street. It is near with Malioboro street as one of tourism destinations. As a result, Kartika Dewi Gymnasium has some foreign customers that make the staffs are required to master English, especially for the gymnastics instructors. Most of the gymnastics instructors of Kartika Dewi Gymnasium have some difficulties to communicate with the foreign customers. There are 15 foreign customers in Kartika Dewi Gymnasium Yogyakarta. They are students and tourists.
Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors need appropriate materials to improve their English speking abilities in order to train their foreign customers.
English for gymnastics instructors is a particular part of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). There are some aspects that have to be considered in designing suitable materials, such as, learners’ characteristics, the purpose of learning, learners’ needs. The materials is designing based on the learners’ needs and interests.
Speaking is one of basic skills in English that has important role as a mean of communication. “Speaking is an instrumental activity in which speakers talk in order to have some effects on their listeners” (Clark and Clark, 1977: 224). The designing materials aim to help Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors to improve their English speaking ability.
In order to improve Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors’ abilities in speaking English, the writer designs the materials using Communicative Language Teaching which give learners the opportunity to communicate using
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3 target language. According to Larsen-Freeman (2001: 128), “the goal is to enable students to communicate in target language. To do this students need knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings, and fuctions.” In this study, the materials is designed in order to help Kartika Dewi Gymnasium Instructors to communicate with their foreign customers using English in appropriate forms, social context, meanings and fuctions. By providing the materials wich are suitable and applicable to their work field, they will be able to communicate with foreign customers well in order to improve their service quality.
B. Problem Formulation
Considering the background, the problem of the study can be formulated as follows.
1. How is a set of instructional materials to teach speaking to Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta designed?
2. How does the designed set of instructional materials to teach speaking to Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta look like?
C. Problem Limitation
English is an international language that should be mastered. One of skills that influences in communicating with others is speaking. Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors are people who have contact with foreigners. They have to be able to use English to communicate with their foreign customers. This study is
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
4 limited to the discussion of designing a set of instructional materials to teach speaking to Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta.
D. Research Objectives
Based on the problems stated in the problem formulation part, the writer would like to elaborate two objectives. They are stated follows.
1. To design a set of instructional materials to teach speaking to Kartika Dewi instructors in Yogyakarta.
2. To present a set of instructional materials to teach speaking to Kartika Dewi instructors in Yogyakarta.
E. Research Benefits
1. Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors For Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors, this design materials improve their understanding and ability in English that also improve their service quality to their customers. They use their ability to teach the other staffs of Kartika Dewi Gymnasium that make their knowledge more useful.
2. English Instructors This design materials help English Instructors to develop and design
English materials for specific purpose. Besides, it helps them to improve the understanding and selecting appropriate materials to achieve the goal of teaching learning process.
3. Further researchers
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
5 For the next research, this design materials contribute further researchers and anyone who are interested in designing materials for specific purpose.
Besides, it gives the new innovation and creativities to improve the materials designed for specific purpose.
F. Definition of Terms
1. Instructional Materials According to Dick and Reiser (1983:3), “instructional materials can be in the form of printed materials, computer assisted instructions, and televised instructions.” In this study, instructional material is needed to facilitate teachers and learners in teaching and learning process. The materials are focused on the discussion in order to develop the learners’ speaking skill.
2. Speaking “Speaking is an instrumental activity in which speakers talk in order to have some effects on their listeners” (Clark and Clark, 1977: 224). Speaking is one of means to communicate with others. In speaking, a message is transferred from a speaker to a hearer. The speaker produces the message and the hearer receives the message. In this study, speaking is one of skill that very important since the learners are required to be able to communicate in target language.
3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) According to Larsen-Freeman (2001: 128), “communicative competence involves being able to use the language appropriate to a given social context.” It means that through this approach the learners are expected to be able to use the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
6 target language in communication using authentic materials. In this study, the learners are not only expected to master structure but also to practice to communicate in target language as well as native speakers. The activities have to be selected appropriately that can support communicative learning situation.
4. Kartika Dewi Gymnasium Instructors Kartika Dewi gymnasium instructors are people who work in Kartika
Dewi Gymnasium as the gymnastics instructors. They are classified into some kinds of job, namely body language instructors, pilates instructor, aerobic instructors and fitness instructors. Their age is about 24 to 54 years old. Their office is located in Bhayangkara street number 35 Yogyakarta.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
7 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter is divided into two important parts, namely theoretical and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
In this section, the writer discusses instructional materials design models, the theory of teaching speaking, English for Specific Purpose (ESP), and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
1. Instructional Design Models
In this research, the writer presents two instructional design models by Kemp and Yalden as the basic theories in conducting this study. Those instructional design models are discussed as follows.
a. Kemp’s Model
The first instructional design model used in this study is Kemp’s Model. In his book, Instructional Design A plan Unit and Course Development, Kemp (1977: 8) states that “the instructional design plan is designed to supply answers to three questions, which may be considered as the essential element of instructional technology.” Those three questions are as follows. 1) What must be learned? (objectives) 2) What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning level? (Activities and resources) 3) How will we know when the required learning has taken place? (Evaluation)
7
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
8 In order to be able to answer those questions, Kemp forms eight steps that must be carried out in the design process (Kemp, 1977: 13-100). The eight steps are specified below.
1) Consider goals, and then lists topics, stating the general purposes for teaching each topic.
2) Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners from whom the instruction is to be designed.
3) Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavior outcomes.
4) List the subject to support each objective. 5) Develop pre-assessment to determine the students’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic.
6) Select teaching or learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content, so the students will accomplish the objectives.
7) Coordinate such support service as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.
8) Evaluate students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and re-evaluating many phases of the plan that need improvement. There is the main strength of Kemp’s model from the perspective of teacher is that there is a concept that the process of designing and developing can be started from any step. The eight steps design model proposed by Kemp can be seen in the Figure 2.1.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
9 Figure 2.1: The Relationship of Each Step in the Plan of the Other Steps
(Kemp, 1977:9)
The steps of an instructional design by Yalden, which is called as Yalden's Language Program Development is shown in Figure 2.2.
Evaluation Support Services Teaching/ learning activities, resources
Pre-
Assessment
Subject Content Learning Objectives Learner Characterist ics
Goals,
Topics, and
General
Purposes
Revise
b. Yalden’s Model
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
10 Figure 2.2: Language Program Development (Yalden, 1987:88)
1) Needs survey
This survey is related with the awareness of the learners’ needs. Survey is conducted to identify and specify what learners’ needs in learning English included motivations, learning background, and personal needs. It is very important to determine the goal of learning.
2) Description of purpose
This step describes the goals of the materials design based on the previous step or learners’ needs. The materials should be selected in order to facilitate students to achieve the formulated goals. It will become an important foundation in the next step.
3) Choice of syllabus
“Specifying learning objectives is a developmental process that requires refinement, changes and additions as the writer develops subsequent planning steps” (Kemp, 1977: 24). The choice of syllabus should be determined based on the learners’ needs and characteristics.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
11
4) Production of proto-syllabus
“The proto-syllabus is description of language and language use to be covered in the program” (Yalden, 1987: 89). The syllabus has to cover all of goals of learning process so the syllabus can be concluded as language itself. Language is developed to achieve the goals of certain program.
5) Production of pedagogical syllabus
“The pedagogical syllabus is the development of teaching, learning, and testing approaches” (Yalden, 1987: 89). It means that the pedagogical syllabus is reflected as the planning of implementation of teaching and learning process. The implementation includes teaching, learning, and testing approaches also the development of teaching materials and testing sequences.
6) Development and implementation of classroom syllabus
In this step, the materials and activities should be developed in the form of lesson plan. The materials and activities have to be scheduled and have appropriate method based on learners’ needs. Teachers have to understand the principle of teaching, teaching materials, and the goal of learning.
7) Evaluation
This step is aimed to evaluate all components in the language program. The evaluation includes students, the teaching and the program itself.
8) Recycling stage
In the last step is aimed to fit between goals set and student performance. The content is reassessed in class. The materials and teaching methodology are revised.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
12
2. The Theory of Teaching Speaking
In this section, the writer also discusses some basic theories related with speaking because speaking is the main learning concern of this study. This section consists of three parts, namely principle for teaching speaking, factors affecting adult EFL learners’ oral communication, and components underlying speaking effectiveness.
a. Principle for Teaching Speaking
According to Bailey (1994: 54), there are five principles for teaching speaking that can be applied. They are as follows.
1) Be aware of differences between second language and foreign language learning contexts Bailey (1994: 54) states “there are two broad contexts in learning speaking; they are foreign language and second language situations.” The differences between foreign language and second language situations are foreign language is the target language which is not used in communication in the learners’ society, whether second language is the target language which is used in the learners’ society. In this case, English for Kartika Dewi Gymnasium instructors is included into foreign language learning context. 2) Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy
Bailey (1994: 55) states “accuracy is the extent to which students’ speech matches what people actually say when they use the target language.” It means that the learners have to understand what the functions and the meaning of language that they use. Furthermore, Bailey (1994: 55) also states “fluency is the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13 extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc.” The learners have to speak fluently that it supports their confidence in speaking.
3) Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work, and limiting teacher talk Bailey (1994: 55) states “it is important for language teachers to be aware of how much we are talking in class.” Students have to be provided opportunities to talk through pair work and group work. It will encourage students to practice their target language to communicate in class.
4) Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning Bailey (1994: 55) states “language teachers have to plan the tasks that relate with the process of negotiating for meaning.” This is the process that learners make progress by communicating in the target language since interaction is needed to make learners understand and to be understood.
5) Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional and interactional speaking Bailey (1994: 56) states “interactional speech is communicating with someone for social purposes that include both establishing and maintaining social relationships.” Learners have to understand the function of target language as the use their society. Furthermore, Bailey (1994: 56) also states “transactional speech involves communicating to get something done, including the exchange of goods and/or services.” It means learners should be able to use target language in their real life, such as, in their work place and their society.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
14
b. Factors Affecting Adult EFL Learners’ Oral Communication
1) Age or maturational constraints Krashen, Long and Scarcella (1982) argue “who begin learning a second language in early childhood through natural exposure achieve higher proficiency that those beginning as adult.” In this case, adult learners have to make harder effort to learn second language since they are more difficult to be focused in learning meanwhile children are more simply to focused on learning. 2) Aural medium
“In fact, during interaction, every speaker plays a double role both as a listener and a speaker” (Mendelsohn&Rubin, 1995:35). It means both speaking and listening have important roles to build effective interaction. 3) Sociocultural factors
“It is well known that each language has its own rules of usage as to when, how, and to what degree of speaker may impose a given verbal behavior on his or her conversational partner” (Berns, 1990). It is harder for nonnative speakers to choose appropriate forms in certain situations since it is influenced by the cultural norms. Each place in the world has its own norms and cultures. The different forms of norms and cultures have to be considered in communications.
4) Affective factors “The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most important influences on language learning success or failure” (Oxford, 1990: 140). The affective factors related to L2 or foreign language learning is emotions, self- esteem, empathy, anxiety, attitude, and motivation. Teachers are expected not
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15 only to pay attention to the learning process but also to pay attention to learners’ affective factors.
c. Components Underlying Speaking Effectiveness
Hyme’s theory, Canale and Swain (1980) propose that “communicative competence includes grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.” It means communicative competence have to reflect the use of the linguistic system and functional aspects of communication, respectively. 1) Grammatical competence
“Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992: 141). Grammatical competence enables speakers to use target language accurately and properly. In this case, mechanics refers to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciations of words, intonation, and stress. 2) Discourse competence
“Therefore, effective speakers should acquire a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideas, shoe relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast, and emphasis” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992). Learners are expected to learn target language that related to structures and discourse in their real life.
3) Sociolinguistic competence Understanding sociolinguistic side of language helps learners know that comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. Brown (1994:238)
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16 argues that “therefore, adult second language learners must acquire stylistic adaptability in order to be able to encode and decode the discourse around them correctly.” Learners should understand any means of communication both verbal and non verbal. 4) Strategic competence
“Strategic competence, which is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals” (Brown, 1994: 228), is perhaps the most important of all the communicative competence elements. “Simply put, it is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse rules” (Berns, 1990). With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems.
3. English for Specific Purpose (ESP)
In this section, the writer would like to discuss English for Specific Purpose (ESP). It is important to discuss ESP since English for Kartika Dewi gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta is a part of it that is English for English for Occupational purpose. This section consists of three parts, namely the definition and criteria of English for Specific Purpose, the classification of English for Specific Purpose, and Needs Analysis. By discussing these three parts, the writer would like to give description what makes English for Kartika Dewi gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta as a part of English for Specific Purpose.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
17
a. The Definition and Categorization of English for Specific Purpose
“English for Specific Purpose must be considered as approach not
product” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994: 16). It means that ESP is an approach in learning language. It shows that ESP is not a method in teaching learning language. The method, materials, and teaching learning content are synchronized with the learner’s reasons and needs.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1994:16), “the categorization of ESP is based on the general nature of the learners’ purpose and specific needs on specialization.”
Basically, ESP is divided in to two types, they are English for Academic Purpose (EAP) and English for Vocational Purpose (EVP) or also called English for Occupation Purpose (EOP). EAP is for learners who needs English for study, meanwhile, EVP or EOP is for learners who needs English for work. Hutchinson and Walters propose “the branch of English language teaching based on the learner purpose.” English for Kartika Dewi gymnasium instructors in Yogyakarta can be classified as we can see in the Figure 2.3.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
18 English Language
Teaching (ELT)
English as Mother English as Foreign English as Second
Tongue (EMT) Language (EFL) Language (ESL)General English English for Specific (GE) Purposes (ESP) English for Academic English for Occupational Purposes (EAP) Purposes (EOP) English for Kartika Dewi Gymnasium Instructors Figure 2.3: The Division of Language Teaching Based on the Learner Purpose (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994: 16)
b. The Criteria of English for Specific Purpose
Robinson (1991:2) proposes some criteria of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The criteria are as follows.
1) ESP is ordinarily goal-directed People learn English because of instrumental motivation. They learn
English to achieve certain goals. The purposes can be the requirements of study or job. People who are working in the tourism fields should master English well.
They need English to support their job. In this case, the learners need to communicate with their customers foreign tourists because Kartika Dewi Gymnasium is located in the town centre of Yogyakarta.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
19 2) Needs analysis is paramount The first step to define the aim of course is identifying needs analysis.
Need analysis is needed to identify and specify what learners’ needs in learning English. It emphasizes the target of course requirement. In this research, the learners’ needs are obtained from interviews and questionnaires.
3) Specified time for the course Time allocation is important in achieving the objectives in each learning process of the course. It should be allocated in proportional schedule by considering teachers and students. 4) People who learn ESP are usually adult
People who learn ESP course are normally have already experienced in learning English. They have learnt General English. They are not beginners. They need ESP program relates with the requirements of their study or job. It requires them to learn English more specific relate to their study or job. It will be influenced the materials that should be designed base on learners’ condition. 5) People who learn ESP should be the same
People who learn ESP must have same kind of work field or study although their ages are different. In this research, the learners’ work background is gymnastics instructors.
c. Needs Analysis
As we know that ESP is defined as an approach that differentiates between ESP and General English. In this case, need analysis has very important role. We have to know the learners’ needs in learning. It can be obtained from many ways,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
SUBJECTIVE
To undertake Medical Studies
WANTS To succeed in Agricultural or Veterinary Studies
Means of doing Medical Studies
English needed for Agricultural or Veterinary Studies
To reluctantly cope with a ‘second-best’ situation LACKS (Presumably) areas of
NECESSITIES The English needed for success in Agricultural or Veterinary Studies
(i.e. as perceived by learners)
20 such as observation, interview and distributing questionnaires. Needs analysis will influence the materials designed and also give some information to teachers to motivate their learners in learning process.
Hutchinson and Waters (1994:54) categorize learners’ needs in to two parts, namely target needs and learning needs.
OBJECTIVE
Table. 2.1: Necessities, lacks and wants (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994:58)
Necessities, lacks and wants can be presented in the table 2.1.
c) Wants are the learners’ needs that have to be considered. It is also important to consider learners’ wants in the target situation.
b) Lacks are what learners have already known so that the materials’ designers can decide which the necessities the learners’ lacks. It also determines what is needed to improve.
a) Necessities are what learners have to do to function effectively in the target situation that determined by the requirements of the target situation.
1) Target needs Target needs refer to the target situation in terms of three parts, namely necessities, lacks and wants.
(i.e. as
perceived by course designers)
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
21 2) Gathering information about target needs
There are some ways to gather information about language such as distributing questionnaires, interviews, observation, data collection and informal consultation with sponsors, learners and others. It is possible to use more than one ways in gathering information. In this research, the writer uses interviews and distributing questionnaires. The frameworks of questionnaires are needed to get the information about the learners’ needs. Hutchinson and Walters (1994:54) propose the frameworks of questionnaires as follows.
a) Why is the language need? For study For work For some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion.
b) How will the language be used? Medium: speaking, writing, reading, etc.
Channel: e.g. telephone, face to face Types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversation, technical manuals, catalogues.
c) What will the content areas be? Subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering Level: e.g. technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school
d) Who will the learner use the language with? Native speakers or non-native
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22 Level of knowledge of receiver: e.g. expert, layman, student Relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate
e) Where will the language be used? Physical setting: e.g. office, lecture theater, hotel, workshop, library Human context: e.g. alone, meeting, demonstrations, on telephone Linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad
f) When will the language be used? Concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently Frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks 3) Learning needs
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1994:61), “it is naive to base a course design simply on the target objectives, just as it is naïve to think that a journey can be planned solely in terms of the starting point and the destination.“ Learning needs are very important to be considered since it will be influenced in selecting materials. It is the means to reach destination. It explains the starting point to reach the objectives. 4) Analyzing learning needs
There are some questions as a framework for analyzing learning needs. A learning needs analysis framework is as follows:
1. Why are the learners taking the course?
2. How do the learners learn?
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23
3. What resources are available?
4. Who are the learners?
5. Where will the ESP course take place?
6. When will the ESP course take place?
4. Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is suitable approach in designing the instructional materials. This study tries to design a set of English speaking instructional materials using communicative tasks. In this case, the writer believes that Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is appropriate approach to enable learners to communicate in the target language. There are some theories about Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) used in designing the speaking materials for Kartika Dewi gymnasium instructors. There are three points that will be discussed. They are as follows.
a. The definition of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)