Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:
Barriers to women managers’ advancement in
education in Uganda
M arie Brown
Le c ture r in Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Manc he ste r, UK
Sue Ralph
Le c ture r in Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Manc he ste r, UK
Attempts to explain women’s
lack of achievement in
educational management,
both in countries in the
developed world and in
Africa, particularly Uganda.
Suggests that women are
hindered by both internal and
external barriers which keep
them from advancing;
internally in the main owing
to the effects of socialization
and sex stereotyping, and
externally because
organizations so structure the
behaviour of their workforce
that women limit their
performance because they
are locked into low-power,
low-visibility, dead-end jobs.
Points out that these barriers
are particularly applicable to
women educational managers
in Uganda, whose
advancement is further
impeded by the cultural
imperatives of male
dominance and suppression.
Highlights a number of
strategies which can help
Ugandan women to overcome
these barriers,such as a
sensitization programme to
alert women to the
opportunities available, and
affirmative action by the
government to put equality of
opportunity as a high priority
on the Ugandan national
agenda.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [ 1996] 1 8 –2 3
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 18 ]
Most of th e liter a tu r e on wom en in edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t r ela tes to r esea r ch a n d
obser va tion s m a de in th e UK, wester n
E u r ope, Au str a lia a n d th e USA. It su ggests
th a t, a lth ou gh wom en for m a m a jor ity a m on g
tea ch er s in both pr im a r y a n d secon da r y
sch ools, th ey a r e ser iou sly u n der -r epr esen ted
in sen ior m a n a gem en t position s. Th is is n ot
ju st a UK or E u r opea n ph en om en on bu t is to
be fou n d in th e r esea r ch liter a tu r e on th e
USA a n d oth er cou n tr ies[1] wh er e wom en ’s
u n der r epr esen ta tion in sch ool m a n a gem en t
a n d a dm in istr a tion h a s been h igh ligh ted in
r ecen t r esea r ch [2-4]. In gen er a l m a n a gem en t,
a t sen ior levels, wom en a r e sh ow in g th a t th ey
h ave th e poten tia l to em er ge a s a n extr a or din a r ily va lu a ble r esou r ce in m a n a gem en t
tea m s[5]. Th eir tr a dition a l r ea lm of exper ien ce h a s been th e pr iva te sph er e, in wh ich
va lu es of in ter con n ectedn ess a n d r ela tion sh ips h ave a lw ays h eld pr im a r y
im por ta n ce[6], bu t th ese sk ills a r e n ow
a ssu m in g im por ta n ce in th e m a n a gem en t of
or ga n iza tion s a t a ll levels[7].
Dispa r ities a m on g sch ools in ter m s of size,
loca tion a n d fa cilities dem a n d differ en tia tion
in r espon sibilities a n d m a n a gem en t styles.
Vin n in gs[8] ta lk s of a n “a n dr ogyn ou s”
a dm in istr a tor or a dm in istr a tion , wh ich is
sen sitive, em pa th etic in dea lin g w ith people,
a sser tive a n d a ble to m a n a ge power a n d
con flict, to m en tion bu t a few ch a r a cter istics.
Th e a n dr ogyn ou s m a n a gem en t style com bin es m a le a n d fem a le lea der sh ip ch a r a cter istics. Sin ce it m ay be difficu lt to loca te th ese
ch a r a cter istics in on e per son , a n y in stitu tion a l lea der sh ip str u ctu r e sh ou ld h ave a
com bin a tion of m a n a gem en t, a dm in istr a tion
a n d or ga n iza tion a l r oles wh ich ca n pr om ote
a n a n dr ogyn ou s a dm in istr a tion . Th e lea der,
in tu r n , sh ou ld be a n effective colla bor a tor
wh o ca n en su r e colla bor a tion a t a ll levels.
Th er e still a ppea r s to be a gen der bia s
oper a tin g in m a n y edu ca tion a l or ga n iza tion s
in ter m s of r ecr u itm en t to sen ior m a n a gem en t tea m s. A stu dy exa m in in g th e selection
a n d pr epa r a tion of sch ool a dm in istr a tor s,
com m ission ed by th e US N a tion a l In stitu te of
E du ca tion in 1983 (Ba ltzell a n d Den tier, cited
by McCu r dy[9]), specifi ca lly exa m in ed th e
selection of sch ool pr in cipa ls for gen der bia s.
Th e stu dy fou n d th a t th er e w a s a n “old boy
n etwor k ” oper a tin g in m a n y pa r ts of th e
cou n tr y, a n d th a t th is n etwor k w a s r espon sible for m ost of th e pr esen t day edu ca tor s in
m a n a gem en t position s in th e USA. After
exa m in in g typica l selection pr ocedu r es, th e
r esea r ch er s r em a r k ed th a t th ese pr ocesses
a r e pr oba bly n ot m er it-ba sed en ou gh to r esu lt
in lea der s wh o ca n m eet th e m a n y em er gin g
n eeds of th e tim es. Th is situ a tion , wh ich is
r eplica ted in oth er cou n tr ies[1], is exa cer ba ted by th e cu r r en t a n d gr ow in g n eed to
en su r e th a t th e ch a n gin g dem ogr a ph ics of
sch ools a n d society a r e a ppr opr ia tely
r efl ected in th e lea der sh ip of sch ools[6].
Twen ty yea r s a go, wh en sch ools wer e
expa n din g, ga in in g pr om otion seem ed a lm ost
a u tom a tic. P la n n in g a ca r eer a ppea r ed
a lm ost a su per flu ou s exer cise, sin ce m ost
a m bitiou s tea ch er s h a d a ser ies of jobs wh ich
took th em r a pidly tow a r ds m a n a gem en t
posts. Today’s gen er a tion of tea ch er s n eeds to
be r a th er m or e system a tic in its a ppr oa ch to
pr om otion , especia lly if th e u ltim a te a im is a
h ea dsh ip. Th e va st m a jor ity of sen ior sta ff
h ave wor k ed th eir w ay stea dily th r ou gh a
con str u ctive ser ies of jobs in or der to becom e
su ita bly pr epa r ed for sen ior m a n a gem en t
r oles. Th is is a difficu lt ta sk for a n y tea ch er
bu t it is especia lly difficu lt for wom en [1]. We
wou ld n ot su ggest th a t th er e is som e sor t of
deliber a te exclu sion of wom en fr om sen ior
posts, wh ich wou ld be ille ga l in a n y ca se, bu t
th a t m a n y wom en per ceive th ey a r e bein g
den ied a ccess to su ch position s[10].
Resea r ch in to sch ool effectiven ess a n d
sch ool im pr ovem en t, both in th e UK a n d
developin g cou n tr ies, wou ld su ggest th a t
developm en t a n d im pr ovem en t of sch ools is a
m a tter n ot on ly for in dividu a ls bu t for th e
wh ole sch ool sta ff wor k in g togeth er tow a r ds
th e sh a r ed goa ls of th e sch ool[10]. Th is w ay of
wor k in g pr esu pposes a colle gia te a ppr oa ch to
tea ch in g, wh ich is often over look ed in th e
developm en t of h ier a r ch ies of lea der sh ip in
sch ools. Th is ca n lea d to a situ a tion in wh ich
wom en a r e con fi n ed to pa r ticu la r m a n a gem en t a r ea s deem ed a ppr opr ia te for th em ,
e.g. pa stor a l or “ca r in g”, a n d on ly ever
a ch ieve lower sta tu s posts of r espon sibility,
ca r r yin g lower r espon sibility a llow a n ces.
Wh er e a sch ool h a s th is pa r ticu la r type of
lea der sh ip a r r a n gem en t, wom en ’s in flu en ce
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
over im por ta n t m a n a gem en t decision s is
ver y lim ited[11].
Th er e is n o r ea son wh y sch ools sh ou ld
or ga n ize th em selves in th e w ays ou tlin ed
a bove, bu t wh a t is ver y eviden t is th a t th e
exclu sion of wom en fr om sen ior levels of
m a n a gem en t or fr om a ccess to m a n a gem en t
developm en t tr a in in g is su r ely n ot ben eficia l
to th e edu ca tion of stu den ts, pa r ticu la r ly
fem a le on es. Ma le-dom in a ted h ier a r ch ies in
sch ools do little for n ew wom en en tr a n ts to
th e pr ofession . Wh a t m ay r esu lt is a gen er a tion of fem a le tea ch er s w ith ou t th e in fl u en ce
or su ppor t of a ppr opr ia te r ole m odels a n d
m en tor s.
Internal and external barriers to
progress
A n u m ber of m odels h ave been u sed by
r esea r ch er s to expla in wom en ’s la ck of
a ch ievem en t in th is fi eld. Ha n sot a n d
Tya ck [12] h ave su ggested th r ee m odels. Th e
fir st is ba sed on th e pr em iss th a t wom en a r e
h in der ed by in ter n a l ba r r ier s wh ich k eep
th em fr om a dva n cin g, in th e m a in ow in g to
th e effects of socia liza tion a n d sex ster eotypin g. In th is m odel wom en a r e seen a s victim s,
n eedin g to be r esocia lized so th a t th ey ca n fi t
in to a m a le wor ld. Th e secon d m odel is ba sed
on th e belief th a t or ga n iza tion s str u ctu r e th e
beh aviou r of th eir m em ber s, so th a t wom en
lim it th eir per for m a n ce beca u se th ey a r e
lock ed in to low -power, low visibility, dea d-en d
jobs. Th e th ir d m odel is ba sed on th e pr em iss
th a t th e wor ld is m a le defin ed a n d m a le r u n ,
a n d th a t m a le dom in a n ce su ppr esses wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft[13] favou r s th e th ir d m odel a s th e
m ost u sefu l for expla in in g wom en ’s low
a ch ievem en t in sch ool m a n a gem en t. Sh e feels
th a t in ter n a l ba r r ier s, su ch a s low self-im a ge,
la ck of con fiden ce a n d la ck of m otiva tion or
a spir a tion , r esu lt fr om th e socia l con text of
m en h oldin g power a n d pr ivile ge over
wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft offer s two m odels to h elp w ith
th e discu ssion of fem a le a spir a tion s. F ir st,
sh e su ggests th a t wom en do a spir e bu t in a
differ en t w ay to m en a n d, if ju dged by th e
tr a dition a l m a le defi n ition , m ay n ot a ppea r to
a spir e. Secon d, wom en a spir e bu t or ga n iza tion a l a n d societa l ba r r ier s pr even t wom en
fr om a ck n ow ledgin g or a ctin g on th eir a spir a tion s, so it a ppea r s th a t th ey la ck a spir a tion . If a spir a tion is m ea su r ed a ga in st m a le
exper ien ce, th en wom en do a spir e, bu t to
differ en t posts th a n m en . Th e tr en d is for
wom en to a spir e to be com peten t, exper ien ced tea ch er s a n d for m en to a spir e to be
m a n a ger s a n d a dm in istr a tor s.
Wh a tever th e r ea son s, a n u m ber of stu dies
su ppor t th e n otion th a t th e m otiva tion
for en ter in g tea ch in g differ s for m en
a n d wom en : m ost en ter tea ch in g to tea ch
bu t m ost m en en ter tea ch in g to
a dm in ister [13, p. 87].
Sh e a lso descr ibes ba r r ier s of over t a n d
cover t sex discr im in a tion . Th ese ca n be m or e
su btle, bu t n o less power fu l in th eir effect in
h in der in g th e pr ogr ess of wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft[13] lists th e follow in g fa ctor s:
• la ck of focu s on fem a le stu den ts;
• la ck of fem a le r ole m odels;
• la ck of ch ild ca r e;
• poor m edica l ser vices for fem a le pr oblem s;
• gen der -bia sed r ea din g m a ter ia l;
• less ca r eer su ppor t fr om fa m ily a n d peer s
for wom en th a n m en ;
• m a le n etwor k in g exclu din g wom en ;
• wom en h avin g m or e fin a n cia l r estr iction s
pla ced on th em th a n m en ;
• th e difficu lties of com bin in g a h igh sta tu s
job w ith th e r ole of w ife a n d m oth er ;
• beca u se of a n a n dr ocen tr ic wor ld view,
tr a dition a l fem a le qu a lities n ot bein g
h igh ly va lu ed, “com peten t a n d fem a le do
n ot go togeth er ”[14];
• m a le em ployer s feelin g th a t wom en ca n n ot
cope w ith th e em otion a l a n d ph ysica l str ess
fou n d in sch ool m a n a gem en t[15];
• em ployer s expectin g wom en to do th in gs
differ en tly, a n d in a less effective w ay th a n
m en .
In m a n y r esea r ch stu dies it h a s been fou n d
th a t wom en wh o do a ch ieve a r e m ost lik ely to
be th ose wh o con for m to ster eotypes of th e
a ch ievin g wom a n .
Davidson a n d Cooper [16] sh a r e th e opin ion
of Sh a k esh a ft r e ga r din g th e sim ila r ity of
m a le a n d fem a le m a n a ger s:
Wh en com pa r in g m a le a n d fem a le m a n a ger s
in ter m s of m a n a ger ia l efficien cy a n d per for m a n ce, n u m er ou s cr oss-cu ltu r a l stu dies
a n d r eview s h ave con clu ded th a t th er e a r e
fa r m or e sim ila r ities th a n differ en ces in
ter m s of m a n a ger ia l efficien cy a n d per for m a n ce[16, p. 16].
Th ey con sider th a t wom en m a n a ger s a r e
fr equ en tly pu t u n der a gr ea t dea l of str ess by
th e con fl ictin g r oles th a t th ey a ssu m e. As well
a s th eir wor k a n d dom estic r oles, th ey m ay
h ave th e a ddition a l ta xin g r ole of bein g
tr ea ted a s a “tok en wom a n ”, or a test ca se for
fu tu r e wom en . Isola tion , la ck of fem a le r ole
m odels, exclu sion fr om m a le gr ou ps a n d
wor k in g to r esist tr a dition a l fem a le sex r oles
ca n a ll exa cer ba te th e str ess. Th ese issu es a r e
n ot ju st a pplica ble to wom en seek in g m a n a gem en t posts in wester n cou n tr ies bu t a r e a lso
lik ely to be exper ien ced by wom en in developin g cou n tr ies su ch a s Uga n da .
[ 19 ]
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
[ 20 ]
Barriers to women’s progress in
Uganda
We wou ld n ow lik e to focu s on som e of th e
m ost sign ifica n t ba r r ier s th a t effect wom en ’s
en tr y in to edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t in
Uga n da . We n eed to be gin by look in g a t th e
edu ca tion a l h istor ies of gir ls a n d wom en in
th a t cou n tr y. UN ICE F [17] r epor ts th a t in
Uga n da , gir ls a n d boys h ave a n equ a l r igh t to
sch oolin g in pr in ciple. However, in pr a ctice
gir ls a r e less lik ely to a tten d sch ools. In th e
ea r liest yea r s of pr im a r y sch oolin g, pr im a r y
yea r s on e a n d two, th er e is a good a tten da n ce
by both gir ls a n d boys a n d th e n u m ber s a r e
r ou gh ly sim ila r. However, a s gir ls con tin u e
th r ou gh th eir edu ca tion , m or e a n d m or e dr op
ou t, especia lly a s th ey r ea ch pr im a r y yea r s
five to seven . Th e dr op-ou t r a te is m u ch
h igh er for gir ls, a s eviden ced by th e n e ga tive
cor r ela tion between th e r a tio of gir ls en r olled
to boys by gr a de level. In 1990, for exa m ple,
gir ls con stitu ted 46 per cen t of pu pils in pr im a r y on e bu t on ly 38 per cen t of pu pils in
pr im a r y seven [17]. Gir ls fa ce m or e pr oblem s
of dr op ou t in Uga n da n sch ools th a n boys, bu t
it is a pr oblem for both sexes. Stu den ts a r e
cu r r en tly dr oppin g ou t of sch ool a t ever y
level. For in sta n ce, ou t of th e ch ildr en wh o
en r olled in pr im a r y on e in 1975, 90 per cen t
r ea ch ed pr im a r y seven . By 1992, 70 per cen t of
th e ch ildr en wh o be ga n pr im a r y on e in 1986
h a d dr opped ou t. Th is m ea n s th a t on ly 30 per
cen t r ea ch ed pr im a r y seven . Th is dr op-ou t
r a te h a d in cr ea sed to 47 per cen t by 1991[18].
Gir ls in Uga n da n pr im a r y a n d secon da r y
sch ools do n ot r eceive a dequ a te a dvice a n d
cou n sellin g a n d a r e for ced to m a k e th eir ow n
decision s or con su lt m em ber s of th eir peer
gr ou p wh o m ay be ill in for m ed. Havin g welltr a in ed per son n el, wh o h ave a good u n der sta n din g of gir ls’ pr oblem s a n d a r e a ble to
pr ovide r e gu la r gu ida n ce a n d cou n sellin g
wou ld h elp to r edu ce th e pr oblem . Th is wou ld
h elp r elieve su ch pr essu r es for gir ls a n d a lso
en cou r a ge th em to pr ogr ess a ca dem ica lly
a n d socia lly. Am on g a sa m ple of Uga n da n
wom en su r veyed in 1988, 64 per cen t r epor ted
th a t th ey did n ot fi n ish or go beyon d pr im a r y
sch ool level ow in g to la ck of sch ool fees, wh ile
8 per cen t discon tin u ed th eir sch oolin g ow in g
to pr e gn a n cy[17].
Th e r esu lts of th e pr im a r y leavin g cer tifica te deter m in e en tr y to secon da r y sch ools.
Gir ls do less well th a n boys in th is exa m in a tion , except in E n glish [17]. By th e tim e th ey
r ea ch secon da r y sch ool, th e pr opor tion of
gir ls to boys is on e h a lf th a t fou n d a t th e
pr im a r y level. Ma n y sch ools a ccept gir ls w ith
lower qu a lifyin g m a r k s th a n boys in or der to
a ttr a ct gir ls, bu t th er e a r e m a n y m or e boys-
on ly th a n gir ls-on ly secon da r y sch ools, so
th a t, over a ll, th er e a r e fewer pla ces ava ila ble
for gir ls. Uga n da h a s over 622 secon da r y
sch ools w ith a tota l popu la tion of over 230,119
stu den ts, of wh om 60.2 per cen t a r e m a le a n d
39.8 per cen t a r e fem a le. Th er e a r e m or e th a n
10,996 tea ch er s, of wh om 82.6 per cen t a r e
m a le a n d 17.4 per cen t a r e fem a le. Th u s m a le
stu den ts a n d tea ch er s con stitu te th e m a jor ity
of th e sch ool popu la tion . Th is is r eflected a t
th e n a tion a l, distr ict, sch ool a n d even cla ssr oom levels. Gir ls con stitu te 45 per cen t of th e
stu den t body in pr im a r y sch ools, 30 per cen t
in th e lower secon da r y, th a t is Or din a r y
Level, a n d 20 per cen t in th e u pper secon da r y,
th a t is, Adva n ced Level[19]. Th e h eavier bu r den of h ou seh old r espon sibilities for gir ls is
con sider ed to be th e r ea son for th eir poor er
per for m a n ce a n d a tten da n ce. Th e r a tio of
fem a le to m a le tea ch er s pa r a llels th e en r olm en t r a tes of gir ls to boys in a lin ea r w ay,
r ein for cin g th e view th a t fem a le tea ch er s
h ave a positive effect on fem a le en r olm en ts.
It is a lso n otewor th y th a t fem a le tea ch er s a r e
n ot u su a lly pr om oted to h igh er m a n a ger ia l
levels, especia lly if th ey a r e u n m a r r ied[20].
Women’s education in Uganda
Gir ls do n ot a ctu a lly n eed specia l sch ools[21]
bu t it h elps wh en th ey con stitu te a r ela tively
la r ge pr opor tion of th e sch ool popu la tion in a
co-edu ca tion a l in stitu tion . Th er e is a lso n eed
to cr ea te aw a r en ess in th e com m u n ity a bou t
th e poten tia l a n d a bilities of gir ls. P a r en ts
especia lly n eed to be m a de aw a r e of th e n eed
for gir ls to spen d a s m u ch tim e on h om ewor k
a s boys do (in stea d of expectin g th em to
en ga ge in h ou seh old ch or es wh ile th e boys do
th eir h om ewor k ).
A policy r eview r epor t by th e Uga n da n
Min istr y of E du ca tion [18] in clu ded a section
on edu ca tion for wom en . In th e r epor t th e
Com m ission iden tified fa ctor s wh ich th ey
saw a s h avin g a n a dver se effect on gir ls’ edu ca tion in gen er a l a n d con tr ibu tin g to th e h igh
r a te of dr op-ou t a m on g gir ls a t a ll levels of
for m a l edu ca tion . Th e fa ctor s wer e a s
follow s:
(i)
(ii)
Beca u se of th e pa tr ilin ea l society a n d
oth er socia l a n d cu ltu r a l fa ctor s, m a n y
pa r en ts in Uga n da ten d to pr efer edu ca tin g boys to gir ls;
Most coedu ca tion a l in stitu tion s a r e n ot
well equ ipped w ith sepa r a te fa cilities for
gir ls. Th e coedu ca tion a l boa r din g in stitu tion s gen er a lly h ave m or e boys th a n
gir ls. Gir ls ten d to su ffer m or e fr om th e
n a tu r a l ph ysiologica l a n d psych ologica l
ch a n ges th a t r en der th eir a ca dem ic
per for m a n ce in th ese coedu ca tion a l
in stitu tion s r ela tively poor ;
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
(iii) Th e tr a dition a l division of la bou r in th e
h om e is m or e dem a n din g on gir ls th a n
boys;
(iv) Gir ls u su a lly get in volved in ea r ly m a r r ia ges. Am on g th ose wh o go to sch ool,
som e su ffer fr om ea r ly pr e gn a n cies for
wh ich th ey a r e th r ow n ou t of th e sch ool
system ; a n d
(v) Gir ls often fa ll pr ey to socia l pr oblem s,
pa r ticu la r ly in th e u r ba n a r ea s wh er e
m ost of th e la r ge secon da r y sch ools a n d
ter tia r y in stitu tion s a r e loca ted. Th is is
som etim es a ggr ava ted by th e la ck of
decen t a n d secu r e a ccom m oda tion for
gir ls[18, p. 109].
If pa r en ts la ck su fficien t m on ey to pay for
th eir ch ildr en ’s edu ca tion , wh ich m ost do,
th ey a r e m or e lik ely to sen d th e boys r a th er
th a n th e gir ls to sch ool. Ma n y r u r a l sch ools
a n d lower fee ba n d sch ools a r e of a low sta n da r d a n d do n ot pr ovide a good exper ien ce,
especia lly for gir ls. Th e ph ysica l envir on m en t, in clu din g toilet a n d dor m itor y fa cilities, a r e often pa r ticu la r ly h a r sh for th e
fem a le stu den ts. Th er e a r e few r ole-m odels
pr ovided by wom en sta ff, especia lly in scien ce tea ch in g a n d a t m a n a ger ia l levels.
Poor ly edu ca ted pa r en ts a r e m or e lik ely to
h old th e tr a dition a l ster eotype of th e gir ls’
pla ce bein g r estr icted to th a t of w ife, ch ildbea r er a n d h om e m a n a ger. Th ey ca n n ot see
a n y n eed for th eir gir ls to be edu ca ted in m a tter s n ot dir ectly r ela ted to th e h om e, th e fa m ily a n d th e fa r m . Th e a ca dem ic or ien ta tion of
th e cu r r icu lu m m ay a ffect som e pa r en ts’
per ception s of th e r eleva n ce of edu ca tion for
gir ls. Ma n y ch ildr en a n d pa r en ts con sider th e
pr im a r y leavin g exa m in a tion su bjects ir r eleva n t to a gir l’s fu tu r e ca r eer in a r u r a l a r ea .
Gen der ster eotypin g, too, is em bodied in
cu r r icu lu m m a ter ia ls. A r epor t of th e
Con ven tion on th e E lim in a tion of Discr im in a tion Aga in st Wom en , com m ission ed by
th e Min istr y of Wom en in Developm en t[22],
n oted th a t in socia l stu dies cou r ses in sch ools
a ll th e tr a dition a l h er oes cited wer e m en .
It is a ga in st th is ba ck gr ou n d of discr im in a tion , both over t a n d cover t, th a t we n eed to
con sider th e position of wom en in Uga n da , a s
th ey seek to en ter th e h igh er ech elon s of th e
tea ch in g pr ofession . Ma n y m en , edu ca ted a n d
u n edu ca ted, w ill h ave a vested in ter est in
h oldin g on to power a n d a u th or ity r a th er
th a n sh a r in g it w ith wom en . Beca u se of th e
w ay wom en h ave been socia lized th ey fr equ en tly h ave low self-esteem , a n d m a n y w ill
be u n der con fiden t in th eir a bilities ou tside
th e dom estic r ole.
Str u ctu r a l a dju stm en t pr ogr a m m es, too,
a r e ten din g to h ave a n e ga tive effect on
wom en . For exa m ple, in th e cu r r en t
r edu ction in n u m ber s of th e civil ser vice,
m a n y lower -r a n k in g em ployees a r e bein g
r etr en ch ed (m a de r edu n da n t), wh ich m ea n s
th a t m ost of th e wom en em ployed in th e civil
ser vice a r e loosin g th eir jobs. On ly a sm a ll
pr opor tion of th e h igh er r a n k s, wh ich a r e th e
m ost secu r e position s, h ave been given to
wom en .
Strategies for improving women’s
access to educational management
in Uganda
Wh a t ca n th er efor e be don e to en a ble wom en
edu ca tor s to br ea k th r ou gh th e “gla ss
ceilin g” in Uga n da ? In for m a l discu ssion s
w ith Uga n da n wom en stu den ts a t Ma n ch ester
Un iver sity iden tifi ed str a te gies wh ich wer e
h elpin g wom en to over com e th e ba r r ier s to
pr ogr ess in th e field of edu ca tion . Th ese wer e
la r gely beca u se of th e a ction s of th e gover n m en t of Uga n da itself, wh ich h a s don e m u ch
to a dva n ce a n d pr om ote th e position of
wom en . Wom en fou gh t a lon gside Yower i
Mu seven i, n ow P r esiden t Mu seven i, du r in g
th e liber a tion w a r a n d, a t th a t tim e a n d sin ce,
h ave pr oved th eir a bilities a n d wor th to th e
gover n m en t. Th e cou n tr y is a dm in ister ed
th r ou gh a system of Resista n ce Com m ittees
(RCs) a t sever a l levels. E a ch RC a t ea ch level
h a s a Secr eta r y for Wom en , wh o is a lw ays a
wom a n . Wom en a r e a lso en titled to com pete
for th e oth er position s on th e RC. Wh en th e
position of Secr eta r y for Wom en w a s fi r st
esta blish ed, th e m ove w a s gr eeted w ith m u ch
cyn icism , especia lly fr om m en , bu t over tim e
it h a s pr oved to be ver y effective a n d is n ow
gen er a lly well r espected. All sector a l policies
a r e r equ ir ed to be gen der -r espon sive. Despite
th e m a n y cu ltu r a l ba r r ier s wh ich h ave m a de
it difficu lt for wom en to w in sea ts in
pa r lia m en t, th er e a r e n ow 38 wom en th er e.
Th e Con stitu tion of Uga n da is cu r r en tly
bein g r ew r itten . Wom en a r e r epr esen ted
a m on g th e com m ission er s a n d it is a n ticipa ted th a t r esu ltin g le gisla tion , in su ch a r ea s
a s citizen sh ip, w ill be m or e in favou r of
wom en th a n h a s been th e ca se in th e pa st.
Th is politica l situ a tion illu str a tes a w ill to
in volve a n d ca pita lize on th e str en gth s a n d
exper ien ce of wom en .
Str a te gies wh ich a im to in cr ea se th e
n u m ber s of gir ls a n d wom en in edu ca tion
in clu de th e on goin g sen sitiza tion pr ogr a m m e, wh ich is r u n a t villa ge level by th e
developm en t secr eta r ies of th e RCs. Th e a im
is to sen sitize pa r en ts to th e ben efits of
edu ca tin g th eir gir l ch ildr en a s well a s th eir
boy ch ildr en . In 1989 Ma k er er e Un iver sity
took th e step of aw a r din g a ddition a l poin ts
tow a r ds th e qu a lifyin g m a r k of a ll wom en
[ 21 ]
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
[ 22 ]
poten tia l stu den ts, th u s ta k in g a ffir m a tive
a ction to r a ise th e n u m ber of fem a les.
Th e Uga n da Tea ch in g Ser vice Com m ission
(UTSC), esta blish ed by Sta tu te of P a r lia m en t,
is a body r espon sible for th e selection , in ter view in g a n d a ppoin tm en t of officer s deem ed
su ita ble to h ea d edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s.
Su ccessfu l ca n dida tes a r e posted th r ou gh th e
Com m ission er of E du ca tion to va r iou s
sch ools a n d h ea dsh ips. It is gover n m en t
policy to post a h ea dtea ch er to a n y pa r t of th e
cou n tr y. However, th e Min istr y of E du ca tion
is n ow givin g du e con sider a tion to gen der
issu es wh en postin g a h ea d of sch ool. Wh er e a
m a le is posted, a fem a le depu ty is lik ely to be
a tta ch ed a n d vice ver sa . Th e Min istr y is a lso
tr yin g to en cou r a ge fem a le en r olm en t in coedu ca tion a l post pr im a r y in stitu tion s by
tr yin g to pr ovide a dequ a te cu r r icu lu m
a r r a n gem en ts for gir ls, for exa m ple, by
pr ovidin g cou r ses in h om e m a n a gem en t, food
n u tr ition , textiles a n d cloth in g etc. E n su r in g
th a t th er e is a fem a le lea der a n d lea der sh ip in
coedu ca tion a l sch ools, ca n a lso be con sider ed
a step for w a r d. In so doin g, th e Min istr y
h opes to ba la n ce th e en r olm en t of boys a n d
gir ls a n d to r edu ce gen der in equ a lity.
In a fu r th er effor t to pr om ote qu a lity in
sch ools, th e Min istr y of E du ca tion a n d Spor ts
a n d oth er r eleva n t bodies lik e th e Uga n da
Ma n a gem en t In stitu te n ow or ga n ize wor k sh ops, sem in a r s a n d cou r ses for sch ool
lea der s, especia lly h ea dtea ch er s a n d th eir
depu ties, pr in cipa ls a n d depu ty pr in cipa ls
a n d poten tia l h older s of th ese posts. On e of
th e str a te gies a dvoca ted in th ese wor k sh ops
is th a t of colla bor a tive lea der sh ip. Lea der s
a r e en cou r a ged to sh a r e power, decision
m a k in g a n d exper tise bu t a t th e sa m e tim e
th ey a r e tr a in ed in th e in ter per son a l sk ills of
co-oper a tion a n d com m u n ica tion wh ich a r e
n ow con sider ed to be essen tia l m a n a gem en t
sk ills. Ha r gr eaves[23], look s a t colla bor a tion
a s a k ey to lea der sh ip qu a lity in edu ca tion .
In ter n a tion a l m oves tow a r ds equ a lity of
oppor tu n ity a r e h avin g a n effect in Uga n da .
At m in ister ia l level, m a n y politicia n s a tten d
in ter n a tion a l m eetin gs a n d a r e aw a r e of th e
em ph a sis bein g pu t on wom en ’s con cer n s a n d
of th e r oles wom en ta k e in ter n a tion a lly. We
believe th a t a t a ll levels of society wom en a n d
m en a r e ch a n gin g in th eir view s a n d th a t
tr a dition a l ster eotyped r oles a n d beh aviou r
pa tter n s a r e bein g er oded. Th is differ en ce is
sh ow n in m a n y w ays; for exa m ple, it is n ow
less com m on to see wom en k n eelin g to gr eet
m en in th e str eet, a n d m or e com m on to h ea r
of m en ta k in g a n a ctive r ole in th e r ea r in g of
ch ildr en .
N on -gover n m en t or ga n iza tion s too a r e
ten din g to focu s on th e pr im a r y r oles of
wom en r ela ted to fa m ily h ea lth ca r e a n d th e
ca r e of th e en vir on m en t. Th eir a ppr oa ch is
two-pr on ged, m eetin g th e pr a ctica l da ily
n eeds of wom en a n d a lso th eir str a te gic on es.
Th e pr a ctica l n eeds in clu de a ccess to w a ter
a n d fu el; th e str a te gic n eeds a r e m or e lon g
ter m , su ch a s h igh er sta tu s a n d position , a n d
m ay be m et th r ou gh im pr oved a ccess to
h igh er edu ca tion .
Wom en s’ lea der sh ip is cu r r en tly a su bject
of gr ea t deba te a n d con cer n in Uga n da , a s th e
n a tion is com in g to r ea lize th a t to a ch ieve
qu ick a n d su sta in a ble developm en t, th e
gen der fa ctor ca n n o lon ger con tin u e to be
ign or ed. Th e r epor t of th e Uga n da n
E du ca tion Policy Review Com m ission [18]
m a de sever a l r ecom m en da tion s wh ich , if pu t
in to effect, sh ou ld gr ea tly en h a n ce th e situ a tion of gir ls a n d wom en . Recom m en da tion 162
sta ted th a t:
Th e Gover n m en t sh ou ld pr ovide m or e secon da r y sch ools exclu sively for gir ls to
en su r e secu r ity wh ile r eceivin g
edu ca tion [18, p. 162].
Th e Com m ission a lso r ecogn ized th a t m a n y
m or e boys th a n gir ls wer e bein g edu ca ted in
both pr im a r y a n d secon da r y sch ools a n d th a t
th is h a d a k n ock -on effect on en r olm en t in
ter tia r y in stitu tion s a n d u n iver sities. It r ecom m en ded th a t:
In Co-edu ca tion a l sch ools, eith er th e Hea d
or th e Depu ty Hea d sh ou ld be a wom a n in
or der to look a fter th e specia l n eeds of gir ls
pr oper ly[18, p. 163].
Adequ a te fa cilities sh ou ld be pr ovided for
gir ls in co-edu ca tion a l post-pr im a r y in stitu tion s in or der to a llow for a ba la n ced en r olm en t between boys a n d gir ls[18, p. 164].
Th e r epor t sta ted th a t th e n u m ber of wom en
a tta in in g u n iver sity pla ces w a s too low, bu t
th a t th e a tta in m en t of th ose wom en wh o wer e
in u n iver sity w a s in th e m a in ver y good. It
w a s expected th a t th e n u m ber of wom en stu den ts wou ld r ise w ith im pr oved pr ovision for
gir ls a t th e secon da r y sta ge.
Conclusions
Resea r ch er s h ave su ggested th a t th e ba r r ier s
to wom en in th e developed wor ld r esu lt fr om
th e fa ct th a t society is m a le dom in a ted, a n d
th r ou gh socia liza tion , sex ster eotypin g a n d
sex discr im in a tion , wom en often h ave low
self-im a ge, low self-con fi den ce a n d la ck m otiva tion . Ma n y in dividu a ls h old n e ga tive opin ion s tow a r ds wom en in position s of power
a n d th er e is a w idely h eld belief th a t wom en
m a k e less effective m a n a ger s th a n do m en .
Sim ila r ba r r ier s a ffect wom en in Uga n da
w ith som e a ddition s. Th e m ost sign ifica n t of
th ese r esu lts fr om differ en tia tion on th e ba sis
of gen der a n d in clu des: r edu ced a ccess to
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
edu ca tion , in clu din g ba sic liter a cy, th e
exper ien ces th a t fem a les h ave in edu ca tion
wh ich a r e differ en t to th e exper ien ces of
m a les, a n d th e a ddition a l socia l r espon sibilities th a t th e m a jor ity of gir ls a n d wom en
h old.
Ma n y differ en t str a te gies a r e bein g u sed to
over com e th ese ba r r ier s. It h a s been su ggested h er e th a t th e w ay in wh ich on e view s
th e ba r r ier s w ill in flu en ce th e ch a n ge str a tegies wh ich w ill be fou n d to be m ost u sefu l. We
h ave su ggested th a t a r a n ge of str a te gies is
n eeded, in clu din g: im pr ovin g th e a bilities
a n d con fiden ce of wom en a n d ch a n gin g th e
or ga n iza tion s in wh ich th ey wor k . In Uga n da ,
str a te gies a r e bein g em ployed a t differ en t
levels – in dividu a l, societa l, or ga n iza tion a l,
n a tion a l a n d in ter n a tion a l. im plem en ta tion
of th ese ca n ca u se ch a n ges wh ich h ave a n
effect a t sever a l levels.
Th e ba r r ier s, a n d th e m ost a ppr opr ia te
str a te gies, m u st be viewed in th e wh ole con text of th e life of a n in dividu a l, th e str u ctu r e
of a n or ga n iza tion , a n d th e n eeds, n or m s a n d
va lu es of a society a n d cu ltu r e. It a ppea r s th a t
over th e la st two or th r ee yea r s th e a dva n cem en t of gir ls a n d wom en in edu ca tion a n d in
edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t in developed cou n tr ies h a s slowed dow n con sider a bly, a n d pr eviou s ch a n ge m ay be in th e pr ocess of con solida tion . However, in Uga n da , it a ppea r s th a t
th e pr ospects for gir ls a n d wom en a r e cu r r en tly im pr ovin g r a pidly a n d m ay con tin u e to
do so for som e tim e to com e.
References
1 Ou ston , J ., Wom en in Ed u ca tion a l
M a n a gem en t, Lon gm a n , Lon don , 1993.
2 Ha m m er, C. a n d Ger a ld, E ., S elected
Ch a ra cter istics of Pu blic a n d Pr iva te S ch ool
A d m in istra tors (Pr in cipa ls), 1987-88,
US Depa r tm en t of E du ca tion , Office of
E du ca tion a l Resea r ch a n d Im pr ovem en t,
N a tion a l Cen ter for E du ca tion a l Sta tistics,
Wa sh in gton , DC, 1990.
3 J on es, E .H. a n d Mon ten e gr o, X.P., Wom en a n d
M in or ities in S ch ool A d m in istra tion : Fa cts a n d
Figu res 1987-88, Am er ica n Associa tion of
Sch ool Adm in istr a tor s, Ar lin gton , VA, 1988.
4 Sh a k esh a ft, C., “Str a te gies for over com in g th e
ba r r ier s to wom en in edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tion ”, in Klein , S.S., (E d.), Ha n d b ook for
A ch ievin g S ex Equ ity th rou gh Ed u ca tion ,
J oh n Hopk in s Un iver sity P r ess, Ba ltim or e,
MD, 1985.
5 Helgesen , S., T h e Fem a le A dva n ta ge,
Dou bleday, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1990.
6 Veir, C., “Gen der a n d r a ce differ en tia tion
a m on g a pplica n ts in edu ca tion a l lea der sh ip
pr ogr a m m es: m u ltiva r ia n t str a te gies for
equ ity”, J ou r n a l of Ed u ca tion a l
A d m in istra tion , Vol. 31 N o. 4, 1993, pp. 67-79.
7 Br ow n , M. a n d Ra lph , S., “A pr elim in a r y
in vestiga tion of wom en ’s tr a in in g n eeds in
edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t”, B r itish J ou r n a l of
In ser vice Ed u ca tion , Vol. 20. N o. l, 1994, pp. 6771.
8 Vin n in gs, L., Ex pa n d in g S ex R oles in
A d m in istra tion : T h e A n d rog yn ou s
A d m in istra tor , 1994.
9 McCu r dy, J ., T h e R ole of th e Pr in cipa l in
Effectiv e S ch ools, Am er ica n Associa tion of
Sch ool Adm in istr a tor s, Sa cr a m en to, CA, 1983.
10 Sh a k esh a ft, C., Wom en in Ed u ca tion a l
A d m in istra tion , Sa ge, N ew bu r y P a r k , CA, 1987.
11 Adler, S. et a l., M a n a gin g Wom en , Open
Un iver sity P r ess, Milton Keyn es, Vol. 48 N o. 1,
1993, pp. 1-13.
12 Ha n sot, E . a n d Tya ck , D., “Th e dr ea m defer r ed:
a golden a ge for wom en sch ool a dm in istr a tor s”, policy pa per N o.81-G, Sta n for d
Un iver sity Sch ool of E du ca tion , Sta n for d, CA,
1981.
13 Sh a k esh a ft, C., Wom en in Ed u ca tion a l M a n a gem en t, Sa ge, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1989.
14 Bik len , S.K. a n d Br a n n iga n , M.B., Wom en a n d
Ed u ca tion a l L ea d ersh ip, D.C. Hea th , Lexin gton , MA, 1980.
15 N eidig, M.B., “Wom en a pplica n ts for a dm in istr a tive position s: a ttitu des h eld by a dm in istr a tor a n d sch ool boa r ds”, Disser ta tion A b stra cts
In ter n a tion a l, Vol. 34, 1973, p. 2982A,
Un iver sity Micr ofi lm s N o.73-30, p. 959.
16 Davidson , M.J . a n d Cooper, C.L., S h a tter in g th e
Gla ss Ceilin g: T h e Wom a n M a n a ger, P a u l
Ch a pm a n , Lon don , 1992.
17 Un ited N a tion s Ch ildr en ’s F u n d, Ch ild ren a n d
Wom en in Uga n d a : A S itu a tion A n a lysis,
UN ICE F, 1989.
18 Min istr y of E du ca tion , Ed u ca tion Policy
R eview Com m ission R epor t, Min istr y of
E du ca tion , Uga n da , 1989.
19 Kwesiga . J ., Equ ity a n d Vu ln erab ility: A
S itu a tion A n a lysis of Wom en A d olescen ts a n d
Ch ild ren in Uga n d a, 1993.
20 UN E SCO, World Ed u ca tion R epor t, UN E SCO,
N ew Yor k , N Y, 1993.
21 Ma le, J ., “Lea der s a n d lea der sh ip for gir ls in
secon da r y sch ools: pr oblem s a n d pr ospects”,
pa per deliver ed to th e BE MAS An n u a l
Con fer en ce, Oxfor d, 1995.
22 Min istr y of Wom en in Developm en t, Con v en tion on th e Elim in a tion of Discr im in a tion
A ga in st Wom en .
23 Ha r gr eaves, A., “Colla bor a tion : a k ey to
lea der sh ip for qu a lity in edu ca tion ”, T h e
Pra cticin g A d m in istra tor, Vol. 15 N o. 3, 1993.
[ 23 ]
education in Uganda
M arie Brown
Le c ture r in Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Manc he ste r, UK
Sue Ralph
Le c ture r in Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Manc he ste r, UK
Attempts to explain women’s
lack of achievement in
educational management,
both in countries in the
developed world and in
Africa, particularly Uganda.
Suggests that women are
hindered by both internal and
external barriers which keep
them from advancing;
internally in the main owing
to the effects of socialization
and sex stereotyping, and
externally because
organizations so structure the
behaviour of their workforce
that women limit their
performance because they
are locked into low-power,
low-visibility, dead-end jobs.
Points out that these barriers
are particularly applicable to
women educational managers
in Uganda, whose
advancement is further
impeded by the cultural
imperatives of male
dominance and suppression.
Highlights a number of
strategies which can help
Ugandan women to overcome
these barriers,such as a
sensitization programme to
alert women to the
opportunities available, and
affirmative action by the
government to put equality of
opportunity as a high priority
on the Ugandan national
agenda.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [ 1996] 1 8 –2 3
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 18 ]
Most of th e liter a tu r e on wom en in edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t r ela tes to r esea r ch a n d
obser va tion s m a de in th e UK, wester n
E u r ope, Au str a lia a n d th e USA. It su ggests
th a t, a lth ou gh wom en for m a m a jor ity a m on g
tea ch er s in both pr im a r y a n d secon da r y
sch ools, th ey a r e ser iou sly u n der -r epr esen ted
in sen ior m a n a gem en t position s. Th is is n ot
ju st a UK or E u r opea n ph en om en on bu t is to
be fou n d in th e r esea r ch liter a tu r e on th e
USA a n d oth er cou n tr ies[1] wh er e wom en ’s
u n der r epr esen ta tion in sch ool m a n a gem en t
a n d a dm in istr a tion h a s been h igh ligh ted in
r ecen t r esea r ch [2-4]. In gen er a l m a n a gem en t,
a t sen ior levels, wom en a r e sh ow in g th a t th ey
h ave th e poten tia l to em er ge a s a n extr a or din a r ily va lu a ble r esou r ce in m a n a gem en t
tea m s[5]. Th eir tr a dition a l r ea lm of exper ien ce h a s been th e pr iva te sph er e, in wh ich
va lu es of in ter con n ectedn ess a n d r ela tion sh ips h ave a lw ays h eld pr im a r y
im por ta n ce[6], bu t th ese sk ills a r e n ow
a ssu m in g im por ta n ce in th e m a n a gem en t of
or ga n iza tion s a t a ll levels[7].
Dispa r ities a m on g sch ools in ter m s of size,
loca tion a n d fa cilities dem a n d differ en tia tion
in r espon sibilities a n d m a n a gem en t styles.
Vin n in gs[8] ta lk s of a n “a n dr ogyn ou s”
a dm in istr a tor or a dm in istr a tion , wh ich is
sen sitive, em pa th etic in dea lin g w ith people,
a sser tive a n d a ble to m a n a ge power a n d
con flict, to m en tion bu t a few ch a r a cter istics.
Th e a n dr ogyn ou s m a n a gem en t style com bin es m a le a n d fem a le lea der sh ip ch a r a cter istics. Sin ce it m ay be difficu lt to loca te th ese
ch a r a cter istics in on e per son , a n y in stitu tion a l lea der sh ip str u ctu r e sh ou ld h ave a
com bin a tion of m a n a gem en t, a dm in istr a tion
a n d or ga n iza tion a l r oles wh ich ca n pr om ote
a n a n dr ogyn ou s a dm in istr a tion . Th e lea der,
in tu r n , sh ou ld be a n effective colla bor a tor
wh o ca n en su r e colla bor a tion a t a ll levels.
Th er e still a ppea r s to be a gen der bia s
oper a tin g in m a n y edu ca tion a l or ga n iza tion s
in ter m s of r ecr u itm en t to sen ior m a n a gem en t tea m s. A stu dy exa m in in g th e selection
a n d pr epa r a tion of sch ool a dm in istr a tor s,
com m ission ed by th e US N a tion a l In stitu te of
E du ca tion in 1983 (Ba ltzell a n d Den tier, cited
by McCu r dy[9]), specifi ca lly exa m in ed th e
selection of sch ool pr in cipa ls for gen der bia s.
Th e stu dy fou n d th a t th er e w a s a n “old boy
n etwor k ” oper a tin g in m a n y pa r ts of th e
cou n tr y, a n d th a t th is n etwor k w a s r espon sible for m ost of th e pr esen t day edu ca tor s in
m a n a gem en t position s in th e USA. After
exa m in in g typica l selection pr ocedu r es, th e
r esea r ch er s r em a r k ed th a t th ese pr ocesses
a r e pr oba bly n ot m er it-ba sed en ou gh to r esu lt
in lea der s wh o ca n m eet th e m a n y em er gin g
n eeds of th e tim es. Th is situ a tion , wh ich is
r eplica ted in oth er cou n tr ies[1], is exa cer ba ted by th e cu r r en t a n d gr ow in g n eed to
en su r e th a t th e ch a n gin g dem ogr a ph ics of
sch ools a n d society a r e a ppr opr ia tely
r efl ected in th e lea der sh ip of sch ools[6].
Twen ty yea r s a go, wh en sch ools wer e
expa n din g, ga in in g pr om otion seem ed a lm ost
a u tom a tic. P la n n in g a ca r eer a ppea r ed
a lm ost a su per flu ou s exer cise, sin ce m ost
a m bitiou s tea ch er s h a d a ser ies of jobs wh ich
took th em r a pidly tow a r ds m a n a gem en t
posts. Today’s gen er a tion of tea ch er s n eeds to
be r a th er m or e system a tic in its a ppr oa ch to
pr om otion , especia lly if th e u ltim a te a im is a
h ea dsh ip. Th e va st m a jor ity of sen ior sta ff
h ave wor k ed th eir w ay stea dily th r ou gh a
con str u ctive ser ies of jobs in or der to becom e
su ita bly pr epa r ed for sen ior m a n a gem en t
r oles. Th is is a difficu lt ta sk for a n y tea ch er
bu t it is especia lly difficu lt for wom en [1]. We
wou ld n ot su ggest th a t th er e is som e sor t of
deliber a te exclu sion of wom en fr om sen ior
posts, wh ich wou ld be ille ga l in a n y ca se, bu t
th a t m a n y wom en per ceive th ey a r e bein g
den ied a ccess to su ch position s[10].
Resea r ch in to sch ool effectiven ess a n d
sch ool im pr ovem en t, both in th e UK a n d
developin g cou n tr ies, wou ld su ggest th a t
developm en t a n d im pr ovem en t of sch ools is a
m a tter n ot on ly for in dividu a ls bu t for th e
wh ole sch ool sta ff wor k in g togeth er tow a r ds
th e sh a r ed goa ls of th e sch ool[10]. Th is w ay of
wor k in g pr esu pposes a colle gia te a ppr oa ch to
tea ch in g, wh ich is often over look ed in th e
developm en t of h ier a r ch ies of lea der sh ip in
sch ools. Th is ca n lea d to a situ a tion in wh ich
wom en a r e con fi n ed to pa r ticu la r m a n a gem en t a r ea s deem ed a ppr opr ia te for th em ,
e.g. pa stor a l or “ca r in g”, a n d on ly ever
a ch ieve lower sta tu s posts of r espon sibility,
ca r r yin g lower r espon sibility a llow a n ces.
Wh er e a sch ool h a s th is pa r ticu la r type of
lea der sh ip a r r a n gem en t, wom en ’s in flu en ce
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
over im por ta n t m a n a gem en t decision s is
ver y lim ited[11].
Th er e is n o r ea son wh y sch ools sh ou ld
or ga n ize th em selves in th e w ays ou tlin ed
a bove, bu t wh a t is ver y eviden t is th a t th e
exclu sion of wom en fr om sen ior levels of
m a n a gem en t or fr om a ccess to m a n a gem en t
developm en t tr a in in g is su r ely n ot ben eficia l
to th e edu ca tion of stu den ts, pa r ticu la r ly
fem a le on es. Ma le-dom in a ted h ier a r ch ies in
sch ools do little for n ew wom en en tr a n ts to
th e pr ofession . Wh a t m ay r esu lt is a gen er a tion of fem a le tea ch er s w ith ou t th e in fl u en ce
or su ppor t of a ppr opr ia te r ole m odels a n d
m en tor s.
Internal and external barriers to
progress
A n u m ber of m odels h ave been u sed by
r esea r ch er s to expla in wom en ’s la ck of
a ch ievem en t in th is fi eld. Ha n sot a n d
Tya ck [12] h ave su ggested th r ee m odels. Th e
fir st is ba sed on th e pr em iss th a t wom en a r e
h in der ed by in ter n a l ba r r ier s wh ich k eep
th em fr om a dva n cin g, in th e m a in ow in g to
th e effects of socia liza tion a n d sex ster eotypin g. In th is m odel wom en a r e seen a s victim s,
n eedin g to be r esocia lized so th a t th ey ca n fi t
in to a m a le wor ld. Th e secon d m odel is ba sed
on th e belief th a t or ga n iza tion s str u ctu r e th e
beh aviou r of th eir m em ber s, so th a t wom en
lim it th eir per for m a n ce beca u se th ey a r e
lock ed in to low -power, low visibility, dea d-en d
jobs. Th e th ir d m odel is ba sed on th e pr em iss
th a t th e wor ld is m a le defin ed a n d m a le r u n ,
a n d th a t m a le dom in a n ce su ppr esses wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft[13] favou r s th e th ir d m odel a s th e
m ost u sefu l for expla in in g wom en ’s low
a ch ievem en t in sch ool m a n a gem en t. Sh e feels
th a t in ter n a l ba r r ier s, su ch a s low self-im a ge,
la ck of con fiden ce a n d la ck of m otiva tion or
a spir a tion , r esu lt fr om th e socia l con text of
m en h oldin g power a n d pr ivile ge over
wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft offer s two m odels to h elp w ith
th e discu ssion of fem a le a spir a tion s. F ir st,
sh e su ggests th a t wom en do a spir e bu t in a
differ en t w ay to m en a n d, if ju dged by th e
tr a dition a l m a le defi n ition , m ay n ot a ppea r to
a spir e. Secon d, wom en a spir e bu t or ga n iza tion a l a n d societa l ba r r ier s pr even t wom en
fr om a ck n ow ledgin g or a ctin g on th eir a spir a tion s, so it a ppea r s th a t th ey la ck a spir a tion . If a spir a tion is m ea su r ed a ga in st m a le
exper ien ce, th en wom en do a spir e, bu t to
differ en t posts th a n m en . Th e tr en d is for
wom en to a spir e to be com peten t, exper ien ced tea ch er s a n d for m en to a spir e to be
m a n a ger s a n d a dm in istr a tor s.
Wh a tever th e r ea son s, a n u m ber of stu dies
su ppor t th e n otion th a t th e m otiva tion
for en ter in g tea ch in g differ s for m en
a n d wom en : m ost en ter tea ch in g to tea ch
bu t m ost m en en ter tea ch in g to
a dm in ister [13, p. 87].
Sh e a lso descr ibes ba r r ier s of over t a n d
cover t sex discr im in a tion . Th ese ca n be m or e
su btle, bu t n o less power fu l in th eir effect in
h in der in g th e pr ogr ess of wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft[13] lists th e follow in g fa ctor s:
• la ck of focu s on fem a le stu den ts;
• la ck of fem a le r ole m odels;
• la ck of ch ild ca r e;
• poor m edica l ser vices for fem a le pr oblem s;
• gen der -bia sed r ea din g m a ter ia l;
• less ca r eer su ppor t fr om fa m ily a n d peer s
for wom en th a n m en ;
• m a le n etwor k in g exclu din g wom en ;
• wom en h avin g m or e fin a n cia l r estr iction s
pla ced on th em th a n m en ;
• th e difficu lties of com bin in g a h igh sta tu s
job w ith th e r ole of w ife a n d m oth er ;
• beca u se of a n a n dr ocen tr ic wor ld view,
tr a dition a l fem a le qu a lities n ot bein g
h igh ly va lu ed, “com peten t a n d fem a le do
n ot go togeth er ”[14];
• m a le em ployer s feelin g th a t wom en ca n n ot
cope w ith th e em otion a l a n d ph ysica l str ess
fou n d in sch ool m a n a gem en t[15];
• em ployer s expectin g wom en to do th in gs
differ en tly, a n d in a less effective w ay th a n
m en .
In m a n y r esea r ch stu dies it h a s been fou n d
th a t wom en wh o do a ch ieve a r e m ost lik ely to
be th ose wh o con for m to ster eotypes of th e
a ch ievin g wom a n .
Davidson a n d Cooper [16] sh a r e th e opin ion
of Sh a k esh a ft r e ga r din g th e sim ila r ity of
m a le a n d fem a le m a n a ger s:
Wh en com pa r in g m a le a n d fem a le m a n a ger s
in ter m s of m a n a ger ia l efficien cy a n d per for m a n ce, n u m er ou s cr oss-cu ltu r a l stu dies
a n d r eview s h ave con clu ded th a t th er e a r e
fa r m or e sim ila r ities th a n differ en ces in
ter m s of m a n a ger ia l efficien cy a n d per for m a n ce[16, p. 16].
Th ey con sider th a t wom en m a n a ger s a r e
fr equ en tly pu t u n der a gr ea t dea l of str ess by
th e con fl ictin g r oles th a t th ey a ssu m e. As well
a s th eir wor k a n d dom estic r oles, th ey m ay
h ave th e a ddition a l ta xin g r ole of bein g
tr ea ted a s a “tok en wom a n ”, or a test ca se for
fu tu r e wom en . Isola tion , la ck of fem a le r ole
m odels, exclu sion fr om m a le gr ou ps a n d
wor k in g to r esist tr a dition a l fem a le sex r oles
ca n a ll exa cer ba te th e str ess. Th ese issu es a r e
n ot ju st a pplica ble to wom en seek in g m a n a gem en t posts in wester n cou n tr ies bu t a r e a lso
lik ely to be exper ien ced by wom en in developin g cou n tr ies su ch a s Uga n da .
[ 19 ]
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
[ 20 ]
Barriers to women’s progress in
Uganda
We wou ld n ow lik e to focu s on som e of th e
m ost sign ifica n t ba r r ier s th a t effect wom en ’s
en tr y in to edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t in
Uga n da . We n eed to be gin by look in g a t th e
edu ca tion a l h istor ies of gir ls a n d wom en in
th a t cou n tr y. UN ICE F [17] r epor ts th a t in
Uga n da , gir ls a n d boys h ave a n equ a l r igh t to
sch oolin g in pr in ciple. However, in pr a ctice
gir ls a r e less lik ely to a tten d sch ools. In th e
ea r liest yea r s of pr im a r y sch oolin g, pr im a r y
yea r s on e a n d two, th er e is a good a tten da n ce
by both gir ls a n d boys a n d th e n u m ber s a r e
r ou gh ly sim ila r. However, a s gir ls con tin u e
th r ou gh th eir edu ca tion , m or e a n d m or e dr op
ou t, especia lly a s th ey r ea ch pr im a r y yea r s
five to seven . Th e dr op-ou t r a te is m u ch
h igh er for gir ls, a s eviden ced by th e n e ga tive
cor r ela tion between th e r a tio of gir ls en r olled
to boys by gr a de level. In 1990, for exa m ple,
gir ls con stitu ted 46 per cen t of pu pils in pr im a r y on e bu t on ly 38 per cen t of pu pils in
pr im a r y seven [17]. Gir ls fa ce m or e pr oblem s
of dr op ou t in Uga n da n sch ools th a n boys, bu t
it is a pr oblem for both sexes. Stu den ts a r e
cu r r en tly dr oppin g ou t of sch ool a t ever y
level. For in sta n ce, ou t of th e ch ildr en wh o
en r olled in pr im a r y on e in 1975, 90 per cen t
r ea ch ed pr im a r y seven . By 1992, 70 per cen t of
th e ch ildr en wh o be ga n pr im a r y on e in 1986
h a d dr opped ou t. Th is m ea n s th a t on ly 30 per
cen t r ea ch ed pr im a r y seven . Th is dr op-ou t
r a te h a d in cr ea sed to 47 per cen t by 1991[18].
Gir ls in Uga n da n pr im a r y a n d secon da r y
sch ools do n ot r eceive a dequ a te a dvice a n d
cou n sellin g a n d a r e for ced to m a k e th eir ow n
decision s or con su lt m em ber s of th eir peer
gr ou p wh o m ay be ill in for m ed. Havin g welltr a in ed per son n el, wh o h ave a good u n der sta n din g of gir ls’ pr oblem s a n d a r e a ble to
pr ovide r e gu la r gu ida n ce a n d cou n sellin g
wou ld h elp to r edu ce th e pr oblem . Th is wou ld
h elp r elieve su ch pr essu r es for gir ls a n d a lso
en cou r a ge th em to pr ogr ess a ca dem ica lly
a n d socia lly. Am on g a sa m ple of Uga n da n
wom en su r veyed in 1988, 64 per cen t r epor ted
th a t th ey did n ot fi n ish or go beyon d pr im a r y
sch ool level ow in g to la ck of sch ool fees, wh ile
8 per cen t discon tin u ed th eir sch oolin g ow in g
to pr e gn a n cy[17].
Th e r esu lts of th e pr im a r y leavin g cer tifica te deter m in e en tr y to secon da r y sch ools.
Gir ls do less well th a n boys in th is exa m in a tion , except in E n glish [17]. By th e tim e th ey
r ea ch secon da r y sch ool, th e pr opor tion of
gir ls to boys is on e h a lf th a t fou n d a t th e
pr im a r y level. Ma n y sch ools a ccept gir ls w ith
lower qu a lifyin g m a r k s th a n boys in or der to
a ttr a ct gir ls, bu t th er e a r e m a n y m or e boys-
on ly th a n gir ls-on ly secon da r y sch ools, so
th a t, over a ll, th er e a r e fewer pla ces ava ila ble
for gir ls. Uga n da h a s over 622 secon da r y
sch ools w ith a tota l popu la tion of over 230,119
stu den ts, of wh om 60.2 per cen t a r e m a le a n d
39.8 per cen t a r e fem a le. Th er e a r e m or e th a n
10,996 tea ch er s, of wh om 82.6 per cen t a r e
m a le a n d 17.4 per cen t a r e fem a le. Th u s m a le
stu den ts a n d tea ch er s con stitu te th e m a jor ity
of th e sch ool popu la tion . Th is is r eflected a t
th e n a tion a l, distr ict, sch ool a n d even cla ssr oom levels. Gir ls con stitu te 45 per cen t of th e
stu den t body in pr im a r y sch ools, 30 per cen t
in th e lower secon da r y, th a t is Or din a r y
Level, a n d 20 per cen t in th e u pper secon da r y,
th a t is, Adva n ced Level[19]. Th e h eavier bu r den of h ou seh old r espon sibilities for gir ls is
con sider ed to be th e r ea son for th eir poor er
per for m a n ce a n d a tten da n ce. Th e r a tio of
fem a le to m a le tea ch er s pa r a llels th e en r olm en t r a tes of gir ls to boys in a lin ea r w ay,
r ein for cin g th e view th a t fem a le tea ch er s
h ave a positive effect on fem a le en r olm en ts.
It is a lso n otewor th y th a t fem a le tea ch er s a r e
n ot u su a lly pr om oted to h igh er m a n a ger ia l
levels, especia lly if th ey a r e u n m a r r ied[20].
Women’s education in Uganda
Gir ls do n ot a ctu a lly n eed specia l sch ools[21]
bu t it h elps wh en th ey con stitu te a r ela tively
la r ge pr opor tion of th e sch ool popu la tion in a
co-edu ca tion a l in stitu tion . Th er e is a lso n eed
to cr ea te aw a r en ess in th e com m u n ity a bou t
th e poten tia l a n d a bilities of gir ls. P a r en ts
especia lly n eed to be m a de aw a r e of th e n eed
for gir ls to spen d a s m u ch tim e on h om ewor k
a s boys do (in stea d of expectin g th em to
en ga ge in h ou seh old ch or es wh ile th e boys do
th eir h om ewor k ).
A policy r eview r epor t by th e Uga n da n
Min istr y of E du ca tion [18] in clu ded a section
on edu ca tion for wom en . In th e r epor t th e
Com m ission iden tified fa ctor s wh ich th ey
saw a s h avin g a n a dver se effect on gir ls’ edu ca tion in gen er a l a n d con tr ibu tin g to th e h igh
r a te of dr op-ou t a m on g gir ls a t a ll levels of
for m a l edu ca tion . Th e fa ctor s wer e a s
follow s:
(i)
(ii)
Beca u se of th e pa tr ilin ea l society a n d
oth er socia l a n d cu ltu r a l fa ctor s, m a n y
pa r en ts in Uga n da ten d to pr efer edu ca tin g boys to gir ls;
Most coedu ca tion a l in stitu tion s a r e n ot
well equ ipped w ith sepa r a te fa cilities for
gir ls. Th e coedu ca tion a l boa r din g in stitu tion s gen er a lly h ave m or e boys th a n
gir ls. Gir ls ten d to su ffer m or e fr om th e
n a tu r a l ph ysiologica l a n d psych ologica l
ch a n ges th a t r en der th eir a ca dem ic
per for m a n ce in th ese coedu ca tion a l
in stitu tion s r ela tively poor ;
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
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(iii) Th e tr a dition a l division of la bou r in th e
h om e is m or e dem a n din g on gir ls th a n
boys;
(iv) Gir ls u su a lly get in volved in ea r ly m a r r ia ges. Am on g th ose wh o go to sch ool,
som e su ffer fr om ea r ly pr e gn a n cies for
wh ich th ey a r e th r ow n ou t of th e sch ool
system ; a n d
(v) Gir ls often fa ll pr ey to socia l pr oblem s,
pa r ticu la r ly in th e u r ba n a r ea s wh er e
m ost of th e la r ge secon da r y sch ools a n d
ter tia r y in stitu tion s a r e loca ted. Th is is
som etim es a ggr ava ted by th e la ck of
decen t a n d secu r e a ccom m oda tion for
gir ls[18, p. 109].
If pa r en ts la ck su fficien t m on ey to pay for
th eir ch ildr en ’s edu ca tion , wh ich m ost do,
th ey a r e m or e lik ely to sen d th e boys r a th er
th a n th e gir ls to sch ool. Ma n y r u r a l sch ools
a n d lower fee ba n d sch ools a r e of a low sta n da r d a n d do n ot pr ovide a good exper ien ce,
especia lly for gir ls. Th e ph ysica l envir on m en t, in clu din g toilet a n d dor m itor y fa cilities, a r e often pa r ticu la r ly h a r sh for th e
fem a le stu den ts. Th er e a r e few r ole-m odels
pr ovided by wom en sta ff, especia lly in scien ce tea ch in g a n d a t m a n a ger ia l levels.
Poor ly edu ca ted pa r en ts a r e m or e lik ely to
h old th e tr a dition a l ster eotype of th e gir ls’
pla ce bein g r estr icted to th a t of w ife, ch ildbea r er a n d h om e m a n a ger. Th ey ca n n ot see
a n y n eed for th eir gir ls to be edu ca ted in m a tter s n ot dir ectly r ela ted to th e h om e, th e fa m ily a n d th e fa r m . Th e a ca dem ic or ien ta tion of
th e cu r r icu lu m m ay a ffect som e pa r en ts’
per ception s of th e r eleva n ce of edu ca tion for
gir ls. Ma n y ch ildr en a n d pa r en ts con sider th e
pr im a r y leavin g exa m in a tion su bjects ir r eleva n t to a gir l’s fu tu r e ca r eer in a r u r a l a r ea .
Gen der ster eotypin g, too, is em bodied in
cu r r icu lu m m a ter ia ls. A r epor t of th e
Con ven tion on th e E lim in a tion of Discr im in a tion Aga in st Wom en , com m ission ed by
th e Min istr y of Wom en in Developm en t[22],
n oted th a t in socia l stu dies cou r ses in sch ools
a ll th e tr a dition a l h er oes cited wer e m en .
It is a ga in st th is ba ck gr ou n d of discr im in a tion , both over t a n d cover t, th a t we n eed to
con sider th e position of wom en in Uga n da , a s
th ey seek to en ter th e h igh er ech elon s of th e
tea ch in g pr ofession . Ma n y m en , edu ca ted a n d
u n edu ca ted, w ill h ave a vested in ter est in
h oldin g on to power a n d a u th or ity r a th er
th a n sh a r in g it w ith wom en . Beca u se of th e
w ay wom en h ave been socia lized th ey fr equ en tly h ave low self-esteem , a n d m a n y w ill
be u n der con fiden t in th eir a bilities ou tside
th e dom estic r ole.
Str u ctu r a l a dju stm en t pr ogr a m m es, too,
a r e ten din g to h ave a n e ga tive effect on
wom en . For exa m ple, in th e cu r r en t
r edu ction in n u m ber s of th e civil ser vice,
m a n y lower -r a n k in g em ployees a r e bein g
r etr en ch ed (m a de r edu n da n t), wh ich m ea n s
th a t m ost of th e wom en em ployed in th e civil
ser vice a r e loosin g th eir jobs. On ly a sm a ll
pr opor tion of th e h igh er r a n k s, wh ich a r e th e
m ost secu r e position s, h ave been given to
wom en .
Strategies for improving women’s
access to educational management
in Uganda
Wh a t ca n th er efor e be don e to en a ble wom en
edu ca tor s to br ea k th r ou gh th e “gla ss
ceilin g” in Uga n da ? In for m a l discu ssion s
w ith Uga n da n wom en stu den ts a t Ma n ch ester
Un iver sity iden tifi ed str a te gies wh ich wer e
h elpin g wom en to over com e th e ba r r ier s to
pr ogr ess in th e field of edu ca tion . Th ese wer e
la r gely beca u se of th e a ction s of th e gover n m en t of Uga n da itself, wh ich h a s don e m u ch
to a dva n ce a n d pr om ote th e position of
wom en . Wom en fou gh t a lon gside Yower i
Mu seven i, n ow P r esiden t Mu seven i, du r in g
th e liber a tion w a r a n d, a t th a t tim e a n d sin ce,
h ave pr oved th eir a bilities a n d wor th to th e
gover n m en t. Th e cou n tr y is a dm in ister ed
th r ou gh a system of Resista n ce Com m ittees
(RCs) a t sever a l levels. E a ch RC a t ea ch level
h a s a Secr eta r y for Wom en , wh o is a lw ays a
wom a n . Wom en a r e a lso en titled to com pete
for th e oth er position s on th e RC. Wh en th e
position of Secr eta r y for Wom en w a s fi r st
esta blish ed, th e m ove w a s gr eeted w ith m u ch
cyn icism , especia lly fr om m en , bu t over tim e
it h a s pr oved to be ver y effective a n d is n ow
gen er a lly well r espected. All sector a l policies
a r e r equ ir ed to be gen der -r espon sive. Despite
th e m a n y cu ltu r a l ba r r ier s wh ich h ave m a de
it difficu lt for wom en to w in sea ts in
pa r lia m en t, th er e a r e n ow 38 wom en th er e.
Th e Con stitu tion of Uga n da is cu r r en tly
bein g r ew r itten . Wom en a r e r epr esen ted
a m on g th e com m ission er s a n d it is a n ticipa ted th a t r esu ltin g le gisla tion , in su ch a r ea s
a s citizen sh ip, w ill be m or e in favou r of
wom en th a n h a s been th e ca se in th e pa st.
Th is politica l situ a tion illu str a tes a w ill to
in volve a n d ca pita lize on th e str en gth s a n d
exper ien ce of wom en .
Str a te gies wh ich a im to in cr ea se th e
n u m ber s of gir ls a n d wom en in edu ca tion
in clu de th e on goin g sen sitiza tion pr ogr a m m e, wh ich is r u n a t villa ge level by th e
developm en t secr eta r ies of th e RCs. Th e a im
is to sen sitize pa r en ts to th e ben efits of
edu ca tin g th eir gir l ch ildr en a s well a s th eir
boy ch ildr en . In 1989 Ma k er er e Un iver sity
took th e step of aw a r din g a ddition a l poin ts
tow a r ds th e qu a lifyin g m a r k of a ll wom en
[ 21 ]
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
[ 22 ]
poten tia l stu den ts, th u s ta k in g a ffir m a tive
a ction to r a ise th e n u m ber of fem a les.
Th e Uga n da Tea ch in g Ser vice Com m ission
(UTSC), esta blish ed by Sta tu te of P a r lia m en t,
is a body r espon sible for th e selection , in ter view in g a n d a ppoin tm en t of officer s deem ed
su ita ble to h ea d edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s.
Su ccessfu l ca n dida tes a r e posted th r ou gh th e
Com m ission er of E du ca tion to va r iou s
sch ools a n d h ea dsh ips. It is gover n m en t
policy to post a h ea dtea ch er to a n y pa r t of th e
cou n tr y. However, th e Min istr y of E du ca tion
is n ow givin g du e con sider a tion to gen der
issu es wh en postin g a h ea d of sch ool. Wh er e a
m a le is posted, a fem a le depu ty is lik ely to be
a tta ch ed a n d vice ver sa . Th e Min istr y is a lso
tr yin g to en cou r a ge fem a le en r olm en t in coedu ca tion a l post pr im a r y in stitu tion s by
tr yin g to pr ovide a dequ a te cu r r icu lu m
a r r a n gem en ts for gir ls, for exa m ple, by
pr ovidin g cou r ses in h om e m a n a gem en t, food
n u tr ition , textiles a n d cloth in g etc. E n su r in g
th a t th er e is a fem a le lea der a n d lea der sh ip in
coedu ca tion a l sch ools, ca n a lso be con sider ed
a step for w a r d. In so doin g, th e Min istr y
h opes to ba la n ce th e en r olm en t of boys a n d
gir ls a n d to r edu ce gen der in equ a lity.
In a fu r th er effor t to pr om ote qu a lity in
sch ools, th e Min istr y of E du ca tion a n d Spor ts
a n d oth er r eleva n t bodies lik e th e Uga n da
Ma n a gem en t In stitu te n ow or ga n ize wor k sh ops, sem in a r s a n d cou r ses for sch ool
lea der s, especia lly h ea dtea ch er s a n d th eir
depu ties, pr in cipa ls a n d depu ty pr in cipa ls
a n d poten tia l h older s of th ese posts. On e of
th e str a te gies a dvoca ted in th ese wor k sh ops
is th a t of colla bor a tive lea der sh ip. Lea der s
a r e en cou r a ged to sh a r e power, decision
m a k in g a n d exper tise bu t a t th e sa m e tim e
th ey a r e tr a in ed in th e in ter per son a l sk ills of
co-oper a tion a n d com m u n ica tion wh ich a r e
n ow con sider ed to be essen tia l m a n a gem en t
sk ills. Ha r gr eaves[23], look s a t colla bor a tion
a s a k ey to lea der sh ip qu a lity in edu ca tion .
In ter n a tion a l m oves tow a r ds equ a lity of
oppor tu n ity a r e h avin g a n effect in Uga n da .
At m in ister ia l level, m a n y politicia n s a tten d
in ter n a tion a l m eetin gs a n d a r e aw a r e of th e
em ph a sis bein g pu t on wom en ’s con cer n s a n d
of th e r oles wom en ta k e in ter n a tion a lly. We
believe th a t a t a ll levels of society wom en a n d
m en a r e ch a n gin g in th eir view s a n d th a t
tr a dition a l ster eotyped r oles a n d beh aviou r
pa tter n s a r e bein g er oded. Th is differ en ce is
sh ow n in m a n y w ays; for exa m ple, it is n ow
less com m on to see wom en k n eelin g to gr eet
m en in th e str eet, a n d m or e com m on to h ea r
of m en ta k in g a n a ctive r ole in th e r ea r in g of
ch ildr en .
N on -gover n m en t or ga n iza tion s too a r e
ten din g to focu s on th e pr im a r y r oles of
wom en r ela ted to fa m ily h ea lth ca r e a n d th e
ca r e of th e en vir on m en t. Th eir a ppr oa ch is
two-pr on ged, m eetin g th e pr a ctica l da ily
n eeds of wom en a n d a lso th eir str a te gic on es.
Th e pr a ctica l n eeds in clu de a ccess to w a ter
a n d fu el; th e str a te gic n eeds a r e m or e lon g
ter m , su ch a s h igh er sta tu s a n d position , a n d
m ay be m et th r ou gh im pr oved a ccess to
h igh er edu ca tion .
Wom en s’ lea der sh ip is cu r r en tly a su bject
of gr ea t deba te a n d con cer n in Uga n da , a s th e
n a tion is com in g to r ea lize th a t to a ch ieve
qu ick a n d su sta in a ble developm en t, th e
gen der fa ctor ca n n o lon ger con tin u e to be
ign or ed. Th e r epor t of th e Uga n da n
E du ca tion Policy Review Com m ission [18]
m a de sever a l r ecom m en da tion s wh ich , if pu t
in to effect, sh ou ld gr ea tly en h a n ce th e situ a tion of gir ls a n d wom en . Recom m en da tion 162
sta ted th a t:
Th e Gover n m en t sh ou ld pr ovide m or e secon da r y sch ools exclu sively for gir ls to
en su r e secu r ity wh ile r eceivin g
edu ca tion [18, p. 162].
Th e Com m ission a lso r ecogn ized th a t m a n y
m or e boys th a n gir ls wer e bein g edu ca ted in
both pr im a r y a n d secon da r y sch ools a n d th a t
th is h a d a k n ock -on effect on en r olm en t in
ter tia r y in stitu tion s a n d u n iver sities. It r ecom m en ded th a t:
In Co-edu ca tion a l sch ools, eith er th e Hea d
or th e Depu ty Hea d sh ou ld be a wom a n in
or der to look a fter th e specia l n eeds of gir ls
pr oper ly[18, p. 163].
Adequ a te fa cilities sh ou ld be pr ovided for
gir ls in co-edu ca tion a l post-pr im a r y in stitu tion s in or der to a llow for a ba la n ced en r olm en t between boys a n d gir ls[18, p. 164].
Th e r epor t sta ted th a t th e n u m ber of wom en
a tta in in g u n iver sity pla ces w a s too low, bu t
th a t th e a tta in m en t of th ose wom en wh o wer e
in u n iver sity w a s in th e m a in ver y good. It
w a s expected th a t th e n u m ber of wom en stu den ts wou ld r ise w ith im pr oved pr ovision for
gir ls a t th e secon da r y sta ge.
Conclusions
Resea r ch er s h ave su ggested th a t th e ba r r ier s
to wom en in th e developed wor ld r esu lt fr om
th e fa ct th a t society is m a le dom in a ted, a n d
th r ou gh socia liza tion , sex ster eotypin g a n d
sex discr im in a tion , wom en often h ave low
self-im a ge, low self-con fi den ce a n d la ck m otiva tion . Ma n y in dividu a ls h old n e ga tive opin ion s tow a r ds wom en in position s of power
a n d th er e is a w idely h eld belief th a t wom en
m a k e less effective m a n a ger s th a n do m en .
Sim ila r ba r r ier s a ffect wom en in Uga n da
w ith som e a ddition s. Th e m ost sign ifica n t of
th ese r esu lts fr om differ en tia tion on th e ba sis
of gen der a n d in clu des: r edu ced a ccess to
Marie Bro wn and
Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’
advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in
Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
edu ca tion , in clu din g ba sic liter a cy, th e
exper ien ces th a t fem a les h ave in edu ca tion
wh ich a r e differ en t to th e exper ien ces of
m a les, a n d th e a ddition a l socia l r espon sibilities th a t th e m a jor ity of gir ls a n d wom en
h old.
Ma n y differ en t str a te gies a r e bein g u sed to
over com e th ese ba r r ier s. It h a s been su ggested h er e th a t th e w ay in wh ich on e view s
th e ba r r ier s w ill in flu en ce th e ch a n ge str a tegies wh ich w ill be fou n d to be m ost u sefu l. We
h ave su ggested th a t a r a n ge of str a te gies is
n eeded, in clu din g: im pr ovin g th e a bilities
a n d con fiden ce of wom en a n d ch a n gin g th e
or ga n iza tion s in wh ich th ey wor k . In Uga n da ,
str a te gies a r e bein g em ployed a t differ en t
levels – in dividu a l, societa l, or ga n iza tion a l,
n a tion a l a n d in ter n a tion a l. im plem en ta tion
of th ese ca n ca u se ch a n ges wh ich h ave a n
effect a t sever a l levels.
Th e ba r r ier s, a n d th e m ost a ppr opr ia te
str a te gies, m u st be viewed in th e wh ole con text of th e life of a n in dividu a l, th e str u ctu r e
of a n or ga n iza tion , a n d th e n eeds, n or m s a n d
va lu es of a society a n d cu ltu r e. It a ppea r s th a t
over th e la st two or th r ee yea r s th e a dva n cem en t of gir ls a n d wom en in edu ca tion a n d in
edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t in developed cou n tr ies h a s slowed dow n con sider a bly, a n d pr eviou s ch a n ge m ay be in th e pr ocess of con solida tion . However, in Uga n da , it a ppea r s th a t
th e pr ospects for gir ls a n d wom en a r e cu r r en tly im pr ovin g r a pidly a n d m ay con tin u e to
do so for som e tim e to com e.
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[ 23 ]