THE STUDY OF ACTIVATING STUDENTS’ CONTENT SCHEMA IN TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION :A Case Study on Two English Teachers at an SMP in Lembang.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter elaborates some aspects related to the introduction of this thesis. They are background of the study, research questions, purpose of the study, significance of the study, definition of the terms related to the topic of the study, and finally organization of the thesis.
1.1. Background of the Study
The reader’s background knowledge plays an important role in comprehending the reading text. In the reading process the reader uses his or her background knowledge to relate it with the knowledge provided by the writer in the text to build meaning (Anderson and Pearson, 1984). The role of student’s background knowledge in the reading process has been formalized as schema theory (Carrell, 1984). It was Barlett in 1932 who proposes that the organization of a reader’s past experiences (schemata) directly influences the comprehension and retention the materials in the passage (Johnson, 1982).
According to schema theory, the text itself does not carry meaning. Rather, a text provides clues to enable readers to construct meaning from existing knowledge. Comprehending a text, then, becomes an interactive process between the text and the reader’s background knowledge, and input is dealt with in terms of the schemata that readers brings with them (Pearson-Casanave, 1984).
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In addition Al-Issa (2006) emphasizes that most of the research based on this theory seem to agree that when the students are familiar with the topic of the text they are reading (possess content schema), aware of the discourse level and structural make-up of the genre of the text (possess formal schema), and skillful in the decoding features needed to recognize words and recognize how they fit together in a sentence (possess linguistic schema), they are in the better position to comprehend their assigned reading.
The closer the match between the reader’s schema and the text, the more comprehension occurs. Comprehension of any kinds depends on knowledge; that is, relating what we don’t know (i.e. new information), to what we already know, which is not a random collection of facts but a theory of the world. In other words, our understanding of a text depends on how much related schema we, as reader’s posses while reading (Issa, 2006). Furthermore, Anderson (1994) states that, when the readers can not locate a schema that fits a text, they may find it incomprehensible. As Carrell (1988) also states “Students apparent reading problems may be the problems of insufficient background knowledge (content, formal and linguistic), furthermore she points out that students may have sufficient schema but unable to comprehend the text if such schemata are not appropriately activated.
The activating students related schemata through the using of appropriate strategies in pre reading activities seem necessary to be conducted by the teacher,
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as it builds bridge of the students’ background knowledge to the new knowledge provided in the text.
As everybody knows that the students come to the class with different background knowledge. For example the students who are fond of sport may have more background knowledge about it than those who do not like it. This is the teacher’s task to know how much background knowledge the students have on the certain topic. Then, helping students to build the new schema and activating the existing schema must be in the teacher’s consideration before asking them to read the text to make the students easier in comprehending the reading text.
Activating students’ background knowledge can be conducted in various types of pre-reading activities. A study conducted by Hudson (1982) found that explicit pre-reading activity help learner to be better comprehension. He compared one type of explicit pre-reading activity – consist of having students briefly view a set of cue pictures, discuss the pictures, and then individually generate a set of predictions about what they expected to find in the passage – to another type of pre-reading activity – a type of vocabulary activity. The result shows that the former type of pre-reading activity had significantly facilitating effect on reading comprehension compared to the latter.
Unfortunately, in Indonesian secondary school classrooms, a few teachers still use a simple technique in teaching reading. The steps are; students read the text, teacher asks questions, students answer questions and check their answer with the teacher. They feel comfortable with these steps in presenting the reading
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lesson because they think that they can assess the students’ reading comprehension immediately (Danusubroto and Suria, 2001). They also add, as results not only do the students reading as difficult but also boring and unstimulating.
On the other hand, there are so many strategies which can be used by the teachers to avoid the bored condition of the students, even to promote the students interest and increase the students’ ability in comprehending the reading text. One of them is by helping the students activate their background knowledge particularly the knowledge which related to the content of the text or content schema.
Content schema or the reader’s background knowledge on the content area of the text plays dominant role in comprehending reading text. Issa (2006) states no matter how well a reader may know a language, he or she can not read in that language with good comprehension if the subject matter or the content of the text is one he or she knows absolutely nothing about.
This study investigated the strategies used by the teachers in helping the students to activate their content schema in teaching reading comprehension and also to investigate the students’ responses on activating the students’ content schema.
1.2. Research Questions
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1. How do the teachers activate the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension?
2. How do the students respond on the activating students’ content schema?
1.3. Purposes of the Study
Based on the research questions above, the purpose of this study is:
1. To investigate the strategies which are used by the teachers to activate the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension.
2. To investigate the students’ responses on the activating students’ content schema conducted by the teachers.
1.4. Significance of the Study This study is significant in that:
1. It attempts to investigate the strategies which are used by the teachers to activate the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. This is very important because the researcher believes that the findings can be beneficial for teachers in choosing and applying the appropriate strategies for activating the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. By choosing and applying the appropriate strategies, the teachers can lead the students to comprehend the reading texts effectively and increase their reading skill.
2. By investigating the students’ responses on the activating students’ content schema, the researcher will obtain the valuable data whether the students give
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good responses or not to the activities of activating students content schema conducted by the teachers.
1.5. Definition of Terms
Schema, plural sche·ma·ta also schemas is a pattern imposed on complex reality or experience to assist in explaining it, mediate perception, or guide
response. (The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company) http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/schema. Alexander, (1988. p. 9) defines that schemata are functions in the brain that interpret, organize, and retrieve information; in other words, they are mental frameworks
Schema theory is a theory about knowledge, about how knowledge is represented, and about how that representation facilitates the use of knowledge in various ways. According to schema theorists, all knowledge is packaged into units called schemata, and embedded into these units of knowledge is information on how this knowledge is to be used.
(KarlaPorter,.http://departments.weber.edu/teachall/reading/prereading.html)
Content schema is background knowledge of the content area of the text that a reader brings to a text, such as knowledge about people, the world, culture and the universe. (Carell and Eisterhold, 1983; Singhal, 1998; Stot, 2001)
Reading comprehension is the active process of constructing meaning through interacts between the reader and the material that is read. Successful
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comprehension involves the reader’s discovering the meaning needed to achieve the particular purposes set for, or by, him. (Alexander, 1988)
1.6. The Organization of Thesis
This thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter one is an introduction which discusses the background of the study, followed by the research questions and the purposes of the study. The significance of this study is also presented in this chapter. This chapter is closed by presenting the organization of the thesis in the last part of the chapter.
Chapter two presents the relevant information and theories related to the activating students’ content schema. The integrative relevant information presented as theoretical foundation related to this study consist of two big theories; they are the schema theory which includes the types of schema, the role of schema in reading comprehension, and the schema activation strategies in the first part, and theories of reading include the reading process, and reading phases, and some previous research findings related to this study also presented in the last part of this chapter.
Chapter three elaborates the research methodology. It begins with the research design, research site, participant, data collection methods include the data presentation, research procedures, and the issue of validity. The steps of the data analyses obtained in this study are presented in the last part of this chapter.
Chapter four reports the findings and discussions.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses some important aspects related to research methodology. The first part begins with the research design and describes how the study was carried out. The second elaborates the participants involved and research setting in the study. The third is the data collection method included the data presentation. The fourth is about the validity and reliability of the study. And the last part elaborates the techniques used to analyze the data.
3.1. The Research Design
Since this study attempted to explore the activating of the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension, it employed the qualitative research design with the characteristics of a case study. The study has the natural characteristics which mean that the researcher does not manipulate or interfere with the classroom activities being observed. Denzim and Lincoln (1994) define the qualitative research as multi methods in focus of the involvement of an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret the phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them.
A case study was chosen for several reasons. First, this study was carried out in a single case (Bogdan, 1988:54) that was the activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. Second, this study employed multiple
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data collections and analytical procedures, which constituted the important aspect of a case study (Yin, 1993:32). The use of multiple data collection was intended to allow for “in depth study” to enhance the construct validity of the study (Yin, 193: 39-40) and to gain more rounded and complete accounts on the description and picture of the activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension at an SMP in Lembang, Bandung Barat. In this case study, the researcher used triangulation of the data collection methods which means the researcher used more than one method of data collection (Cohen and Manion, 1994; Silverman, 2005) involving classroom observation and interview with the teachers and students.
3.2. The Research Site
The study was conducted at an SMP in Lembang Bandung Barat Regency. There are several reasons for considering this school being research site of this study. The first, the school was located not far from the researcher where he was studying. This would make him easier to conduct the research in accordance with the feasibility of the site or data source for the study (Bogdan, 1988:54). The second, the school has been conducting good relationship with the institution where the researcher studied for a long time, so that he had no problem with the license conducting a research here. The third, one was related to the accessibility. The researcher had no problem in gaining the data and looking for the respondents of this study since he has ever conducted the research in the institution with the same respondents in the past. It means that he has good relationship with the English teachers so that he has easier access in gaining the data. Next the last
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reason, the school was the most favorite one in the Bandung Barat Regency and it is also the only school which applied pioneering effort on the International Standard School in the region.
3.3. Participants
The participants of the study were two English teachers and five classes of eight grade students of an SMP in Lembang, Bandung Barat Regency. Each class consists of 40 to 45 students.
Teacher 1 (T1) was 48 years old. She graduated from IKIP Bandung and she has been teaching English for 26 years at the school. She was also a certified English teacher because she has passed in the teacher portfolio assessment in 2007. On the other hand, Teacher 2 (T2) was 43 years old. She graduated from IKIP Bandung too. She has been teaching at the same school for 19 years. But she has not called for teacher certification program.
The voluntary-based of choosing the participant was used in this study. It meant that the researcher used the English teachers who were ready to become participants in this study. The two English teachers were chosen for some reasons. The first, the researcher has looked for some English teachers to be respondents in his study, but it was not easy to find them. Many of English teachers with various reasons were not ready to be respondents in his research. The second, they were the teachers who always conducted the activating students’ content schema in every teaching reading comprehension (the focus of the researcher’s study and the independent variable). The third, they were the only teachers who were recommended by the headmaster to be the participants in the study.
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As outlined above, this study employed a qualitative research, using multiple techniques of data collection methods. There were two main data collection methods used including classroom observation and interviews. The research was conducted for five weeks (from April 15, 2009 to May 15, 2009). The techniques will be elaborated below.
3.4.1. Classroom Observations
In a qualitative research, one of the primary data resources is observation (Silverman, 2005). If a researcher wants to find out classroom interaction, it is important for him or her to do classroom observation (Nunan, 1989:76). Thus several activities in what the teacher was doing including the strategies used and what the students were acting and responding, would be covered in the classroom activities of teaching reading comprehension.
Classroom observations were conducted for four meetings of each teacher with different classes and reading topic (See Appendices). The researcher’s role in this observation acted as non-participant observer. He was present in the classroom but he didn’t participate (Sugiono, 2005:66) in the teaching process.
During the observations, the researcher observed teaching and learning activities occurred in the classroom. He focused his observation on the strategies used by the teacher in activating students’ content schema which occurred in pre reading activity and he also observed the students’ activities in responding to the activities during the teacher was activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension.
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Further, the researcher took notes of what was said and what was done by both the teacher and the students in the classroom interaction. This was done in order to investigate what strategies were potentially used by the teacher in activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension and what responses that appeared from students on the activities conducted by the teacher in activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension.
The classroom activities were also recorded by using MP4 audio-recorder and digital camera. This was done to give an opportunity to the observer to get a complete picture of the classroom activities.
The data from observations will be elaborated in the following data presentation.
3.4.1.1. The Strategies Used by the Teachers 3.4.1.1.1. Pre-questioning
There were a few similar strategies which were used by the teachers to activate the students’ content schema in some sessions of observation. They were pre questioning strategy. T1 used this strategy in two sessions of observations. They were M1.T1. April 22, 2009 and M4.T1, May 7, 2009. The same strategies used by T2 in M1.T2. April 22, 2009 and M2.T2, May 06, 2009.
In M1.T1, April 22, 2009, T1 asked the students some questions which were related to the topic of the reading text (Going to the Doctor). The questions which were asked by the teachers such as; “If you are sick, where do you usually go?, Who usually help the doctor?, If you have stomachache, what do you usually drink?, what medicine do you usually drink?, if you have headache, what do you
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usually drink?, what are stomachache and headache? What are Oralit, Oskadon,
Poldan Mig?”.
The same strategy used by T1 in M4.T1.May 7, 2009. T1 asked the students some questions related to the topic of the text (Short Message). They are;”Do you like to inform friends?, Do you like to write letter?, etc.
The data obtained from observation to T2 in M1.T2.April 22, 2009 are as follow: T2 told the students her body condition, she said that she did not feel well. She had a sore throat. T2 then asked the students some questions which were related to the topic, such as;”who know sore throat?, who have ever been sore throat?, have you ever been sore throat?, what do you feel when you are sick?, who have been ill?, who have ever been to hospital or clinic?, have you ever been to hospital or clinic?”. In this session the topic was “Going to the Doctor”.
In M2.T2.May 6, 2009, T2 also presented some questions to students in pre reading activities. In this session the topic of the text was “Holiday”. The questions asked by the teacher were;”when you have a holiday, where did you go?, when did you go there?, how about the others?, where did you go?, what for?”
The data description above showed that both of the teachers used pre questioning strategy to activate the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. Through this strategy, it was likely expected that the students’ content schema about the topic could be activated. They made the students think and answer the questions. By answering the questions given by the teachers, it can be assumed that their background knowledge has been active and it will help them
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in comprehending the text because the interaction between the reader and the text occurs. It is relevant with the theory discussed in the previous chapter that comprehension will take place if there is an interaction process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text (Samuel and Kamil, 1988).
3.4.1.1.2. Using Pictures and Questioning
Another valuable data obtained from the classroom observation on T1 was found in M2.T1.April 23, 2009 and M3.T1.May 6, 2009. In these sessions T1 used some pictures of animals and followed by asking the students some questions related to the topic of the text.
T1 showed the pictures of animals such as elephant, turtle, lion, tiger, and rhinoceros one by one. T1 asked the students to guess and mention the name of the animal. After showing the pictures, T1 then asked the students questions which were closely related to the topic (Going to the Zoo), such as “Where do you usually see the animals?, Have you been to the zoo?, When did you go to the zoo?, What did you see there?”
By showing the students some pictures, it was likely that T1 tried to help the students remind their experience and their content schema about animals. If the students’ content schema has been active the process of reading will be meaningful, since pictures as audio visual aids facilitated students in activating their background knowledge related to the text (Omagio, 1979).
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In M3.T2.May 27, 2009, T2 presented the reading text which topic was “The Lion and the Mouse”. T2 told students her own experience that when she was walking to the shop, she dropped her wallet down unintentionally, fortunately a small boy saw it. He then took and gave it back to her. From the story T2 asked the students to make an inference that the small boy (the younger) could help the adult (the older). The moral value taken from this story was similar with one in the story about “The Lion and the Mouse”.
T2 seemed want to relate the story that she told with the story in the reading text. When the students could realize that the two stories were similar, it would be easier for them to comprehend the reading text, because they could use their background knowledge as a guide in getting the meaning from the text. In addition, schema provides ideational scaffolding for assimilating text information (Anderson, 1984). It means that a schema provides a slot for certain text information, the information that fits slot in the reader’s schema is readily learned, perhaps with little mental effort.
3.4.1.1.4. Storytelling Demonstration
In M4.T2.May 27, 2009, T2 presented a storytelling performance to the students in pre reading activities.T2 invited a student from RSBI class to perform a story in front of the class. The story was about “The Goldilocks and the Three Bears”.
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T2 seemed intend to activate the students’ background knowledge before asked them to read the text about “The Lion and the Mouse’. In this session T2 tried to relate the students’ background knowledge on the story about animal by having them listen and watch the storytelling performance. It was conducted to make them easier in comprehending the reading text which was going to be discussed in the whilst reading activity.
3.4.1.2. The Students’ Responses on the Activating Students’ Content Schema In relation to the students’ responses on the activities of activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension, the researcher describes the data obtained as follow:
When T1 used pre questioning strategy for activating students’ content schema as in M1.T1. April 22, 2009 and M4.T1, May 7, 2009, the students looked very enthusiastically responded all of the questions asked by the teacher. They answered the questions and when the teacher asked them to write the answer on the board they did it. In addition, the students’ appearances during the activities were joyful and paid attention fully to the teacher.
On the other hand, when T2 used pre questioning strategy as in M1.T2. April 22, 2009 and M2.T2, May 06, 2009, the students’ responses were different. When T2 asked them questions, they just kept silent or occasionally answered the questions by saying “yes or no”. This happened might be caused by the types of the questions and the lack of time for students to think the answer. In other words in these session T2 did not give enough pause for students to answer the questions. However, after T2 changed the types of the questions and used realia as
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medium, - such as she pointed to her teeth when she told them that she had toothache – and gave enough pause for the students to answer the questions, they could respond the questions better.
Another data was obtained by the researcher when T1 used pictures followed by questioning the students as in M2.T1.April 23, 2009 and M3.T1.May 6, 2009. In these two sessions of observation the students were likely very enthusiastically responded the strategy used by the teacher. When the T1 showed them the pictures of animal all of the students looked at it. In addition when T1 asked them to mention what was the name of the animal, they answered it in chorus. Good responses were also shown by the students when T1 asked them some questions about their experience in visiting the zoo. Most of them said that they had ever gone to the zoo and saw many kinds of animals like in the pictures showed by T1.
The students’ responses on the activating students’ content schema could also be seen in M3.T2.May27, 2009. As described in the strategies used by the teachers above that in this session T2 used an analogy to activate the students’ content schema in pre reading activity. T2 told her own experience which had the same moral value with the story in the reading text. Then T2 asked students some questions which had relationship with the topic of the text. Most of the students responded the questions positively. Although they did not raise their hand before answering the question, when the teacher asked them to answer, they could answer it. Even, in the last part of the pre reading activity, the students could
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guess and stated their opinion that the story would be about the lion could help the mouse although their prediction could not be proven true after they read the story. The last data obtained from classroom observation in M4.T2.May 27, 2009. In this session T2 invited a student of RSBI class to tell a story to the students. She told a story about “The Goldilocks and the Three Bears”. The students were likely very excited in attending this session. When T2 told them that she would invite a student who won the storytelling competition in province level, the students applauded lively. Along the storyteller told the story the students paid attention to her. In addition, cheerful laughter of the students often punctuated the story when they thought that they saw or heard something funny.
The data presentation above showed that generally the students gave positive responses on the activating students’ content schema conducted by the teachers. It meant that they gave positive attitudes on the activity. When the students gave positive attitudes on something their interest would be increase. The students’ interest on the activities can makes them curious to read whereas curiosity is strong motivational force (Alexander, 1988). In addition, when the students have motivation to read, the interaction between the reader and the text as the reading process in building meaning will occur.
3.4.2. Interviews
The second source of the data was interviews with the participants of the study. This was used to attain the real data from the teachers and students to answer the first and the second research questions. Merriam (1988:69) states that
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qualitative data consist of the direct quotations from respondents about their experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge through interviews.
By having interviews, the researcher could probe the respondents for additional information in response to interesting or important answers that arise unexpectedly from planned questions. This condition might let the researcher get additional information related to the problems being investigated. So, the semi-structured interviews were used by the researcher to collect the data. Kvale (1996:124) states, “Semi-structured interview means it has a sequence of theme to be covered as well as suggested questions. Yet at the same time there is openness to the change of sequences and form of questions in order to follow up the answer given and stories told by the subject.” The interview questions can be seen in appendices.
Interviews with the teachers were conducted in two terms. The first term was done at the beginning of the research. It took approximately ten to fifteen minutes. There were seventeen questions covering the preparation, the teacher’s consideration and their strategies in activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. The second term was conducted after each teaching session. This was aimed to cross-check the information gained during the observation (whenever it is required).
Interviews with the students were also conducted in two terms. The first one was done at the end of the research. There were five students from different classes interviewed by the researcher. This was conducted to get the data questioned by the second research question. There were twelve questions covering
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their responses on the activities conducted by the teacher in activating students’ content schema during the research. The second interview was conducted at every lesson ended. This means to cross-check information from the observation.
As the researcher stated above that there were two types of interviews conducted by the researcher. The first one was the interview with the two teachers and five students as semi-structured interviews. The second interviews were conducted after each teaching session ended. Two of students from each class were interviewed by the researcher to clarify what had happened during the teaching process based on their views. This was also done to the teachers. In this presentation the data obtained from two types of interviews would be described in one part of the description based on the topic of research.
3.4.2.1. Interviews with the Teachers
The data were obtained from interviews with the two teachers as respondents in this study could be described as follows:
When the researcher asked them whether it was important to help student activate their background knowledge, the teachers said that it was important to help them because it will be valuable for them in comprehending the reading texts. In addition, since every student had their own problems at home which often disturb their concentration or because of the shift from one lesson to another, driving their attention to the reading text through activating their background knowledge was important. (I1.T1 May 7, 2009 and I1.T2 April 23, 2009).
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Furthermore, T1 said that the purpose of the activating students’ content schema was to direct the students to the reading text which would be discussed.
It means that activating the students’ content schema is an important aid for the students in making meaning from their interaction in the reading process. Since, activating students’ background knowledge is building bridge between the students’ existing knowledge to the knowledge providing by the text (Carrell and Floyd, 1987).
Another data was related to the strategies used by the teachers to activate students’ content schema. Both of the teachers used pre questioning strategy and pictures followed by questioning strategy. Furthermore, T2 clarified that she used a strategy which she called drammatical session. In this strategy the teacher acted a role like in a drama without telling the students that she was playing drama (I1.T2 April 23, 2009). However, when the researcher asked them to clarify a session of classroom observation (M4.T2. May 27, 2009), T2 stated that what she called drammatical session was a strategy used when she invited a story teller to tell the students a story in the pre reading activity. The story told by the story teller was the same type as what the students discussed in the reading session. (CI.M3&4.T2. May 27, 2009).
The data above showed that the teachers used some strategies to activate the students’ content schema such as pre questioning and using pictures followed by questioning. This is in line with the previous research conducted by Tudor (1988), Taglieber,et al (1988) and Hudson (1982) that both of strategies facilitate the students reading comprehension. Unfortunately, in relation to the drammatical
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session strategy, the researcher did not find the reference or previous study which
supports the use of this strategy to activate the students’ content schema. The researcher preferred to categorize the strategy into a story telling demonstration.
In relation to the time used by the teachers to activate students’ content schema both of the teachers used five to minutes. It depended on the students condition whether the teacher thought that the students’ content schema have been active or not (I1.T1 May 7, 2009 and I1.T2 April 23, 2009).
The teachers could check whether their schema had been active or not, by observing the students’ responses on the activity. When the students could answer the questions given by the teachers, the teachers assumed that the students’ schema had been active (I1.T1 May 7, 2009 and I1.T2 April 23, 2009).
When the teachers had used a strategy to activate the students’ content schema, but they thought that the students’ content schema had not been active, they used an alternative strategy. In other case when the teachers used pre questioning strategy, but the students could not answer the questions, the teachers added some easier questions. The most important thing was the teachers could facilitate the students to comprehend the text (I1.T1 May 7, 2009 and I1.T2 April 23, 2009).
3.4.2.2. Interviews with the Students
There were five students interviewed by the researcher to obtain the data of the students’ responses on the activating the students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. They were interviewed after the researcher
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finished doing classroom observation in their class. The data obtained were described in the following description.
In relation to their beliefs about the activating students’ content schema conducted in pre reading activity, all of them agreed that it was very important for the teacher to conduct activities which activate students’ content schema in every reading session. S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 stated that the activity was very helpful for them in comprehending the text. When the interviewer asked whether they thought that activating students’ content schema helped them in comprehending the reading text, all of them said, “Ya, sangat membantu”.
The data above showed that both of the students considered the importance of the activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension, since they believed it was helpful for them in comprehending the text. It meant they were likely to realize that background knowledge or schemata play an important role in comprehending the text. Because our understanding of a text depends on how much related schema we as readers’ posses while reading (Al Issa, 2006). Even when the readers can not locate a schema that fits a text, they may find it incomprehensible (Anderson, 1994).
All of the students felt excited when the interviewer asked them what they feel when the teacher conducted pre reading activity particularly activating students’ content schema which helps them comprehend text. They said:
S1, S4 and S5 : Senang(S1.M4T2)(S4.M4T1)(S5.M4T1)
S2 : Senang , jadi kita lebih tahu dari yang asalnya sulit
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S3 : Senang, kita kan jadi terbantu (S3.M4T1)
Keeping the above condition in the teaching and learning process was important for the teacher. When the students were excited, it meant that they were interested in joining in the activity. This would increase their motivation to learn, particularly in finishing the reading tasks assigned by the teacher.
When the teacher asked the students questions and they know the answer, they responded the questions. They said:
S1: Kalau saya tahu jawabannya saya jawab. (S1.M4T2) S2: Menjawabnya. (S2.M4T2)
S3: Menjawab (S3.M4T1)
S4: Kalau saya ngerti pertanyaanya dan saya tahu, saya jawab. (S4.M4T1)
S5: Menjawab pertanyaan itu.(S5.M4T1)
The data above could be used by the teachers as a way to check whether the students’ content schema had been active or not. It meant that when the teacher asked the students questions and they could answer the questions, the teacher was likely to infer that the students’ content schema had been active. In the contrary when the students could not answer the questions, the teachers could likely determine that the students’ content schema had not been active. In this condition the teacher might consider using another strategy or asked the students with some easier questions which were closer to the students’ schema.
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42 3.5. The Research Procedures
As mentioned above that this study took place five weeks, from April 15 to May 15 2009. It consists of two parts; it was the preliminary study and the main study.
3.5.1. The Preliminary Study
It was not an easy task for the researcher to find the respondents for this study. He visited several schools and met some English teachers to find the teachers who were ready to become respondent. Unfortunately, many teachers were not ready to take part as respondents in this study by telling him various reasons. Finally, on April 15, 2009 the researcher visited an SMP in Lembang, a school where he had ever conducted a mini research there. The headmaster assistance majoring in curriculum allowed him to conduct the study there. He also recommended two teachers who were ready to become respondents. As mentioned in the participant sub-chapter above both of them taught English in the grade eight. He then invited the teachers and gave opportunity to the researcher to extend his purpose.
In this occasion the researchers told them the topic of the study and also the procedures of the study which were going to be conducted. They understood their position as respondents and they showed the researcher the schedule of their teaching which could be used for the study. In addition, one of them allowed the researcher to observe the class when she was teaching reading. As the result, the researcher obtained valuable data to reformulate the instruments used in this study.
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43 3.5.2. The Main Study
After the researcher reformulated the research instruments, he began to conduct the main study by interviewing both of the teachers to obtain the data whether they applied pre reading activity by activating students’ content schema in their teaching process and other data related to it.
The next steps were observing the teaching process which consists of eight session of observations, four sessions for each respondent. After each observation conducted, the researcher interviewed the teacher and two of the students to clarify what he saw in the observation.
Lastly, after eight sessions of classroom observations were completed, the researcher interviewing five students from different class and different teacher who taught in their class.
The data obtained from the two kinds of research instruments then transcribed and gave back to the respondents to give the opportunity for them to check what they did and said were really what they wanted. The final data transcriptions then categorized, coded, condensed, and finally interpreted to answer the research questions of this study.
3.6. The Issue of Validity
Validity is a goal rather than a product, it is never something that can be proven or taken for granted (Maxwell in Alwasilah, 2006:169). Validity is also relative; it has to be accessed in relationship to the purposes and circumstances of the research, rather than being a context-independent properly of methods or conclusion.
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44
The data gathered from the field can be proven to be valid by doing several steps in triangulation methods, because as it is stated by Maxwell (1996) triangulation reduces the risk that the conclusion will reflect only systematic biases or limitations of a specific method. It allows the researcher to gain a better assessment of the validity and generality of the explanation developed by the researcher. Therefore, in this research, to maintain the validity and gain a more valid and accurate data, some strategies were used such as triangulation measure and “rich” data. Maxwell also says that triangulation is to collect the information from diverse range individuals and setting and to use variety of methods. Hence, observation and interviews were used as the methods of collecting data in this study. For member check, this strategy was undertaken to ensure internal validity as well. The respondents re-read what they have said before and possibly new information can be added or deleted. Furthermore to make students and teachers comfortable and being honest to the researcher, the students and the teacher assured that their real names and identity were disguised and they were anonymity and interviewed in a location distant from the classroom or teacher room.
3.7. Data Analysis
All the data gathered were analyzed qualitatively. The data analysis was done soon after classroom observations and interviews conducted. Alwasilah (2006:158) states that the data analysis must be done as soon as possible after the data are gathered. Therefore, the researcher began to analyze the data as soon as they obtained. Some techniques were used for analyzing the data like the following:
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45
First, all the recorded data from audio recorder (MP4) during the observation was transcribed. After getting the data through observation, then, the researcher interviewed the respondents including the teachers and the students to cross-check. All the interviews data were also repeatedly listened to be transcribed.
Second, the researcher read the transcribed data which consist of observation and interview transcripts, the researcher coded the data by using certain marks. Related to coding Maxwell (1996:78) suggests that the goal of coding is to code the data and to rearrange into categories that help the comparison of data within and between the categories.
Third, the transcribed data were condensed based on the data which had relationship with the topics of the research, and categorized based on the topic of the research questions. Finally the data presented based on the data collection methods used in this research.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter consists of two sections. First, the conclusions of the research conducted based on the research questions as mentioned and explained in Chapter I. Second, the suggestions addressed to the teachers and researchers who are interested in conducting further research on the schema theory in teaching reading comprehension.
5.1. Conclusions
In relation to the two research questions which are stated earlier in Chapter I, namely the strategies used by the teachers in activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension, and the students’ responses on the strategies used by the teachers, there are four conclusions that can be drawn.
First, there are four strategies used by the teachers for activating students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. They are questioning strategy, analogy and questioning, showing pictures and questioning, and storytelling demonstration strategies.
Second, the activating students’ content schema is important to be conducted before having students read the text in teaching reading comprehension. It helps the students activate their content schema, and relate it to the content knowledge provided in the text while reading. In other word, it builds the bridge between the students’ existing knowledge and the new knowledge provided by the text.
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57
Third, the activating students’ content schema spends five to ten minutes before reading activity. It depends on the strategy that is used by the teacher and the students’ responses on the activity.
Fourth, the teacher can continue to the reading phase when they think that the students’ content schema have been active. It can be seen from the students’ responses when the teacher is applying a certain strategy before reading. Furthermore, when the teachers have applied certain strategy for activating students’ content schema but they think that the students’ content schema have not been active, they use an alternative strategy.
Fifth, since the students think that activating students’ content schema is helpful for them in comprehending the reading text, the students respond positively to the activities conducted by the teacher before reading. It also makes the students excited and increases their motivation to read.
5.2. Suggestions
As it has been stated above that there are four strategies used by the teachers for activating students’ content schema, it is advisable for the teachers to try to use those strategies in their teaching reading besides other strategies to increase the students’ reading comprehension.
It is also advisable for the teachers to identify the students’ responses on the strategy used by the teacher for activating students’ content schema. This can be a valuable input for the teachers to use the strategies which are appropriate for the students.
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Since this research is limited to the investigation of the strategies used by the teachers for activating students’ content schema and the students’ responses on the activity, it is important for other researchers to investigate the effects of those strategies on the students’ ability in comprehending reading text.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………i
STATE OF AUTHORIZATION……….ii
ABSTRACT………iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………iv
CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1. Background of the Study... 1
1.2. Research Questions ... 4
1.3. Purposes of the Study ... 5
1.4. Significance of the Study ... 5
1.5. Definition of Terms ... 6
1.6. The Organization of Thesis ... 7
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
2.1. The Schema Theory ... 8
2.2. Types of Schema ... 9
2.2.1. Linguistic schema ... 10
2.2.2. Formal Schema ... 10
2.2.3. Content Schema ... 11
2.3. The Role of Content Schema in Reading Comprehension ... 12
2.4. Schema Activation Strategies ... 15
2.4.1. Pre-questioning ... 16
2.4.2. Using Analogies and Questioning ... 16
2.4.3. Using Visual Aids ... 17
2.4.4. Story Telling Demonstration ... 18
2.5. Reading Process ... 18
2.6. Three Reading Phases ... 20
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2.6.2. Whilst Reading Activities ... 21
2.6.3. Post Reading Activities ... 21
2.7. Related Previous Research Findings ... 22
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 25
3.1. The Research Design ... 25
3.2. The Research Site ... 26
3.3. Participants ... 27
3.4. The Data Collection Methods ... 28
3.4.1. Classroom Observation ... 28
3.4.2. Interviews ... 35
3.5. The Research Procedures ... 42
3.5.1. The Preliminary Study ... 42
3.5.2. The Main Study ... 43
3.6. The Issue of Validity ... 43
3.7. Data Analysis ... 44
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS………....46
4.1. The Teachers’ strategies to activate students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. ... 46
4.2.The Students responses on the Activating Students’ Content Schema ... 53
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 56
5.1. Conclusions ... 56
5.2. Suggestions ... 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 59
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59
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aebersold, J.A. and Field, M.L. (1997). From Reader to Reading Teacher. Melbourne. Cambridge University Press.
Ajideh, P. (2003). Schema Theory-Based Pre-Reading Tasks: a Neglected Essential in the Reading Class. The Reading Matrix. Vol.3. no. 1, April 2003
Alexander, J. Estill. (1988). Teaching Reading. USA. Scot, Forestman Company Alwasilah.( 2002). Pokoknya Kualitatif: Dasar-Dasar Merancang dan Melakukan
Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta. PT. Dunia Pustaka Jaya
Alderson, J. Charles. (2000). Assessing Reading. Cambridge University Press. Anderson, R. C. (1994). Role of the Reader’s Schema in Comprehension,
Learning, and Memory. In Ruddell, R.B. and Unrau, N.J. 2004.
Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. International Reading
Association, pp. 594-605.
Anderson, R. C and Pearson, P.D., (1988). A Schema-Theoritic View of Basic Processes in Reading Comprehension. In Carrell, P.L. et al. 1988.
Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. USA. Cambridge
University Press.
Anderson, N.J. (1999). Exploring Second Language Reading: Issues and
Strategies. Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Auerbach, Elsa R. and Paxton, Diane. (1997). “It’s not the English Thing” : Bringing Reading Researh into the Classroom. TESOL Quarterly, vol.31, no.2, 1997
Bogdan, Robert C. and Sari Knopp Biklen. (1988).Qualitative Research for
Education: An Introduction to Theory and Methods. Boston. Allyn and
Bacon Inc.
Brandsford, John D. Schema activation and Schema Acquisition: comments on Richard C. Anderson’s Remark. In Ruddell, R. B. and Unrau, N. J. (2004).
Theoretical Models and Process of Reading. USA. International Reading
Association.
Carrell, P.L, and Eisterhold, J.C. (1983). Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 17:553-573
(35)
60
Carrell, P.L. (1984). The Effect of Rethorical Organization on ESL Readers.
TESOL Quarterly, 18, 441-469
Carrel, P.L. and Floyd, Pamela. (1987). Effects on ESL Reading of Teaching cultural Content Schemata. Language Learning, vol.37, no.1, 1997
Carrell, P.L., Devine, J, Eskey, D.E. (1988). Interactive Approaches to Second
Language Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Carrell, P.L, and Eisterhold, J.C. (1988). Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy. In Carrel, P.L. et al. 1988. Interactive Approach to Second
Language Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Chen, Hsiu-Chieh and Graves, Michael F. (1995). Effects of Previewing and Providing Background Knowledge on Taiwanese College Students’ Comprehension of American Short Stories. TESOL Quarterly Vol. 29, No. 4 1995.
Chia, H.L. (2001). Reading Activities for Effective Top down Processing.
FORUM, vol.39, no.1, 2001
Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994). Research Methods in Education. New York. Routledge
Danusubroto, Z.I. and Suria, T. (2001). Previewing and Predicting: Thinking Skills that Kill Four Birds with a Stone. A Paper presented in the 49th
International TEFLIN Conference 6-8 November 2001. Denpasar-Bali.
Debat, E. V. Applying Current Approaches to the Teaching Reading. US. Departement of State Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.
http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol44/no1/p8.htm
Eskey, D.E. (1988). Holding in the Bottom: an Interactive Approach to Language Problems of Second Language Readers. In Carrell, P.L. et al. 1988.
Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. USA. Cambridge
University Press.
Grabe, W. (1991). Current Developments in Second Language Reading Research.
TESOL quarterly, 25 (3), 375-406.
Grabe, W. (1988). Reassessing the Term “Interactive”. In Carrell, et al. 1988.
Interactive Approach to Second Reading. USA. Cambridge University
Press.
Grabe, W. and Stoller, L.F. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. Harlow: Pearson Education
(36)
61
Grow, G. (1996). Serving the Strategic Reader: Cognitive Reading Theory and Its
Implications for the Teaching of Writing. A Paper. Accessed on
http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/Stratkwlg.html
Guyotte, C.(1997). in Nunan. D. 1999. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Massachusetts. Heinle & Heinle Publishers
Hadley, A.O., (2001). Teaching Language in Context. 3rd edition. Heinle and Heinle.
Harmer, J. (2002). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education Limited.
Houghton Mifflin Company. (2002). The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/schema.
Hudson, T. (1982). The Effects of Induced Schemata on the “Short Circuit” in L2 reading: Non-decoding Factors in L2 Reading performance. In Carrell et al. 1988. Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Hudelson, S. (1994). Literacy Development of Second Language Children in
Educating Second Language Children. Cambridge. Cambridge University
Press.
Issa, Ahmad. Al. (2006). Schema Theory and L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications for Teaching. Journal of College Teaching and Learning. July 2006. vol.3. no.7 accessed on
http://www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf
Jiao Lie-Juan. (2007). Problems in EFL Reading Teaching and Possible Solutions.
Sino-US English Teaching, Vol.4, No.9 September 2007
Johnson, P. (1982). Effects on Reading Comprehension of Language Complexity and Cultural background of a Text. TESOL Quarterly, vol.16, no. 4, December 1982
Karakas, Muge. (2002). The Effects of Pre reading Activities on ELT Trainee
Teachers’ comprehension of Short Stories.
http://eku.comu.edu.tr/makaleler/3.html
Kawabata, Takako. (2007). Teaching Second Language Reading Strategies. The
(37)
62
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: an Introduction to Qualitative Research
Interviewing. California. Sage Publications.
Li, X.H., Wu, J., and Wang, W.H., (2007). Analysis of Schema Theory and Its Influence on Reading. US-China Foreign Language. Nov.2007, vol. 5, no. 11
Maxwell, J.A. (1996). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. London. Sage Publications
Merriam, B. S. (1988). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in
Educations: Revised and Expanded from Case Study Research in Education. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass Publisher
Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding Language Classroom: A Guide for Teacher
Initiated Action. New Jersey. Prentice Hall Ltd.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching & Learning. Massachusetts. Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Ommagio, A.C. in Taglieber, Loni. K. et. al. (1988). Effects of pre reading Activities on EFL reading by Brazilian college Students. TESOL
Quarterly, Vol.22. No.3. September 1988.
Pearson-Casanave, C.R, (1984). Communicative Pre-reading Activities: Schema Theory in Action. TESOL Quarterly. Vol. 18, No. 2, 1984, pp. 334-336.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3586700. accessed: 30/06/2008
Royer, J.M., Bates, J.A. and Konold, C.E. (1983). In Karakas, M. 2002. The
Effects of Pre reading Activities on ELT Trainee Teachers’ comprehension of Short Stories.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1980). Schemata: the Building Blocks of Cognition. In Spiro, R., Bruce, B., and Brewer, W. (eds). Theorical Issues in Reading
Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Samuels, S. Jay and Kamil, Michael L. (1988). Models of the Reading Process. In Carrel, P.L. et al. 1988. Interactive Approach to Second Language
Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Silverman, D. (2005). Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. Second edition. London. Sage Publications
Singhal, M. (1988). A Comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural Differences and Schema. In The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. IV. No.10. October 1988.
(38)
63
Stott, N. (2001). Helping ESL Students Become Better Readers: Schema Theory Applications and Limitations. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII. No. 11, November 2001, http://iteslj.org/Articles/Stott-Schema.html
Taglieber, Loni K., Johnson, Linda L., Yarbrough, Donald B. (1988). Effects of Pre reading Activities on EFL Reading by Brazilian College Students.
TESOL Quarterly, Vol.22, No.3, September 1988
Tudor, Ian. (1988). A Comparative Study of the Effect of Two Pre-reading Formats on L2 Reading Comprehension, in RELC Journal vol.19 No.2 December 1988 p. 71-85
Turner, Thomas N. Questioning Techniques ; Probing for Greater Meaning. In Alexander, J. Estill. (1988). Teaching Reading. USA. Scot, Foresman and Company
Wallace, C. (1992). Reading. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Williams, E. 1984. Reading in the Language Classroom. Modern English Publications.
Wiroatmojo, P. and Sasonoharjo. (2002). Media Pembelajaran. Jakarta. LAN RI Yin, R.K. (1993). Application of case Study Research. Newbury Park. California.
Sage Publications.
Young, D. J. (1991). Activating Student Background Knowledge in a Take Charge Approach to Foreign Language Reading. Hispania, vol. 74. No.4, December 1991, pp. 1124-1132. Accessed: 30/06/2008. http://www.jstor.org/stable/343781.
(1)
2.6.2. Whilst Reading Activities ... 21
2.6.3. Post Reading Activities ... 21
2.7. Related Previous Research Findings ... 22
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 25
3.1. The Research Design ... 25
3.2. The Research Site ... 26
3.3. Participants ... 27
3.4. The Data Collection Methods ... 28
3.4.1. Classroom Observation ... 28
3.4.2. Interviews ... 35
3.5. The Research Procedures ... 42
3.5.1. The Preliminary Study ... 42
3.5.2. The Main Study ... 43
3.6. The Issue of Validity ... 43
3.7. Data Analysis ... 44
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS………....46
4.1. The Teachers’ strategies to activate students’ content schema in teaching reading comprehension. ... 46
4.2.The Students responses on the Activating Students’ Content Schema ... 53
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 56
5.1. Conclusions ... 56
5.2. Suggestions ... 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 59
(2)
59
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aebersold, J.A. and Field, M.L. (1997). From Reader to Reading Teacher. Melbourne. Cambridge University Press.
Ajideh, P. (2003). Schema Theory-Based Pre-Reading Tasks: a Neglected Essential in the Reading Class. The Reading Matrix. Vol.3. no. 1, April 2003
Alexander, J. Estill. (1988). Teaching Reading. USA. Scot, Forestman Company Alwasilah.( 2002). Pokoknya Kualitatif: Dasar-Dasar Merancang dan Melakukan
Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta. PT. Dunia Pustaka Jaya
Alderson, J. Charles. (2000). Assessing Reading. Cambridge University Press. Anderson, R. C. (1994). Role of the Reader’s Schema in Comprehension,
Learning, and Memory. In Ruddell, R.B. and Unrau, N.J. 2004.
Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. International Reading
Association, pp. 594-605.
Anderson, R. C and Pearson, P.D., (1988). A Schema-Theoritic View of Basic Processes in Reading Comprehension. In Carrell, P.L. et al. 1988.
Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. USA. Cambridge
University Press.
Anderson, N.J. (1999). Exploring Second Language Reading: Issues and
Strategies. Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Auerbach, Elsa R. and Paxton, Diane. (1997). “It’s not the English Thing” : Bringing Reading Researh into the Classroom. TESOL Quarterly, vol.31, no.2, 1997
Bogdan, Robert C. and Sari Knopp Biklen. (1988).Qualitative Research for
Education: An Introduction to Theory and Methods. Boston. Allyn and
Bacon Inc.
Brandsford, John D. Schema activation and Schema Acquisition: comments on Richard C. Anderson’s Remark. In Ruddell, R. B. and Unrau, N. J. (2004).
Theoretical Models and Process of Reading. USA. International Reading
Association.
Carrell, P.L, and Eisterhold, J.C. (1983). Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 17:553-573
(3)
60
Carrell, P.L. (1984). The Effect of Rethorical Organization on ESL Readers.
TESOL Quarterly, 18, 441-469
Carrel, P.L. and Floyd, Pamela. (1987). Effects on ESL Reading of Teaching cultural Content Schemata. Language Learning, vol.37, no.1, 1997
Carrell, P.L., Devine, J, Eskey, D.E. (1988). Interactive Approaches to Second
Language Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Carrell, P.L, and Eisterhold, J.C. (1988). Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy. In Carrel, P.L. et al. 1988. Interactive Approach to Second
Language Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Chen, Hsiu-Chieh and Graves, Michael F. (1995). Effects of Previewing and Providing Background Knowledge on Taiwanese College Students’ Comprehension of American Short Stories. TESOL Quarterly Vol. 29, No. 4 1995.
Chia, H.L. (2001). Reading Activities for Effective Top down Processing.
FORUM, vol.39, no.1, 2001
Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994). Research Methods in Education. New York. Routledge
Danusubroto, Z.I. and Suria, T. (2001). Previewing and Predicting: Thinking Skills that Kill Four Birds with a Stone. A Paper presented in the 49th
International TEFLIN Conference 6-8 November 2001. Denpasar-Bali.
Debat, E. V. Applying Current Approaches to the Teaching Reading. US. Departement of State Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol44/no1/p8.htm
Eskey, D.E. (1988). Holding in the Bottom: an Interactive Approach to Language Problems of Second Language Readers. In Carrell, P.L. et al. 1988.
Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. USA. Cambridge
University Press.
Grabe, W. (1991). Current Developments in Second Language Reading Research.
TESOL quarterly, 25 (3), 375-406.
Grabe, W. (1988). Reassessing the Term “Interactive”. In Carrell, et al. 1988.
Interactive Approach to Second Reading. USA. Cambridge University
Press.
Grabe, W. and Stoller, L.F. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. Harlow: Pearson Education
(4)
61
Grow, G. (1996). Serving the Strategic Reader: Cognitive Reading Theory and Its
Implications for the Teaching of Writing. A Paper. Accessed on
http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/Stratkwlg.html
Guyotte, C.(1997). in Nunan. D. 1999. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Massachusetts. Heinle & Heinle Publishers
Hadley, A.O., (2001). Teaching Language in Context. 3rd edition. Heinle and Heinle.
Harmer, J. (2002). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education Limited.
Houghton Mifflin Company. (2002). The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/schema.
Hudson, T. (1982). The Effects of Induced Schemata on the “Short Circuit” in L2 reading: Non-decoding Factors in L2 Reading performance. In Carrell et al. 1988. Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Hudelson, S. (1994). Literacy Development of Second Language Children in
Educating Second Language Children. Cambridge. Cambridge University
Press.
Issa, Ahmad. Al. (2006). Schema Theory and L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications for Teaching. Journal of College Teaching and Learning. July 2006. vol.3. no.7 accessed on http://www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf
Jiao Lie-Juan. (2007). Problems in EFL Reading Teaching and Possible Solutions.
Sino-US English Teaching, Vol.4, No.9 September 2007
Johnson, P. (1982). Effects on Reading Comprehension of Language Complexity and Cultural background of a Text. TESOL Quarterly, vol.16, no. 4, December 1982
Karakas, Muge. (2002). The Effects of Pre reading Activities on ELT Trainee
Teachers’ comprehension of Short Stories.
http://eku.comu.edu.tr/makaleler/3.html
Kawabata, Takako. (2007). Teaching Second Language Reading Strategies. The
(5)
62
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: an Introduction to Qualitative Research
Interviewing. California. Sage Publications.
Li, X.H., Wu, J., and Wang, W.H., (2007). Analysis of Schema Theory and Its Influence on Reading. US-China Foreign Language. Nov.2007, vol. 5, no. 11
Maxwell, J.A. (1996). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. London. Sage Publications
Merriam, B. S. (1988). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in
Educations: Revised and Expanded from Case Study Research in Education. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass Publisher
Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding Language Classroom: A Guide for Teacher
Initiated Action. New Jersey. Prentice Hall Ltd.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching & Learning. Massachusetts. Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Ommagio, A.C. in Taglieber, Loni. K. et. al. (1988). Effects of pre reading Activities on EFL reading by Brazilian college Students. TESOL
Quarterly, Vol.22. No.3. September 1988.
Pearson-Casanave, C.R, (1984). Communicative Pre-reading Activities: Schema Theory in Action. TESOL Quarterly. Vol. 18, No. 2, 1984, pp. 334-336. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3586700. accessed: 30/06/2008
Royer, J.M., Bates, J.A. and Konold, C.E. (1983). In Karakas, M. 2002. The
Effects of Pre reading Activities on ELT Trainee Teachers’ comprehension of Short Stories.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1980). Schemata: the Building Blocks of Cognition. In Spiro, R., Bruce, B., and Brewer, W. (eds). Theorical Issues in Reading
Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Samuels, S. Jay and Kamil, Michael L. (1988). Models of the Reading Process. In Carrel, P.L. et al. 1988. Interactive Approach to Second Language
Reading. USA. Cambridge University Press.
Silverman, D. (2005). Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. Second edition. London. Sage Publications
Singhal, M. (1988). A Comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural Differences and Schema. In The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. IV. No.10. October 1988. http://itselj.org/Articles/singhal-readingL1L2.html
(6)
63
Stott, N. (2001). Helping ESL Students Become Better Readers: Schema Theory Applications and Limitations. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII. No. 11, November 2001, http://iteslj.org/Articles/Stott-Schema.html
Taglieber, Loni K., Johnson, Linda L., Yarbrough, Donald B. (1988). Effects of Pre reading Activities on EFL Reading by Brazilian College Students.
TESOL Quarterly, Vol.22, No.3, September 1988
Tudor, Ian. (1988). A Comparative Study of the Effect of Two Pre-reading Formats on L2 Reading Comprehension, in RELC Journal vol.19 No.2 December 1988 p. 71-85
Turner, Thomas N. Questioning Techniques ; Probing for Greater Meaning. In Alexander, J. Estill. (1988). Teaching Reading. USA. Scot, Foresman and Company
Wallace, C. (1992). Reading. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Williams, E. 1984. Reading in the Language Classroom. Modern English Publications.
Wiroatmojo, P. and Sasonoharjo. (2002). Media Pembelajaran. Jakarta. LAN RI Yin, R.K. (1993). Application of case Study Research. Newbury Park. California.
Sage Publications.
Young, D. J. (1991). Activating Student Background Knowledge in a Take Charge Approach to Foreign Language Reading. Hispania, vol. 74. No.4, December 1991, pp. 1124-1132. Accessed: 30/06/2008. http://www.jstor.org/stable/343781.