Rice Production Vulnerability to Climate Change in Indonesia An Overview on Community-Based Adaptation.
Rice Production Vulnerability to Climate Change in Indonesia:
An Overview on Community-Based Adaptation
Anak Agung Sagung Putri
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY
1Center
1,
Komaladara I
Wayan
2
Budiasa ,
I Gusti Agung Ayu
12
Ambarawati
on Food Availability for Sustainable Improvement (CFASI), Udayana University, Indonesia, 2Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University, Indonesia
Abstract
Rice remains to be a major crop and staple food in Indonesia. The task to ensure that rice production meets the
demand of a growing population continues to engage the attention of national planners and policy makers.
However, the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture production have presented Indonesia with yet
another significant challenge. The exposure of rice crops to climate-related hazards such as temperature stress,
floods, and drought, may lead to lower yield and self-sufficiency rate. This study reviews the vulnerability of
rice production to the effects of climate change in Indonesia. Considering the vast geographical span of the
country and varying exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to climate change at regional level, this study
emphasizes the importance of community-based adaptation that accounts for indigenous knowledge. To
manage the impacts of climate change, this study seeks to identify the potential capacity and roles of far ers’
organizations, such as subak, in adaptation plans. Subak in Bali is recognized for its cultural and organizational
framework that highlights the sharing of knowledge and local wisdom in rice production. This is demonstrated
by its efficient community-based irrigation management system, leading to sustainable rice production.
Key words: rice production, climate change, community-based adaptation, Indonesia
CFASI
Methodology
Location: A case study was carried out in Subak Cemagi, Cemagi village, Mengwi district, regency of Badung,
Bali. It is the largest far ers’ organization in the village that cultivates rice over a total of 324 Ha area of paddy
field.
Subak also coordinates the planting cycle of the farmers to reduce the stress on nature and adapt to the
availability of water. The planting pattern in a production year generally comprise of two rice crop production
cycle and one secondary crop (maize or soy bean) production cycle. This synchronized rice planting scheme over
large production areas minimizes pest attacks and ensures effective pest control strategy.
Data collection: A total of 50 farmers, far ers’ organization (subak) leaders and managers were interviewed to
assess their vulnerabilities in rice production in relation to climate change; and identify the potential roles of
subak in community-based adaptation plans.
Results and Discussion
Result show that farmers are exposed to a number of rice production constraints and vulnerabilities. These
include, but not limited to increased pest and disease attack, water shortages, and shift in planting and harvest
schedule (Figure 1), which may lead to crop failures and jeopardize the regio ’s food self-sufficiency.
Background
As global warming trends continue to intensify (IPCC, 2013), agriculture has become one of the most
vulnerable sectors to the impact of climate change. Temperature and precipitation changes, increasing
frequency of extreme weather, and the rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere have mostly
unfavourable effects on agricultural productivity (FAO, 2011). Contended with current staple food production
issues and compounded by limited capacity to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change, Indonesia is
presented with a significant challenge.
The growing scientific consensus on the likelihood of future significant climate change has encouraged
economic and agricultural research to identify the vulnerability of rice production to climate change. By 2100,
the annual mean temperature for Indonesia is projected to rise by 4.8oC (ADB, 2008), this change in
temperature is expected to influence the growth duration, growth pattern, and rice crop productivity (Redfern
et al., 2012). World Bank (2007) reports that climate change would likely reduce rice yields by 4%, and by 2050
the reduction in rice yield would be approximately 23.7% (BAPPENAS, 2011). The frequency of floods and
drought occurrence is predicted to increase in the future, along side the depletion of soil, land, and water
resources. The total damaged rice production area caused by flooding is estimated to be around 270,000 ha,
causing a production loss of 1.3 million tonnes that affects the livelihood of approximately 4.4 million farm
households (Wassmann et al., 2011).
Adaptation strategies to the effects of climate change have been categorized into autonomous adaptation at
farm level, and planned adaptation at government level. As climate change impacts are specific to a particular
region, it is necessary to encourage community-based adaptation plans that accounts for indigenous
knowledge and successful autonomous adaptation by farmers and far ers’ organization. Subak, as a form of
far ers’ organization in Bali, known for its cultural and organizational framework, is explored for its potential
capacity in assisting farmers cope with rice production vulnerabilities to climate change.
Objectives
This study aims to:
1. Review the vulnerability of rice production to climate change in Indonesia
2. Identify the potential roles of subak (as a far ers’ organization), in assisting farmers cope with the
effects of climate change, in community-based adaptation strategies.
Figure 3. Subak water management and irrigation system
Conclusion
Figure 1. Rice production constraints and vulnerabilities
Subak has the potential capacity to assist farmers in coping with the effects of climate change, in
community-based adaptation strategies. The consideration of indigenous knowledge in
adaptation strategies, in a sense of creating a harmonious relationship among nature and people,
may reduce the anthropogenic stress on the environment that may lead to sustainable
agriculture production systems.
In dealing with these production constraints, as members of the
far ers’ organization, farmers often seek for advise from the subak.
The Balinese subak is known as a principal far ers’ organization, with
a socio-agrarian-religious nature. Suradisastra et al. (2002) highlights
that subak is a community of farmers that sees itself as an element of
the surrounding ecosystem. The environment, weather and season,
technology, and the local norm and rules are seen as an entity that
influences agricultural practices and farming behaviour. This far ers’
organization base its operation on creating a harmonious balance
between farmers and their environment that would lead to sustainable
agriculture production systems (Figure 2).
References:
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2009. The economics of climate change in Southeast Asia: a regional review. Manila.
BAPPENAS. 2011. Indonesia Adaptation Strategy: Improving Capacity to Adapt. Bappenas. Jakarta.
Figure 2. The foundation of subak
operations
Figure 2 also shows the role of subak in recognizing the multi-functionality of rice farming that demonstrates
its capacity to contribute to community-based adaptation to climate change. The multi-functionality of rice
farming is a paradigm that concerns the role of agriculture, farmers and far ers’ organization, within a
society. The concept recognizes the potential capacity of agricultural activities, including far ers’
organization, to not only produce food, but also ensure rural livelihoods, develop regional economy, and
preserve cultural heritage and identity.
Subak promotes efficient management of natural resources such as irrigation water, through the creation of
irrigation canals that are organised and monitored by its members (Figure 3). Many studies have predicted
water shortages in the future due to extreme climate variability. In this regard, subak has the capacity to
assist farmers cope with water shortages through its water management system.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. Global Action on Climate Change in Agriculture: Linkages to Food Security, Markets and Trade Policies in Developing Countries, Elbehri, A.,
Genest, A., and Burfisher, M. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Stocker, T.F., Quin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P.M. (eds.), Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, and New York.
Redfern, K., Azzu, N. & Binamira, J. 2012. Rice in Southeast Asia: facing risks and vulnerabilities to respond to climate change. Proceedings of a Joint FAO/OECD Workshop, Rome, Italy.
Suradisastra, K., Sejati, W., Supriatna, Y. & Hidayat, D. 2002. Institutional Description of the Balinese Subak. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian, 21(1).
Wassmann, R., Jagadish, S, Peng, S., Sumfleth, K., Hosen, Y. & Sander, B. 2009. Rice Production and Global Climate Change: Scope for Adaptation and Mitigation Activities. International Rice
Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
World Bank. 2007. Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies. Jakarta.
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank Udayana University for supporting this study. The authors would also like to express their gratitude to
the BPP Mengwi agricultural extension workers for coordinating the survey data collection.
Corresponding Author:
Anak Agung Sagung Putri Komaladara
pkomaladara@gmail.com
An Overview on Community-Based Adaptation
Anak Agung Sagung Putri
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY
1Center
1,
Komaladara I
Wayan
2
Budiasa ,
I Gusti Agung Ayu
12
Ambarawati
on Food Availability for Sustainable Improvement (CFASI), Udayana University, Indonesia, 2Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University, Indonesia
Abstract
Rice remains to be a major crop and staple food in Indonesia. The task to ensure that rice production meets the
demand of a growing population continues to engage the attention of national planners and policy makers.
However, the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture production have presented Indonesia with yet
another significant challenge. The exposure of rice crops to climate-related hazards such as temperature stress,
floods, and drought, may lead to lower yield and self-sufficiency rate. This study reviews the vulnerability of
rice production to the effects of climate change in Indonesia. Considering the vast geographical span of the
country and varying exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to climate change at regional level, this study
emphasizes the importance of community-based adaptation that accounts for indigenous knowledge. To
manage the impacts of climate change, this study seeks to identify the potential capacity and roles of far ers’
organizations, such as subak, in adaptation plans. Subak in Bali is recognized for its cultural and organizational
framework that highlights the sharing of knowledge and local wisdom in rice production. This is demonstrated
by its efficient community-based irrigation management system, leading to sustainable rice production.
Key words: rice production, climate change, community-based adaptation, Indonesia
CFASI
Methodology
Location: A case study was carried out in Subak Cemagi, Cemagi village, Mengwi district, regency of Badung,
Bali. It is the largest far ers’ organization in the village that cultivates rice over a total of 324 Ha area of paddy
field.
Subak also coordinates the planting cycle of the farmers to reduce the stress on nature and adapt to the
availability of water. The planting pattern in a production year generally comprise of two rice crop production
cycle and one secondary crop (maize or soy bean) production cycle. This synchronized rice planting scheme over
large production areas minimizes pest attacks and ensures effective pest control strategy.
Data collection: A total of 50 farmers, far ers’ organization (subak) leaders and managers were interviewed to
assess their vulnerabilities in rice production in relation to climate change; and identify the potential roles of
subak in community-based adaptation plans.
Results and Discussion
Result show that farmers are exposed to a number of rice production constraints and vulnerabilities. These
include, but not limited to increased pest and disease attack, water shortages, and shift in planting and harvest
schedule (Figure 1), which may lead to crop failures and jeopardize the regio ’s food self-sufficiency.
Background
As global warming trends continue to intensify (IPCC, 2013), agriculture has become one of the most
vulnerable sectors to the impact of climate change. Temperature and precipitation changes, increasing
frequency of extreme weather, and the rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere have mostly
unfavourable effects on agricultural productivity (FAO, 2011). Contended with current staple food production
issues and compounded by limited capacity to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change, Indonesia is
presented with a significant challenge.
The growing scientific consensus on the likelihood of future significant climate change has encouraged
economic and agricultural research to identify the vulnerability of rice production to climate change. By 2100,
the annual mean temperature for Indonesia is projected to rise by 4.8oC (ADB, 2008), this change in
temperature is expected to influence the growth duration, growth pattern, and rice crop productivity (Redfern
et al., 2012). World Bank (2007) reports that climate change would likely reduce rice yields by 4%, and by 2050
the reduction in rice yield would be approximately 23.7% (BAPPENAS, 2011). The frequency of floods and
drought occurrence is predicted to increase in the future, along side the depletion of soil, land, and water
resources. The total damaged rice production area caused by flooding is estimated to be around 270,000 ha,
causing a production loss of 1.3 million tonnes that affects the livelihood of approximately 4.4 million farm
households (Wassmann et al., 2011).
Adaptation strategies to the effects of climate change have been categorized into autonomous adaptation at
farm level, and planned adaptation at government level. As climate change impacts are specific to a particular
region, it is necessary to encourage community-based adaptation plans that accounts for indigenous
knowledge and successful autonomous adaptation by farmers and far ers’ organization. Subak, as a form of
far ers’ organization in Bali, known for its cultural and organizational framework, is explored for its potential
capacity in assisting farmers cope with rice production vulnerabilities to climate change.
Objectives
This study aims to:
1. Review the vulnerability of rice production to climate change in Indonesia
2. Identify the potential roles of subak (as a far ers’ organization), in assisting farmers cope with the
effects of climate change, in community-based adaptation strategies.
Figure 3. Subak water management and irrigation system
Conclusion
Figure 1. Rice production constraints and vulnerabilities
Subak has the potential capacity to assist farmers in coping with the effects of climate change, in
community-based adaptation strategies. The consideration of indigenous knowledge in
adaptation strategies, in a sense of creating a harmonious relationship among nature and people,
may reduce the anthropogenic stress on the environment that may lead to sustainable
agriculture production systems.
In dealing with these production constraints, as members of the
far ers’ organization, farmers often seek for advise from the subak.
The Balinese subak is known as a principal far ers’ organization, with
a socio-agrarian-religious nature. Suradisastra et al. (2002) highlights
that subak is a community of farmers that sees itself as an element of
the surrounding ecosystem. The environment, weather and season,
technology, and the local norm and rules are seen as an entity that
influences agricultural practices and farming behaviour. This far ers’
organization base its operation on creating a harmonious balance
between farmers and their environment that would lead to sustainable
agriculture production systems (Figure 2).
References:
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2009. The economics of climate change in Southeast Asia: a regional review. Manila.
BAPPENAS. 2011. Indonesia Adaptation Strategy: Improving Capacity to Adapt. Bappenas. Jakarta.
Figure 2. The foundation of subak
operations
Figure 2 also shows the role of subak in recognizing the multi-functionality of rice farming that demonstrates
its capacity to contribute to community-based adaptation to climate change. The multi-functionality of rice
farming is a paradigm that concerns the role of agriculture, farmers and far ers’ organization, within a
society. The concept recognizes the potential capacity of agricultural activities, including far ers’
organization, to not only produce food, but also ensure rural livelihoods, develop regional economy, and
preserve cultural heritage and identity.
Subak promotes efficient management of natural resources such as irrigation water, through the creation of
irrigation canals that are organised and monitored by its members (Figure 3). Many studies have predicted
water shortages in the future due to extreme climate variability. In this regard, subak has the capacity to
assist farmers cope with water shortages through its water management system.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. Global Action on Climate Change in Agriculture: Linkages to Food Security, Markets and Trade Policies in Developing Countries, Elbehri, A.,
Genest, A., and Burfisher, M. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Stocker, T.F., Quin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P.M. (eds.), Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, and New York.
Redfern, K., Azzu, N. & Binamira, J. 2012. Rice in Southeast Asia: facing risks and vulnerabilities to respond to climate change. Proceedings of a Joint FAO/OECD Workshop, Rome, Italy.
Suradisastra, K., Sejati, W., Supriatna, Y. & Hidayat, D. 2002. Institutional Description of the Balinese Subak. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian, 21(1).
Wassmann, R., Jagadish, S, Peng, S., Sumfleth, K., Hosen, Y. & Sander, B. 2009. Rice Production and Global Climate Change: Scope for Adaptation and Mitigation Activities. International Rice
Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
World Bank. 2007. Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies. Jakarta.
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank Udayana University for supporting this study. The authors would also like to express their gratitude to
the BPP Mengwi agricultural extension workers for coordinating the survey data collection.
Corresponding Author:
Anak Agung Sagung Putri Komaladara
pkomaladara@gmail.com