this file 836 1844 1 SM

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Email: nurhid1@yahoo.com
Abstrak
Writing for foreign language learners, especially Arabic, is a difficult skill
to master, and the difficulty is not only in the development of ideas but
also and its composition. The steps that we can take to implement the
teaching of writing are: (1) setting clear learning objectives, (2) establishing
a theoretical framework that underpins the teaching of writing, (3)
designing learning materials, (4) specifying elements relevant to the
development of learning materials, (5) preparing the lesson plans, (6)
selecting the instructional materials, (7) preparing the learning activities
and assessment methods. The writing process is a process to overcome the
difficulties that include elements of (1) the material in the subject matter
under hand, (2) the author s experience or knowledge, and (3) writing
techniques.
Kata Kunci: writing teaching and learning, Arabic, non-native speaker.

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‫‪٧ ٦‬‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻠ ﻔ ﻮ ﻇ ﺔ أ و ﻣ‬

‫ﻮ ﻇ ﺔ‪ .‬و‬
‫آ‬

‫و ﺳ ﻄ ﺎ ‪ ،‬أ و‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺴﺘ ﻄﻴ ﻊ أ ن ﺗ ﺠ ﺪ أ ﻓ ﺎ ر اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ﺴﺘ ﻄﻴ ﻊ أ ن ﺗ‬

‫ﻀ ﻊ أ ﻓ ﺎ ر اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻣ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫ﺴ ﺘ ﻄ ﻴ ﻊ أ ن ﺗ ﺆ ﺧ ﺬ ا ﻷ ﻓ ﺎ ر إ ﻻّ‬

‫أ و ل اﻟ ﻔ ﻘ ﺮة ‪،‬‬
‫ّﺺ‬

‫ﻌ ﺪ ﻗ ﺮا ء ة ا ﻟ ﻨ‬

‫أ ن ﻳ ﻜ ﺘ ﺐ ﺗ ﺠ ﺮ ﺔ ﻧ ﻔ ﺴ ﻴّ ﺔ أ و ﺗ ﺠ ﺮ ﺔ أ ﺧ ﺮ ى‪.‬‬
‫ا ﳌﺜﺎ ل ﻣ ﻦ ﻣ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ﻋﺎ ت‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫أ ن‬

‫أ ن‬
‫ﺑ ﻤ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪ .‬أ ّ ﻣ ﺎ ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻟ‬

‫ﻓ ﻘ ﺮا ء ة ا ﻟ ﻔ ﻘ ﺮا ت ﻟ ﻄ ﻠ ﺐ ا ﻷ ﻓ ﺎ ر ‪ ،‬و ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ ا ﻗ ا ﺣ ﺎ ت أ ﻓ ﺎ ر‬

‫ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻄ ﺎ ع ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻢ أ ن‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‬‫ُ رّ ﻛ ﺰ‬
‫) ‪ (٣‬ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﺒ‬

‫ﺷ ﻴ ﺎ ء‪ (١ ) :‬ا ﻷ ﺳ ﻠ ﻮ ب ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ي ‪ ( ٢ ) ،‬ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎ ل ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﺔ ‪،‬‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ي ‪ (٤ ) ،‬إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٥ ) ،‬ﻣ ﺤ ﺘ ﻮ ﺎ ت ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٦ ) ،‬ﻧ ﻮ ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّي‬

‫ﺣﺎ ﺻ ﻼ ت اﻟﻨ‬

‫ّﺺ ا ﳌ ﻜﺘ ﻮ ب اﻟ ﺬ ي ﻳ‬

‫ا ﻛﻴ ﺐ اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ﺔ ا ﳌﺜﺎﻟﻴ ﺔ اﻟ‬
‫ﻛ ﻤﺎ ﻗﺎ ل‬

‫ﻴ ﻠ ﻨ ﺬ ) ‪:٢ ٠ ٠ ٣‬‬

‫ا ﻛ ﻴ ﺐ ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮّ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎ ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻴ ﺤ ﺔ‪ .‬أ ّ ﻣ ﺎ إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ت‬

‫‪() :‬‬
‫) (‬

‫‪(٣‬‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻔ ﺮدا ت اﻟ‬

‫أ ﺳﺎ‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّي‬

‫ا‬

‫)(‬
‫وﻓ‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫س‬

‫ا ﻛ ﻴ ﺐ ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻴّ ﻨ ﺔ و‬

‫) (‬

‫وا ﻷ ﺳ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺐ ا‬

‫ﻮ اﻟ ﺰ ﻋ ﻢ أ ن ﻋ ﻤ ﻞ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻳ‬

‫ﻤ ﻞ و ا ﻷ ﺳﺎﻟﻴ ﺐ‬

‫ﺗ ﺤ ﺖ ا ﻹ ﺷ ﺮا ف ﻣ ﺜ ﻞ ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻨ‬

‫ّﺺ‬

‫أ ﻧ ﻮا ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎ ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎ ل ا‬

‫ﻤ ﻞ‬
‫ا ﻛﻴ ﺐ‬

‫ﺘ ﺎ ر ة‪ .‬ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﻧ ﻈ ﺮ ت‬

‫ﻢ ا ﳌ ﻔ ﺮ د ا ت و ﺗ ﻄ ﻮ ﺮ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺑ ﻮ ﺳ ﻴ ﻠ ﺔ ا ﺗّ ﺒ ﺎ ع ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺐ ا ﻟ ﻨ ﻤ ﻮ ذ ﺟ ﻴ ﺔ أ و ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴّ ﺔ‪ .‬ﻟ ﺬ ﻟ ﻚ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ﺪ ف‬

‫‪٧ ٧‬‬

‫ﻧ ﻮ ر ﺪاﻳ‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮا ء‬
‫ا ﳌ ﻌ ﺮﻓ ﺔ و‬
‫اﻟﻨ‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب‬

‫) ‪ (١‬إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ة‬

‫د ﻋ ﻮة اﻟ ﺎﺗ ﺐ إ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫إ‬

‫ص ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ﺔ ‪(٢ ) ،‬‬

‫ﻤ ﻞ‬

‫ا‬

‫وا ﻷ ﺳ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺐ‬
‫‪(٤ ) ،‬‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻨ ﻤ ﻮ ذ ﺟ ﻴ ﺔ ‪(٣ ) ،‬‬

‫و ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺐ و أ ﻧ ﻮ ا ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫أ ﺳ‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫وا ﻷ ﺣ ﺮ ف ‪ ،‬وﺗ ﻄ ﻮ ﺮ‬

‫اﻟ‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻔ ﻘ ﺮا ت ا ﳌ ﺘ ﻨ ّ ﻮ ﻋ ﺔ ) ﻴ ﻠ ﺘ ﺬ ‪،‬‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ي ‪ ،‬و ‪ (١ ) :‬ا‬

‫‪:٢ ٠ ٠ ٣‬‬

‫‪ (٢‬ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻮ ﺻ ﻔ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻒ ‪ (٥ ) ،‬ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻔ ﺮ ﻘ ﻴ ﺔ )‪ (٦ ) ، (classification‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻘ ﺎ ر ﻧ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫) ‪ (٧‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ أ ﺳ ﻠ ﻮ ب ا ﻟ ﺴ‬

‫ﺐ و ا ﻟ ﻌ ﺎ ﻗ ﺒ ﺔ ‪ (٨ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﻴ ﻢ و ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﻴ ن ‪(generalization and‬‬

‫)‪ (٩ ) ، certainty‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﺤ ﻠ ﻴ ﻞ ا ﳌ ﻈ ﺎ‬
‫) ‪ (١ ١‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ‬

‫)‬

‫ﻤ ﻞ وأ ّﻤ ﻴ ﺎ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻨ ﻳّ ﺔ ‪ (٤ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﺮ‬

‫ﻴ‬

‫‪.(٦‬‬

‫أ ﻧ ﻮا ع ﻣ ﺎ ّد ة ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫أ ﺳﺎ‬

‫س ا ﻻ ﺳﺘ ﻌ ﻤﺎ ل‬

‫ﺮ )‪ (١ ٠ ) ، (interpretation of data‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻨ ﺎ ﻗ ﺸ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫ﺺ ‪ ( ١ ٢ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻘ ﺮ ﺮ و ا ﻟ ﺒ ﺤ ﺚ ‪ ( ١ ٣ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻻ ﺳ ﺘ ﺠ ﻮ ا ب ‪ ،‬و ) ‪(١ ٤‬‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫أ ﻧ ﻮا ع ا ﻟ ﻨ‬
‫اﻟﻨ‬

‫ص ﻣ ﺜ ﻞ ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ و ﺻ ﻔ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﻗ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫ا ﳌﻨﺎ ﻗ ﺸ ﺔ ‪،‬‬
‫ا‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ اﻟﺘ ﻘ ﺮ ﺮ‬

‫ﺎ‪.‬‬

‫و ﻏ‬

‫ﺼ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫ص‬

‫أ ﻧ ﻮا ع‬

‫ﻓ‬

‫ﺼ ﻴّ ﺔ‬

‫ّﻞ أ ﻧ ﻮا ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻳ ﺤﺘﺎ ج إ‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳﺎﻟﻴ ﺐ‬

‫وا ﳌ ﻔ ﺮ د ا ت‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ ﺻ ﺔ و ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻴّ ﻨ ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‬‫أّﻣ ﺎ ا‬
‫ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠ ﻴ ﻢ ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﺜ ﺄ ﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗ ﺨ ﻄﻴ ﻂ‬

‫اﻟ ﻌ ﺮ ﻲ ا‬

‫ﻄ ﻮا ت ا ﻟ‬
‫ﻌﻴ ن ا ﻷ ﺳ‬

‫ﻳ ﻤ ﻜ ﻦ ﺗ ﻄﺒﻴ ﻘ ﺎ‬

‫ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻓ‬

‫ﺲ ا ﻟ ﻨ ﻈ ﺮ ّ ﺔ و ا ﻟ ﻔ ﻜ ﺮّ ﺔ ا ﻟ‬

‫ﻣ ﺎ دّ ة ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠ ﻴ ﻢ ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﺮ ا ﻊ‪ :‬ﺗ ﺤ ﺪ ﻳ ﺪ ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻨ ﺎ ﺻ ﺮ ا ﻟ‬

‫ﻠ ﺪ ا ﻷ و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫‪ ،‬ا ﻷ و ل‪ :‬ﺗ ﺤ ﺪ ﻳ ﺪ أ‬

‫ﺪا ف‬

‫‪:‬‬
‫ﺗ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻖ ﺑ ﻤ ﺎ دّ ة ﺗ ﻄ ﻮ ﺮ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫‪٧ ٨‬‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫ا‬

‫ﺲ‪ :‬إ ﻋ ﺪ ا د‬

‫ﺎ ﻣ‬

‫ﺧ ﻄّ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺪ ر ا ﺳ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﺴ ﺎ د‬

‫س‪ :‬ا ﺧ ﺘ ﻴ ﺎ ر ﻣ ﺎ دّ ة ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠ ﻴ ﻢ ‪ ،‬و ا ﻟ ﺴ ﺎ ﻊ‪ :‬إ ﻋ ﺪ ا د‬

‫اﻟﺘ ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ أ و اﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﳌﻨﺎ ﺳﺒ ﺔ و إ ﻋ ﺪا د اﻟﺘ ﻘ ﻮ‬

‫ﺸﺎ ﻃﺎ ت‬

‫ﻢ‪.‬‬

‫‬‫ﻋ‬

‫ﺗ ﺤﺘ ﻮ ي‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻢ أ ن ﻳ ﺮ ّ ﻛ ﺐ ﻣ ﻮ ا دّ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ‬

‫ﻋ ‪ ) :‬ا( ﻣ‬

‫ﺼ ﺪ ر اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜ ﻞ‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫‪(١‬‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻔﻴ ﺪ ة‬

‫)‬

‫اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﺔ ا‬

‫ﺪ ﻳ ﺪ ة ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ﻓ‬

‫و ا ﳌ ﻨ ﺎ ﻗ ﺸ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪(٢ ) ،‬‬
‫ﻢ ﺑ ﺌ ﺔ و‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ا ت‬
‫) ‪(٦‬‬

‫ﺣ‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻌﻠ ﻮﻣﺎ ت‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫ﺪ ف ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٤ ) ،‬أ ﻧ ﻮ ا ع ا ﻟ ﻨ‬

‫ﺣ‬

‫ص ا ﳌ ﻜ ﺘ ﻮ ﺔ ‪ (٥ ) ،‬ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎ ل‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ﻣ ﺎ ﻗ ﺒ ﻞ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬أ ﺛ ﻨ ﺎ ء ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﻣ ﺎ‬

‫ﻌ ﺪ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ ل ا ﳌ ﻌ ﺎ ر ف ا ﳌ ﻔ ﻴ ﺪ ة ‪ ( ٧ ) ،‬ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻔ ﺎ د ة ا ﳌ ﻌ ﺎ ر ف ا ﳌ ﻔ ﻴ ﺪ ة ‪ (٨ ) ،‬ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻔ ﺎ د ة ا ﳌ ﻌ ﺎ ر ف‬

‫و ﺗ ﻄ ﻮ ﺮ ﺎ ‪ ) ،‬ب(‬

‫اﻟ ﻌﻨﺎ ﺻ ﺮ ﻏ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮّ ﺔ‬

‫ﺔ ‪ ) ،‬ج( ﻟ ﻐ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺑ ﻮ ﺳ ﻴ ﻠ ﺔ ﺗ ﺤ ﻠ ﻴ ﻞ ﻋ ﻨ ﺎ ﺻ ﺮ ا ﻟ ﻨ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ﺔ ‪ ) ،‬د( و ﻇ ﻴ ﻔ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ و‬
‫وﻣ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ ل ﻋﻨﺎ ﺻ ﺮ‬

‫ﻀ ﻤ ﻮ ن ﻧ‬

‫ﺴﺘ ﻔﻴ ﺪ ﻣ ﺎ اﻟ ﺎﺗ ﺐ‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻮ ا دّ ا ﻟ‬

‫ص‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫ﺎ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ ﺻ ﺎ ) ﻴ ﻠ ﻨ ﺬ ‪(١ ٠ ١ :٢ ٠ ٠ ٣ ،‬‬

‫‬‫‪:‬‬

‫ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻄ ﺎ ع ﻣ ﺪّر س ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ أ ن ﻳ ﺨ ﺘ ﺎ ر إ ﺣ ﺪ ى ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ق ا ﻵ ﺗ ﻴ ﺔ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ﺄ و‬

‫)‬
‫ت‬

‫ة‪ .‬و إ ﻧ ﺘ ﺎ ج ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠ ﻴ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﺄ و ّ ﻲ‬

‫)‪ .2004 : 8‬أ ّ ﻣ ﺎ إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ت‬

‫‪(٢‬‬

‫ﻗ ﺎ م ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻢ ﻛ ﻤ ﺜ ﻞ ا ﻟ ﺎ ﺗ ﺐ‬

‫ﺪ ف ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٤ ) ،‬إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ت ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ) ‪ (٥‬ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ اﻟﺘ ﻌﺎ و‬
‫ﺻ ﻐ‬

‫أ ن‬

‫ﻌ ّﺪ د‬

‫‪():‬‬

‫اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﳌ‬

‫) ‪ (٣‬ﺗ ﻔ ﻴ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر س ﻋ‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ا ت‬

‫ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ‬

‫ﻮ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﻔ ﺎ ء ة ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻠ ﻤ ﻴّ ﺔ و ا ﻟ ﻜ ﻔ ﺎ ء ة ا ﻻ ﺟ ﺘ ﻤ ﺎ ﻋ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪(Nurhadi,‬‬

‫ﻌ ﻠ ﻴ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎ ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﺎ و ﻧ ﻴّ ﺔ ﻓ‬

‫)‬

‫ﻛ ﻤ ﺎ ﺗ ‪ (١ ) :‬ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ‬

‫‪ ( ٢‬ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ ﻣ ﺎ د ة ا ﻟ ﺪ ر س ‪ ،‬ﻣ ﺜ ﻞ‪ :‬ا ﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﻌ ﺮ ﻲ ا‬

‫ﺪ ف‬

‫ﺼ ﻮر ة ا ﳌ ﺴﻠ ﺴﻠ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫ﻠ ﺪ ا ﻷ و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫‪٧ ٩‬‬

‫أ و اﻟﻨ‬

‫ص ‪ ،‬أ و ا‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫ﻤ ﻞ ا ﳌ ﺘ ﻔّﺮﻗ ﺔ و ﻓ ﻖ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻔ ﺮ ق ‪ (٤ ) ،‬ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻮ ﻇ ﻴ‬
‫ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و)‬

‫ﺪ ف ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ﺗ ﻨ ﻈ ﻴ ﻢ و ﺗ ﻘ ﺴ ﻴ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ن ﻋ‬

‫إ‬

‫ّ ﻞ ﻓ ﺮ ﻗ ﺔ ‪ (٥ ) ،‬ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ ا ﻹ‬

‫‪(٧‬‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴّ ﺔ‬

‫ﺘ ّ ﻢ ﺑ ﺈ ﺟ ﺮا ء ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻌ ﺮ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﺘ ّ ﻮ ن ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴّ ﺔ‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫ض ‪ ،‬و ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ل ‪ ،‬أ و ا ﻟ ﻨ ﻤ ﻮ ذ ج‪.‬‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ت أ ﺗ ﻴ ﺔ‪ (١ ) :‬ا ﻟ ﺪ و ر ا ﳌ ﺸ ﺎ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻔ ﻘ ﺮا ت ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﻨ‬
‫اﻟ ﺪ ور‬

‫ﺪ ة ‪،‬‬

‫ﺎ و ﻓ ﻖ‬

‫ص ‪ ،‬ا ﻷ ﺷ ﻌﺎ ر ‪ ،‬أ و ﻏ‬

‫ﺳ ﺎ ق ا ﳌ ﺪّر س ا ﺘ ﻤ ﺎ م ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ن إ‬

‫ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ‬
‫ﺬ اﻟ ﺪ ور‬

‫‪:‬‬
‫ﻮ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ‬

‫)‬

‫‪(٦‬‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳﺎﻟﻴ ﺐ ‪،‬‬

‫ﺪ ف ا ﻟ ﺪ ر ا ﺳ ﺔ ‪ (٢ ) ،‬ا ﻟ ﺪ و ر ا ﻷ ﻧ‬

‫ﻣ ﺎ ﻗ ّﺪ ﻣ ﺎ ا ﳌ ﺪّر س‬

‫ﺎ ن ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ن ‪(٣ ) ،‬‬

‫اﻟ ﺪ ور ا ﻷ و ل ﺣ ّ‬

‫اﻟ ﺪ و را ﻹﻧ ﺘﺎ ّ ‪،‬‬

‫ﺬ‬
‫ﺗ‬

‫ﻮ ن ا ﳌ ﺎ ّد ة‬

‫ﺬا اﻟ ﺪ ور أ ﻋ ﻄ ﻰ‬

‫ا ﳌ ﺪ ّ ر س ﻓ ﺮ ﺻ ﺔ ﻟ ﻠ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ن أ ن ﻳ ﻜ ﺘ ﺒ ﻮ ا و ﻓ ﻖ ﻣ ﺎ ﻗ ﺪ ﻓ ﻤ ﻮ ا ﻣ ﻦ ا ﳌ ﻮ ا د أ و ﺑ ﻤ ﺴ ﺎ ﻋ ﺪ ة ا ﳌ ﻮ ا دّ ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴّ ﺔ‬
‫ا ﳌ ﻔ‬

‫ﺪاﻳﺎ ﻋ‬

‫ﻮ ﻣ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ) ‪ (٤‬ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﺑ ﻢ ا ﻟ‬

‫إ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ن ا ﻟ ﺬ ﻳ ﻦ ﻗ ﺪ ﻛ ﺘ ﺒ ﻮ ا ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﻛ ﻤ ﺜ ﻞ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺼ ﺎ ل‪ .‬ﻓ ﻔ ﻲ‬

‫ﺗﻨ ﻤﻴ ﺔ ﻛ ﻔﺎ ء ة اﻟ ﺪا ر ﺳ ن ﺑﺎ ﻻﺗ‬

‫)‬
‫ا ﻷ‬
‫أ ﻛ‬

‫ﺸ ﻄ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﻴّ ﺔ ا ﻟ‬
‫ﻣ ﻦ ا ﻷ‬

‫ﻳ ﺤﺘﺎ ج اﻟ ﺎ إﻟﻨﺎ‬

‫س‬
‫ﺪ ف إ‬

‫ﺸ ﻄ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺔ‪ (١ ) :‬ﺗ ﺪ و ﻦ ا ﳌ ﺬ ّ ﻛ ﺮ ا ت أ ﺛ ﻨ ﺎ ء ﻣ ﺤ ﺎ ﺿ ﺮ ة‬

‫)( ‪٢‬‬
‫و ﺗ ﺮﺗ ﻴ ﺎ‬
‫) ‪(٥‬‬

‫ض ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﻘ ﺎ ر ﺮ أ و ﻣ ﻘ ﺎ ﻻ ت ‪ (٤ ) ،‬ﺗ ﻮ ﺳ ﻴ ﻊ و ﺷ ﺮ ح‬
‫ﺷ‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻤﻴ ﺔ‬

‫‪ (٢ ٥ ٤ :١ ٩ ٨ ٩‬أ ن‬
‫أ و‬

‫)‬
‫ﻐ ﺮ‬

‫ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫‪ (٣‬ﺗ‬

‫ﺼ ﻴ‬

‫ﻒ ا ﳌ ﻌﻠ ﻮﻣﺎ ت‬

‫ﺣ ﻘﺎﺋ‬

‫ﻞ ﺗ ﻘ ﺎ ر ﺮ أ و ﺑ ﺤ ﻮ ث ‪ (٦ ) ،‬ﺗ ﺪ و ﻦ‬

‫ﻣ ﻼ ﺣ ﻈ ﺎ ت أ ﺛ ﻨ ﺎ ء ا ﻟ ﺰ ﺎ را ت‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻴ ﺪ ا ﻧ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ (٧ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﻘ ﺎ ر ﺮ ﻃ ﺒّ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ (٨ ) ،‬ﺗ ﺪ و ﻦ ﻧ ﺘ ﺎ ﺋ ﺞ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﺠ ﺎ ر ب ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻤ ﻠ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ ( ٩ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺮ ﺳ ﺎ ﺋ ﻞ‬
‫ﺑ ﺄ ﻧ ﻮا ﻋ ﺎ ا‬

‫ﺼ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ر ﺳ ﻤ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ ،‬أ و ﻋ ﻠ ﻤ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ (١ ٠ ) ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﻗ ﺴ ﺎ ﺋ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻔ ﻮ ا ﺗ ﺮ‬

‫ﺘﻠ ﻔ ﺔ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﺒ ﻴ ﻊ و ا ﻟ ﺸ ﺮ ا ء و ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻘ ﻮ د ‪(١ ١ ) ،‬‬

‫و و ﺻ ﻮ ﻻ ت‬

‫ﻴ ﻞ ا ﻧ ﻄ ﺒ ﺎ ﻋ ﺎ ت أ ﺛ ﻨ ﺎ ء ا ﻟ ﺮ ﺣ ﻼ ت و ا ﻟ ﺰ ﺎ ر ا ت ‪ (١ ٢ ) ،‬ﺗ ﺪ و ﻦ‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫ﻌ ﻠ ﻴ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﺘ ّ ﻮ ن ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻻ ﺗّ‬

‫ﺼ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴّ ﺔ ﻋ‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳﺎﻟﻴ ﺐ و ا‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ت آ ﺗ ﻴ ﺔ‪ (١ ) :‬د و ر ا ﻹ ﻋ ﺪ ا د و‬
‫ﻤ ﻞ و ﻓ ﻖ ﻛ ﻔﺎ ء ة اﻟ ﺪا ر ﺳ ن ‪ ،‬و ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬
‫إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ا ﻟ ﺪ را ﺳ ﺔ‬

‫و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫‪٨ ٠‬‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫أ و‬

‫ا ﻟ ﺪ را ﺳ ﺔ أ‬

‫ﻣ ﻦ اﻟ ﻜﺘ ﺐ ‪ ،‬اﻟ‬

‫ﺑ ﻜ ﻔﺎ ء ة اﺗ‬

‫‪(٢‬‬

‫ﺼ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴّ ﺔ ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﻴّ ﺔ )‬

‫ﺼ ﻮر ة ‪ ،‬اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻨ ﻤ ﻮ ذ ﺟﻴ ﺔ ‪ ،‬أ و ﻏ‬
‫اﻟﺘ ﺪ ر‬

‫ﺎ ‪ ،‬و أﻟ ﺔ اﻟﺘ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ ا ﳌﻨﺎ ﺳﺒ ﺔ‬
‫ﺧ ﻄّ ﺔ‬

‫ﺲ ا ﻟ ﺬ ي ﻳ ﺤ ﺘ ﻮ ي ﻋ ‪ :‬إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ا ت‬
‫ا‬

‫ﺗ ﻘ ﺪ ﻳ ﻢ ا ﻹ ﺷ ﺮا ف ﻋ‬

‫اﻟ ﺪا ر ﺳ ن ‪ ،‬و)‬

‫‪(٣‬‬

‫ﺑ ﻤ ﺎ رة ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤﺎ ل اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﺔ ﻣ ﺜ ﻞ ﻛ ﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻄّ ﺔ ‪،‬‬
‫اﻟ ﻄﻠﺒ ﺔ‬

‫ا ﻻ ﺳ ﺌ ﺬ ا ن ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﻨ ﺌ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﺮ دّ ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﺸ ﻜ ﺮ أ و‬

‫ﻌﺒ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫أ و‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫‬‫ﻳﺘ ّﻮ ن ﺗ ﺪ ر‬

‫ﺲ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫‪.(٢ ٦ ٠ -٢ ٢ ٥‬‬

‫أّﻣ ﺎ ا ﻷ‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫ﺲ ﻣ ﺮا ﺣ ﻞ إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ا ت آ ﺗ ﻴ ﺔ و ‪ :‬ﻣ ﺮ ﺣ ﻠ ﺔ ﻣ ﺎ ﻗ ﺒ ﻞ‬

‫ﺧ ﻤ‬

‫)‪Tompkins,‬‬
‫‪:١ ٩ ٩ ١‬‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع ‪ (٢ ) ،‬إ ﺛ ﺒ ﺎ ت أ‬

‫ﺪا‬

‫ﻣ ﺮ ﺣ ﻠ ﺔ ﻣ ﺎ ﻗ ﺒ ﻞ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﻓ ﺘ ﺘ ّ ﻮ ن ﻣ ﻦ ) ‪ (١‬ا ﺧ ﺘ ﻴ ﺎ ر‬

‫ﺸ ﻄ ﺔ‬

‫ف ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻧ ﻮ ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﻗ ّ ﺮ ا ء ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎ ل‬

‫)‬
‫اﻟﺘ ﺨ ﻄﻴ ﻂ ﻛﺘ ﺐ اﻟ ﺎﺗ ﺐ‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ أ ﻛ‬

‫‪ (٤‬إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻷ ﺣ ﺮ ف ‪ ،‬ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻤ ﺎ ت ‪ ،‬و ﺗ ﺮا ﻛ ﻴ ﺐ ا‬

‫ﻣ ﺎ ﻳ ﻤ ﻜ ﻦ ﺗ ﻨ ﺎ ﺳ ﺐ ﺑ ﻔ ﻜ ﺮ ة رﺋ‬

‫ﺟ ﻤ ﺎ ﻋ ﻴّ ﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ‬
‫ﻣ ﺮ ﺣﻠ ﺔ‬

‫ﺴ ﻴّ ﺔ د و ن ا ﺘ ﻤ ﺎ م ﺑ ﺨ ﻄ ﺄ‬

‫ﻤ ﻞ‪.‬‬

‫إ‬
‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ اﻟ ﺸ ﻌ ﺮ ‪ ،‬أ و إ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻷ ﺧ ﺮ ى ﻣ ﺜ ﻞ ﺗ ﺤ ﻮ ﻞ ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻘ ّﺼ ﺔ‬

‫ﻧ ﻮ ع‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ اﻟ ﺮ ﺳﺎﻟ ﺔ ‪ ،‬أ و ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻘ ﺮ ﺮ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺤ ﺚ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻣ ﻊ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ﺟ ﻤ ﺎ ﻋ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘّ ﺎ ب ‪،‬‬

‫و‬

‫)‬

‫‪:١ ٩ ٩ ١‬‬

‫‪ (٢ ٤ ٣‬أ ن‬

‫ﻣ ﺮ ﺣﻠ ﺔ‬

‫أ و ﺗ ﻮ ﺳ ﻴ ﻌ ﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ا ﻷ ﺧ ﻄ ﺎ ء ﺑ ﻮ ﺳ ﻴ ﻠ ﺔ إ ﻋ ﺪ ا د ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ و ﻗ ﺮا ء ة‬

‫اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ و ﺑﺘ‬
‫أ ن‬

‫ﻨﺎ ك أ‬

‫ﻴ ﺢ أ ﺧ ﻄ ﺎ ء ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪ .‬أ ّ ﻣ ﺎ‬
‫ﺸ ﻄ ﺔ آ‬

‫ﻣ ﺮ ﺣ ﻠ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻨ ﺎ ﻗ ﺸ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻗ ﺎ ل ﺗ ﻤ ﺒ ﻜ ن ) ‪(٢ ٥ ٠ :١ ٩ ٩ ١‬‬
‫إ ﻗﺎ ﻣ ﺔ ﻣ ﺴﺎﺑ ﻘ ﺔ‬

‫اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ا ﻻ ﺷ ا ك‬

‫و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫‪٨ ١‬‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻣ ﺠ ﻤ ﻮ ع اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ﺼ ّ ‪ ،‬ا ﻻ ﺷ ا ك‬
‫اﻟ ﺸ ﺮ‬

‫ﻀﺎ ء اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ﺑ ن أ ﻋ‬
‫اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ إ‬

‫أ و ا ﻷ ﺧﺒﺎ ر ‪ ،‬و ﺿ ﻊ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬
‫ﺣ ﻔﻠ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﺪ ر ﺳ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ا ﳌﻨﺎ ﻗ ﺸ ﺔ‬

‫ﻂ ‪ ،‬ﻗ ﺮا ء ة ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﺼ ﻞ ‪ ،‬أ و ا ﻟ ﻮا ﻟ ﺪ ﻳ ﻦ ‪ ،‬أ و ا ﻷ ﺧ ﻮا ت ‪ ،‬إ ر ﺳ ﺎ ل ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ إ‬
‫ﺶ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻣ ﻦ أ ﺻ ﺪ ﻗﺎ ء ﺧﺎ ر ج اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻘ ّﺼ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺗ ﻔ ﺘ‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺻ ﺪ ﻗﺎ ء ‪ ،‬ﺗ ﺤ ﻮ ﻞ‬

‫ﺼ ﻞ‪.‬‬

‫‬‫ﻗ ﺎ ل ﻣ ﺤ ّ ﻤ ﺪ ) ‪ (٢ ٢ ٧ -٢ ٦ ٣ -:١ ٩ ٨ ٩‬أ ن ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﻨ ﻘ ﺴ ﻢ ﺑ ﺤ ﺴ ﺐ ﻣ ﺮ ا ﺣ ﻞ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫)‬

‫‪ (١‬ا ﳌ ﺎ ر ا ت ا ﻵ ﻟ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ (٢ ) ،‬ا ﳌ ﺎ ر ا ت ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻘ ﻠ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻘ ﻴّ ﺪ ة ‪ ،‬و) ‪ (٤‬ا ﻟ ﺘ‬
‫ﻣ ﺎ ر ة ا ﻵ ﻟ ﻴ ﺔ ﺗ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻖ ﺑ ﻤ ﺎ ر ة‬

‫اﻟﺘ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻋ ﻼ ﻣﺎ ت‬
‫أ و‬

‫ور ﺳ ﻢ أ و ﻋ ﺪ م ر ﺳ ﻢ‬

‫ﻴ ﺢ‪.‬‬

‫أ و‬

‫ﻤ ﺰ ا ت ا ﻟ ﻘ ﻄ ﻊ و ا ﻟ ﻮ ﺻ ﻞ‪ .‬ﻗ ﺎ ل ﻣ ﺤ ّ ﻤ ﺪ أ ن أ ﻧ ﻮ ا ع ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫ﺿ ﻮ ء اﻟﺘ ﻌ ﺮ‬

‫ﻒ ‪ ،‬اﻟ ﺘ ﻌّﺮ ف‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫ﻣ ﺮ ﺣ ﻠ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﺎ ر ا ت ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻘ ﻠ ﻴّ ﺔ ﺗ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻖ‬

‫ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ب‬

‫ﻗ ﺪ رة ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤﺎ ل اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﺔ‬
‫اﻧﺘ ﻘﺎ ء ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب‬

‫ﺐ ا ﳌ ﻌﻠ ﻮ ﻣﺎ ت ذا ت اﻟ‬

‫و ﺗ ﻨ ﻈ ﻴ ﻢ و ﺗ ﺮﺗ‬

‫ﺼ ﻠ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎ ﳌ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع‪ .‬أ ّ ﻣ ﺎ أ ﻧ ﻮ ا ع ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ‬
‫ﻋ ﻠ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﻨ ﺤ ﻮ وا ﻟ‬

‫ﺑﺘ ﻜ ﻤﻴ ﻞ ﻣ ﻊ ا ﺧﺘﻴﺎ ر ا‬

‫ﻮا ب ا ﻟ‬

‫ﻛﻴ ﺐ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺼ ﻮ ر ‪ ،‬وﺗ‬

‫أ و ا ﳌ ﻨ ﺎ ﺳ ﺒ ﺔ ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺌ ﻠ ﺔ ﺑ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ‬
‫ﻤ ﻠ ﺔ( ا ﺧ ﺘ ﻴ ﺎ ر ﻣ ﻦ ﻣ ﺘ ﻌ ّ ﺪ د ‪ ،‬و ا ﺧ ﺘ ﻴ ﺎ ر‬

‫ﻠ ﻤ ﺔ اﻟ ﺮ‬

‫و‬

‫ﺪ ف إ‬
‫ﺗﻨ ﻈﻴ ﻢ‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻌﻠ ﻮﻣﺎ ت‬

‫ا ﻻ ﺳ ﺘ ﺨ ﺪا م اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّي ‪ ،‬و اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﻌ ﺮ ﻲ ا‬

‫ﻂ ا ﳌﻨﺎ ﺳ ﺐ ‪ ،‬و و ﺻ‬

‫ﻒ‬

‫ﺴ ﻴ ﻖ ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻤ ﺎ ت‪.‬‬

‫أّﻣ ﺎ أ ﻧ‬
‫ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب‬

‫‪ (١ ) :‬ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺌ ﻠ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎ ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻄ ﺎ ﺑ ﻘ ﺔ‬

‫ﻴ ﺢ ﻣ ﻦ ا ﻷ ﺟ ﻮ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻌ ّ ﺪ ة ‪ (٢ ) ،‬ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺌ ﻠ ﺔ ﺑ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺪ ﻻ ﻟ ﺔ و‬

‫ﺑﺎ ﺳ ﺒ ﺪا ل اﻟ ﻠ ﻤﺎ ت اﻟ‬
‫اﻟﺘ ﻮ ﺳﻴ ﻊ )ﺗﻨ ﻤﻴ ﺔ ا‬

‫ﺪ ف إ‬

‫ﺗ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻖ‬

‫ﺑﺎ ﺳﺘ ﻌ ﻤﺎ ل‬

‫ﺼ ﻠ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎ ا ﳌ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع ‪ ،‬و ﺗ ﺮﺗ‬

‫ﻠ ﺪ ا ﻷ و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ‬
‫ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻴ ﺢ ‪،‬‬

‫ﺐ ا ﳌ ﻌ ﻠ ﻮ ﻣ ﺎ ت وﺗ ﻨ ﻈ ﻴ ﻤ ﺎ ‪.‬‬

‫و ﻣ ﺴﺘ ﻮ ﺎ ت‬

‫‪٨ ٢‬‬

‫‪:‬‬
‫ﺴﺘ ﻄﻴ ﻊ أ ن ﻳ ﺆ ﺧ ﺬ اﻟﺘ ﻘ ﻮ ﻢ ﺑ ﻮ ﺳﻴﻠ ﺔ ا ﺧﺘﻴﺎ ر ا ﻷ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب اﻟ‬

‫ا‬
‫اﻟ ﺪا ر ﺳ ن‬
‫ﺷ‬

‫ﻣ ﺪ ى‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫اﻟ ﻘﺎﺋ ﻤﺘ ن‬

‫ﻣ ﺠﺎ ل‬

‫وﺗ ﻮ ﺿ ﻴ ﺢ‬

‫ﺣ ﻴ ﺚ ا ﳌ ﺴ ﺘ ﻮ ى اﻟﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّي ا ﳌ ﺴ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﻞ ‪ ،‬و ﻗ ﺪ رة‬

‫ﺻ ﻠ ﺔ ﻣ ﺎ ﻳ ﻜ ﺘ ﺒ ﻮﻧ‬

‫ﻞ ر ﺳﺎﻟ ﺔ أ و ﻣ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع إ‬

‫و‬

‫ﻤ ﻮ ﻋﺘ‬

‫ن ﻣ ﻦ‬

‫ﻴ ﺢ أ و ا ﻷ ﻓ‬

‫ﻀ ﻞ ‪ ،‬و ا ﺳ ﺒ ﺪا ل‬

‫ﺸﺎ ّﻲ ‪ ،‬و‬

‫ﺴ ﻠ ﺴ ﻠ ﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣ ﺮ ﺣ ﻠ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻘ ﻴّ ﺪ ة ﺗ ﻘ ﻮ ﻤ ﺎ ت ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﺘ ﻨ ّ ﻮ ﻋ ﺔ و‬
‫وا ﻟ ﻨ ﻘ ﻴ‬

‫ﺾ ‪ ،‬و ) ‪ (٢‬إ ﺿ ﺎ ﻓ ﺔ‬

‫ﻠ ﻤﺎ ت أ و‬
‫إ‬

‫ا ﻷ ﻓ ﻌﺎ ل أ و‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻔ ﻘ ﺮ ة ا ﳌ ﻌ ّ ﺪ ة ‪ ،‬و ) ‪ (٣‬ﺗ ﺤ ﻮ ﻞ‬

‫ﺣ ﺎ ل ا ﻟ ﺎ ﺗ ﺐ ‪ ،‬و)‬

‫ﺻﻴ ﻎ‬

‫)‬

‫ا ﳌ ﻌﻠ ﻮ م أ و إ ﺳ‬

‫ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻘ ّﺼ ﺔ ا ﳌ ﻨ ﺎ ﺳ ﺒ ﺔ ﺑ ﻔ ﻜ ﺮ ة و‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻘ ّﺼ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و )‬

‫) ‪ (١‬ا ﻻ ﺳ ﺒ ﺪ ا ل ﺑ ﺎ ﳌ ﺮ ا د ف‬

‫‪(٤‬‬

‫‪(٥‬‬

‫‪(٦‬‬

‫ﻗ ّﺪ ﻣ ﺖ إ‬

‫ﻞ ﻧ ﻘ ﺎ ط ﻣ ﻌ ّ ﺪ ة‪.‬‬

‫ﺷ‬

‫ﺿ ﻮ ء وا ﺣ ﺪ أ و‬

‫‪(١ ) :‬‬
‫إ‬

‫ﻣﺎ ﻌﺘ ﻘ ﺪ أ ن‬

‫‪(٤‬‬

‫)‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳ ﻠ ﻮ ب و ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻨ ﻈ ﻴ ﻢ ‪(٢ ) ،‬‬

‫) ‪(٣‬‬
‫) ﺳ ﻠ ﺒ ﻴ ﺎ و إ ﻳ ﺠ ﺎ ﺑ ﻴ ﺎ( ‪) ،‬‬

‫) (‪٦‬‬

‫‪(٥‬‬

‫اﻟ ﻮﻗ ﺖ اﻟ ﺬ ي‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺈ ﺣ ﺪ ى ﻃ ﺮ ﻘﺘ ن و‬

‫و)‬

‫‪(٢‬‬

‫د ر ﺟ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻻ ﻧ ﻄ ﺒ ﺎ ﻋ ﻴّ ﺔ ﻳ ﻘ ﻮ م ا ﳌ‬

‫ﻤ ﺎ‪ (١ ) :‬ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻻ ﻧ ﻄ ﺒ ﺎ ﻋ ﻴّ ﺔ‬
‫ّ‬

‫ﺑ ﻘ ﺮا ء ة ا ﳌ ﻮ ﺿ ﻮ ع ﺛ ّ ﻢ‬

‫ﺿ ﻮ ء ا ﻻﻧ‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻘ ﻮا ﻋ ﺪ ‪ ،‬وا ﳌ ﻔ ﺮ د ا ت ‪ ،‬و‬

‫ﻌ ﻄ ﻰ‬

‫أ ﺳﻠ ﻮ ب اﻟﺘﻨ ﻈﻴ ﻢ و ﻏ‬

‫اﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ‬

‫ﺎ‪.‬‬

‫و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫‪٨ ٣‬‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫إ ﺣ ﺪ ى‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﺘ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻖ ﺑ ﺄ ﻧ ﻮ ا ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ أ‬
‫ﻨﺎ ك ﺛ ﻼ ث ﻃ ﺮ ق‬

‫ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﺗ ﺪ ﻟ ﻴ ﻠ ﻴّ ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻣ ﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ﻗ‬

‫ﺼ‬

‫أ‬

‫ﺪا ف‬

‫ﺼ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ و ﺻ ﻔ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ﻋ ﺮ ﺿ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و‬
‫) ‪ (١‬ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ﺗ ﺮ ﻛ ﻴ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ (٢ ) ،‬ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ﺑ ﺌ ﻮ ّ ﺔ ‪،‬‬

‫ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ و‬

‫و ) ‪ (٣‬ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﺟ ﺮ ا ﺋ ﻴّ ﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ز ﻋ ﻤ ﺖ اﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ اﻟ‬
‫ا ﻷ ﺳ ﻠ ﻮ ب ا ﳌ ﺜ ﺎ ّ‪ .‬أ‬

‫أ ن‬
‫اﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ اﻟ‬

‫ﺪا‬

‫ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺐ ا ﻟ ﺎ ﻣ ﻠ ﺔ‪ .‬أ ﻗ ﺎ م ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ﻮ ن ﺑ ﺘ ﺤ ﻠ ﻴ ﻞ ا ﻟ ﻨ‬

‫ﺔ‬

‫ّﺺ اﻟ ﺬ ي ﻓﻴ‬

‫ﻣ ﺎ رة‬
‫أ ﺳﺎﻟﻴ ﺐ‬

‫ﻴ ﺤ ﺔ ﺛ ّ ﻢ ﻳ ﺪ ّ ر ب ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ﻮ ن ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ا ﻷ ﺳ ﺎ ﻟ ﻴ ﺐ ا ﳌ ﺪ ر و ﺳ ﺔ‪ .‬و ز ﻋ ﻤ ﺖ ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺒ ﺌ ﻮ ّ ﺔ أ ن‬
‫أ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫أ‬

‫ﺪ ا ف ﺧ ﺎ ّ ﺻ ﺔ‪ .‬و ﻛ ﺬ ﻟ ﻚ‬
‫ﻀﺎ ح ‪ ،‬و ﻏ‬

‫ﻓ ﺎ ر ‪ ،‬ﻛ ﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ا ﻹﻳ‬

‫ﺪ ا ف ﺧ ﺎ ّ ﺻ ﺔ‪ .‬ﻣ ﺜ ﻼ ﻛ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

‫ﺎ‪ .‬و ز ﻋ ﻤ ﺖ ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ا ﻹ ﺟ ﺮ ا ﺋ ﻴّ ﺔ‬

‫أ ن‬
‫ا ﻟ ﺘ ﺨ ﻄ ﻴ ﻂ ‪ ،‬ﺧ ﻄ ﻮ ة ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﺧ ﻄ ﻮ ة ا ﻹ ﺻ ﻼ ح‪ .‬ﻟ ّ ﻞ ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ﻣ‬
‫ﻳ ﺠ ﻮ ز ﻟ ﻠ ﻤ ﻌ ﻠّ ﻢ أ ن‬

‫ة وﻧ ﻘ‬

‫ﺴ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﻞ و ﺨ ﺘ ﺎ ر إ ﺣ ﺪ ى ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮا ﺋ ﻖ ا ﻟ ﺜ ﻼ ث و ﻓ ﻖ أ‬

‫ﺼﺄ ن ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠ ﺬﻟ ﻚ‬
‫ﺪ ا ف ا ﻟ ﺪ را ﺳ ﺔ و ﻣ ا ت‬

‫ا ﻟ ﺪ ا ر ﺳ ن‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﺜ ﻘﺎ ﻓ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣ ﻦ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ﺷ ﺮ ﻌ ﺔ اﻟ ﺪﻳ ﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻣ ﻦ ا ﻷ‬

‫وُ ر ّ ﻛ ﺰ‬

‫) ‪ (١‬ا ﻷ ﺳ ﻠ ﻮ ب ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ي ‪ ( ٢ ) ،‬ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎ ل ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﺔ ‪ ( ٣ ) ،‬ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻌ ﺒ‬

‫ﺷ ﻴ ﺎ ء‪.‬‬
‫ا ﻟ ﻠ ﻐ ﻮ ّ ي ‪ (٤ ) ،‬إ ﺟ ﺮ ا ء ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪( ٥ ) ،‬‬

‫ﻣ ﺤ ﺘ ﻮ ﺎ ت ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ ‪ (٦ ) ،‬ﻧ ﻮ ع ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‪ .‬و ا ﺳ ﺘ ﻄ ﺎ ع ﻣ ﺪ ّ ر س ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ أ ن ﻳ ﺨ ﺘ ﺎ ر إ ﺣ ﺪ ى ا ﻟ ﻄ ﺮ ق‬
‫ﻌﻠﻴ ﻢ اﻟ ﻜﺘﺎﺑ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و‬

‫ا ﻵﺗﻴ ﺔ‬

‫‪ :‬ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ ﻣ ﺒﺎ ﺷ ﺮة ‪ ،‬ﻃ ﺮ ﻘ ﺔ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ﻌﺄ و‬

‫‪:‬‬

‫إ ﺟ ﺮا ء ا ت آ‬

‫‪،‬‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫)‬
‫ا ﳌ ﻘ ﻴّ ﺪ ة ‪ ،‬و) ‪ (٤‬ا ﻟ ﺘ‬

‫اﻟ ﻌ ﺮ ﻲ ا‬

‫ﻴ ﺢ‪.‬‬

‫ﻠ ﺪ ا ﻷ و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل ‪ ٢ ٠ ١ ٧‬م‬

‫‪ (١‬ا ﳌ ﺎ ر ا ت ا ﻵ ﻟ ﻴ ﺔ ‪ (٢ ) ،‬ا ﳌ ﺎ ر ا ت ا ﻟ ﻌ ﻘ ﻠ ﻴّ ﺔ ‪ (٣ ) ،‬ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ‬

٨ ٤

:

‫ ﻋ ﻤ ﺎ د ة‬:‫ ا ﳌ ﻤ ﻠ ﻜ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﻌ ﺮ ﻴّ ﺔ ا ﻟ ﺴ ﻌ ﻮ د ﻳ ﺔ‬.

.١ ٩ ٨ ٩
.‫ﺳ ﻌ ﻮ د‬

.

‫ﺷ ﺆ و ن ا ﳌ ﻜﺘﺒﺎ ت ﺟﺎ ﻣ ﻌ ﺔ ا ﳌﻠ ﻚ‬

Hyland, Key.2003. Second Language Writing. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Nurhadi, Yasin, Senduk.2004. Pembelajaran Kontekkstual dan Penerapannya
dalam KBK. Malang: Penerbit Universitas Negeri Malang.
Raimes, Ann. 2002. Ten Steps in Planning a Writing Course and Training
Teachers of Writing. Dalam: Methodology in Language Teaching: An
Anthology of Current Practice. Editor: Jack C. Richards dan Willy A.
Renandya. USA: Cambridge University Press.
Sutama, I Made. 2006. Tanya Jawab Pramenulis untuk Memudahkan Pembelajar
Menghasilkan Tulisan. www. iaLF.edu/Kipbipa/papers/I Made Sutama
doc. Diakses tanggal 18 Desember 2006.
Tompkins Gail E. & Hoskissons Kenneth. 1991. Language Arts: Content and
Teaching Strategies. New York: Macmillan Publishing Comapny.

‫ م‬٢ ٠ ١ ٧ ‫ﻠ ﺪ ا ﻷ و ل اﻟ ﻌ ﺪ د ا ﻷ و ل‬

‫اﻟ ﻌ ﺮ ﻲ ا‬