STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING IN WRITING AN ENGLISH EXPOSITION TEXT: a case study in a private university in ciamis.
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING IN WRITING
AN ENGLISH EXPOSITION TEXT
(A CASE STUDY IN A PRIVATE UNIVERSITY IN CIAMIS)
A THESIS
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Master’s Degree in English Education
By:
DEDEH ROHAYATI 1201025
ENGLISH EDUCATION PROGRAM
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
BANDUNG
2014
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STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING IN WRITING
AN ENGLISH EXPOSITION TEXT
(A CASE STUDY IN A PRIVATE UNIVERSITY IN CIAMIS)
Oleh Dedeh Rohayati
S.Pd. Universitas Galuh Ciamis, 2007
Sebuah Tesis yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Magister Pendidikan (M.Pd.) pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni
© Dedeh Rohayati 2014 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
September 2014
Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.
Skripsi ini tidak boleh diperbanyak seluruhya atau sebagian, dengan dicetak ulang, difoto kopi, atau cara lainnya tanpa ijin dari penulis.
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APPROVAL PAGE
“Students’ Critical Thinking in Writing an English Exposition Text”
A Thesis
This thesis has been approved by Supervisor
Prof. Emi Emilia, M. Ed., Ph.D. NIP. 196609161990012001
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Dedeh Rohayati, 2014
Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
APPROVAL PAGE ………... i
DECLARATION ……….... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ………. iii
ABSTRACT ………...... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………... v
LIST OF TABLES ………. viii
CHAPTERI: INTRODUCTION 1.1Background of The Study ………... 1
1.2 Aims of the Research ………. 3
1.3 Research Questions ... 3
1.4 Scope of The Study ... 3
1.5 The Significanceof The Study ... 4
1.6 The Definitions of Terms ... 4
1.7Thesis Organization ... 4
CHAPTERII: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Definitions of Critical Thinking ……… 6
2.2 Elements of Critical Thinking in Writing an EnglishExposition Text…………... 7
2.2.1 Issue …...………..………. 7
2.2.2Thesis ……….………..………. 8
2.2.3Argument………..………….. ………... 9
2.2.4 Reason ………..…………...……….. 11
2.2.5 Evidence ………..………..……….………... 12
2.2.6 Opinion ………..………...………. 13
2.3 Critical Thinking Standards ……….……….. 14
2.4 Critical Thinking Dispositions………..………... 15
2.5Fallacies ……….... 16
2.6 Critical Thinking Assessment ……… 17
2.7 Definitions of Writing ……… 18
2.8 Characteristics of Writing ……….. 19
2.9 Principles of Teaching Writing ……….. 19
2.10 Argumentative Essay ……..…... 20
2.11 Exposition Text …………..………..…... 21
2.12 Linguistics Features of Argumentative Essay ………... 22
2.13 Previous Research on Critical Thinking ………. 24
2.14 Conclusion ……….……….. 27
CHAPTERIII: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1Research Designand Method ... 28
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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3.3 Research Participants ………..……….. 29
3.4 Data Collections ……….……… 30
3.4.1 Text Document of Students’ Exposition Texts ..………. 30
3.4.2 Interview ………. 32
3.4.3 Triangulation ……….. 32
3.5 Data Analysis ………..……….. 33
3.5.1 Analyzing Students’ Exposition Texts ………... 33
3.5. 2 Analyzing Interview Data …………..………... 37
3.6 Conclusion ……….. 38
CHAPTERIV: DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Discussion of Analysis of Exposition Texts Written by Students ………. 39
4.1.1 Analysis of Text 1.1 ………. 39
4.1.1.1 The Schematic Structure and Purpose of Text 1.1 ………... 41
4.1.1.2 Linguistic Features of Text 1.1 ……… 47
4.1.1.3 Fallacies in Text 1.1 ………. 49
4.1.2 Analysis of Text 1.2 …………...……….. 50
4.1.2.1 The Schematic Structure and Purpose of Text 1.2 ………... 51
4.1.2.2 Linguistic Features of Text 1.2 ……… 56
4.1.2.3 Fallacies in Text 1.2 ……….… 58
4.1.3 Analysis of Text 1.3 ………. 59
4.1.3.1 The Schematic Structure and Purpose of Text 1.3 ……….….. 60
4.1.3.2 Linguistic Features of Text 1.3 ……… 65
4.1.3.3 Fallacies in Text 1.3 ………. 68
4.2 Summary of Analysis of Exposition Texts Written by Students ………... 69
4.3 Discussion of Analysis Data from Individual Interview.………. 73
4.3.1 Students’ Understanding of the Concept of Critical Thinking ……… 73
4.3.2 Students’ Understanding of Argumentative Essay ………. 79
4.3.3 Students’ Awareness of Potential Values of Critical Thinking in Writing an English Exposition Text ………... 80
4.3.4 Student’s Recommendations of Critical Thinking Development…..………. 82
4.4 The Implication of Research Result for Teachers ………..………... 84
4.5 Conclusion ………..………... 86
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY 5.1 Research Aims …... 87
5.2 Research Questions..………... 87
5.3 Conclusions…………...……...………...………... 87
5.4 Limitation of the Study ...…………...……….. 89
5.5 Conclusion ……….. 90
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. 91
APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: Writing Prompt ……… 99
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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APPENDIX2: Sample of Students’ Document Texts ………. 100
APPENDIX 3: Elements of Critical Thinking in Text 1.1 ……….. 106
APPENDIX 4 : Elements of Critical Thinking in Text 1.2 ……….. 107
APPENDIX 5 : Elements of Critical Thinking in Text 1.3 ……….. 108
APPENDIX6 : Questions of Interview ………. 109
APPENDIX 7 : The Condensed Version of Interview Data from Low Achiever (Rani) ……… 110
APPENDIX 8 : The Condensed Version of Interview Data from Mid Achiever (Sofi) ……… 111 APPENDIX 9 : The Condensed Version of Interview Data from Low Achiever (Rihana) ..……… 112
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Sample Text of Exposition ……… 23
Table 4.1 Document Text (Text 1.1) ………. 40
Table 4.2 Document Text (Text 1.2) ………. 50
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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ABSTRACT
This study was aimed to investigate students’ critical thinking in writing an
English exposition text. In particular, the purpose of this study was to find out elements of critical thinking demonstrated by students in their writing an English exposition text.
Further, it was intended to find out students’ opinions about critical thinking reflected in their essays.
This study employed a qualitative research design, particularly a case study. To
obtain the data, students’ texts and interviews were used. The Third Year Students of English Department in private university in Ciamis were chosen as participants. They were 6 students of low, middle, and high achievers who were selected purposively. The
data of students’ texts were analyzed by using the theory of critical thinking movement proposed by Reichenbach (2001), Ennis (1996), and Chaffee et al (2002). These were
very valuable to assess students’ critical thinking. Moreover, interview data were
transcribed, categorized and coded into central themes, condensed, and interpreted into
a description form. This was aimed to provide a description of students’ points of view about the concept of critical thinking in writing an English exposition text.
The data from student’s texts show strengths and weaknesses. In term of strengths, students’ texts reflected all aspects of critical thinking in exposition text focused in this study including elements of critical thinking, critical thinking standards, and critical thinking dispositions. However, students’ texts were weakened by the frequent use of fallacies which resulted in illogical reasoning, such as equivocation and amphiboly, the most common fallacy made by students in this study. It suggested that students still need guidance in expressing effective and sound arguments. Moreover, the result of students’ interviews indicated that students still lack critical thinking knowledge. In order to have an adequate comprehensive knowledge of critical thinking in writing, in particular, they suggested critical thinking and written composition as separate, stand-alone courses or combining them, the two should be taught and combined into an integrated activity. It was recommended that the next research offer the various methodologies, especially, how to teach critical thinking and the technique of critical thinking assessment in order to provide the more enlightening critical thinking horizon.
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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ABSTRAK
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji berpikir kritis (critical thinking) mahasiswa dalam tulisan eksposisi berbahasa Inggris,, terutama untuk mengetahui unsur-unsur berpikir kritisnya. Selain itu, penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk mengetahui pendapat mereka mengenai berpikir kritis dalam tulisan eksposisi berbahasa Inggris tersebut.
Penelitian ini menggunakan desain kualitatif khususnya metode studi kasus (case study) sehinngga untuk memperoleh data menggunakan analisis dokumen dan wawancara. Penelitian ini melibatkan enam orang mahasiswa tingkat tiga dari program studi Bahasa Inggris di sebuah universitas swasta di Ciamis yang dipilih secara sengaja (purposive). Mereka mewakili kemampuan mahasiswa yang tergolong low achiever,
mid achiever, dan high achiever, masing- masing dua orang. Kemudian, dokumen
dianalisa menggunakan teori berpikir kritis (Reichenbach, 2001; Ennis, 1996; and Chaffee et al, 2002). Ketiga teori tersebut digunakan untuk menilai berpikir kritis mahasiswa. Sedangkan data dari hasil interview kemudian dibuat transkrip, dikategorikan, dan dikodekan berdasarkan tema utamanya, diringkas, diterjemahkan, dan dituangkan dalam bentuk deskripsi. Hasil data interview ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pendapat mahasiswa mengenai berpikir kritis dalam tulisan eksposisi berbahasa Inggris.
Data dari dokumen mahasiswa menunjukan kekuatan dan kelemahan. Dari segi kekuatannya, dokumen tersebut menunjukan semua aspek berpikir kritis mahasiswa dalam tulisan eksposisi yang difokuskan dalam kajian ini, termasuk unsur-unsur berpikir kritis (elements of critical thinking), standar berpikir kritis (critical thinking
standards), dan watak berpikir kritisnya (critical thinking disposition). Namun
demikian, dokumen tersebut memiliki kelemahan dengan adanya fallacy yang sering muncul, diantaranya, equivocation dan amphiboly. yang mengakibatkan argument tidak berterima. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa mahasiswa masih perlu bimbingan untuk mengungkapkan argument yang efektif dan berterima. Dari hasil wawancara terungkap bahwa pengetahuan mengenai berpikir kritis mahasiswa masih kurang, sehingga untuk memiliki pengetahuan berpikir kritis yang memadai, khususnya dalam kegiatan menulis, mahasiswa mengharapkan pengajaran berpikir kritis dan menulis secara terintegrasi, ataupun terpisah. Diaharapkan penelitian selanjutnya dapat memberikan
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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berbagai metodologi, khususnya metode pengajaran dan penilaian berpikir kritis.dalam rangka memperluas cakrawala keilmuan berpikir kritis yang telah ada.
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter illustrates the introduction to the study which highlights the background of the study. This chapter focuses on students’ critical thinking in writing an English exposition text that mostly identifies the elements of critical thinking reflected by students in writing an English exposition text, and to find out
students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text. The rest of this chapter elaborates aims of the study, research questions, scope of the study, the significance of the study, definition of the terms and thesis organization.
1.1 Background of the Study
Critical thinking has become a great concern among educators and educational theorists today, including those who are involved in EFL context such as Alwasilah (2001, p. 65), Brown (2001), and Emilia (2005, p. 165). Because of its beneficial value, teaching English should be developed to foster students’ critical thinking so that it enables the students to understand the hidden truth and to uncover the essence of a message (Alwasilah, 2001, p. 65. Thus, English classroom practices suggested by critical thinking seem to be worth carrying out immediately in order to improve not only their learning in EFL but also critical capacities (Emilia, 2001, p. 276). Since a number of “hot-topics” that addressed in classroom demand critical thinking, students are encouraged to express their points of view openly (Brown, 2001, p. 444). Parallel to the consensus above, other experts have also necessitated the practice of critical thinking that should be taught effectively in the classroom (Suherdi, 2012, p. 18; Reichenbach, 2001; Crawford et al, 2005; Weil & Anderson, 2000; Kagan, 1999; Brookfield, 1987; Browne & Keeley, 2007).
There are several research results regarding the implementation of critical thinking taught in teaching English, in particular, in writing,eitherfrom Indonesia (Emilia, 2005) or other countries such as, from Japan (Stapleton, 2002), and
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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Philippine (Flores, 2007). The first research is the one provided by Emilia (2005). The research was conducted to 18 semester six student teachers of a Bachelor Degree for 11 weeks in a tertiary EFL context in Indonesia. It reveals
that the students’ argumentative writing skills in English improve the achievement of argumentative genre which indicates their development in critical thinking.
Moreover, a research reported by Stapleton (2002) conducting in a semester in an English writing class in Japan indicates that changes in society resulted in a greater sense among a younger generation of Japanese to voice (through writing, in particular) their ideas clearly, and to criticize the ideas of others regardless their status. Another research investigated by Flores (2007) was conducted to forty students of non- English department in Philippine. The
findings of the study show that the students’ argumentative papers demonstrate
relatively good level skill. Holistic score of 2 and 3 suggests that the papers are relatively good attempts at developing a moderately well-developed argument without having difficulties in stating their opinions.
However, those research results mentioned above still focus on a predominantly argumentative writing in general; it does not emphasize the type of argumentative genre, in particular, exposition text (as conducted in the present study). Moreover, all participants in the study mentioned above are more than six participants. Unlike the two other studies, namely Emilia (2005) and Stapleton (2002) (see also Aliakbari & Sadighdaghighi, 2012) whose research participants are in EFL context, Flores (2007), does not recruit participants under the context of EFL; the participants are the students of non- English department and in ESL context. The explanation above seems to provide an implication that it is still very rare for critical thinking in writing an exposition text to be investigated.
Recalling critical thinking leads students to a higher level thinking (Reichenbach, 2001; Kagan, 1999; Weil & Anderson, 2000), to have their own reasoning and decisions (Crawford et al, 2005; Ennis, 1996, p. xvii), and to become more self-reliant (Browne & Keeley, 2007), study emphasizes critical thinking in writing an English exposition text is worth conducting. In addition, it must be kept in mind that an exposition text is a type of genre text that is taught in
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Dedeh Rohayati, 2014
Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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writing class in a tertiary level. Besides, an exposition text that is a complex skill and thinking (Westwood, 2008, p. 56, p. 57) and as “a means to convey ideas of
our own” (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 213), needs higher-level thinking and ability to synthesize information (Chaffee et al, 2002), and also is useful to judge critical thinking (Chaffee, 2000; Chaffee et al, 2002; Lipman, 2003 in Emilia, 2010, p. 4).
Since the study of exposition text is still rare and as it is worth conducting, this research is conducted to fulfill the intention and thus the research aims to investigate the elements of critical thinking that the students demonstrated in writing an English exposition text and to find out the students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text.
1.2 Aims of the Research
As previously mentioned, this study is aimed at obtaining two following objectives.
1. To investigate the elements of critical thinking that the students demonstrate in writing an English exposition text;
2. To find out the students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text.
1.3 Research Questions
This study is intended to answer two following research questions.
1. What elements of critical thinking do the students demonstrate in writing an English exposition text?
2. What do the students think about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text?
1.4 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on the elements of critical thinking that students demonstrate in their exposition texts, and the students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text.
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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1.5 The Significance of the Study
The study is significant at least to three areas including theory, practice, and professional aspects. Theoretically, the result of this study can hopefully enrich the literature of critical thinking theory, in particular, exposition text. Further, it can become an effort to integrate and synthesize perspective and approach from different research areas regarding the development of critical thinking in writing. Practically, this research can provide an alternative methodology in teaching and assessing critical thinking. It is also expected that this study can encourage academic practitioners to try to implement this method in their classroom and can motivate the teachers and the students to engage the critical thinking in writing process effectively. Professionally, this study is expected to become an effort to prepare all parties (both students and academics practitioners) to be an agent of change that needs to be survived in the world which keeps changing.
1.6The Definitions of Terms
Critical Thinking is defined as a process, a goal of which is to make reasonable decisions about what to believe and what to do (Ennis (1996, p. xvii).
Writing is an English written communication which has been acquired through the proper instruction in learning the kind of genre text (Grabowski, 1996, p. 75 in Alderson & Bachman, 2002, p. 4).
Exposition text is a type of argumentative essay that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a
position on the topic in a concise manner
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/05/).
1.7 Thesis Organization
This thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter I explains the introduction of the study, focusing on the basic concept of the study and the reasons behind the study. Chapter II consists of theoretical framework and reference of this study. It also contains the relation of the theories relating to the study. Chapter III presents
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the methodology of the study which consists of research design, method, research setting, research participants, data collections, and data analysis. Chapter IV comprises results and discussion. It contains the result of the study and its findings. Chapter V explains the conclusions of this study including the limitations of the study and recommendations for further studies. This chapter also elaborates the strengths and weaknesses of the study.
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the methodology used in this study that comprises research design and method, research setting, research participants, data collections, and data analysis. This chapter is ended with conclusion.
3.1 Research Design and Method
The study employed a qualitative design since the characteristics of the present study coincided with the qualitative design said by Holliday (2005, p. 5), Cohen et al (2007, p. 461), and Silverman (2005, p. 10). First, this study was intended to interpret the phenomena as supported by Holliday (2005, p. 5) who argued that the mystery of people and realities of research setting can only be revealed superficially by interpreting which attempt to make sense. Second, the study worked with a small number of cases (Silverman, 2005, p. 9) and the obtained data in this study were elaborated and written in a descriptive narrative (Cohen et
al, 2007, p. 461). Third, this study utilized interview to get closer and to provide a
deeper understanding of the object phenomena (Silverman (2005, p. 10).
Meanwhile, the method used in this study was a case study. The present study exemplifies the characteristics of a case study as explained by Cohen et al (2007, p. 253). First, the study concerns a rich description of case investigated in this study. Second, a chronological narrative of case events is provided in this study. Third, this study attempts to portray the richness of a case in a writing report (ibid).
3.2 Research Setting
The research was carried out at the English Department of a private university in Ciamis -West Java, Indonesia. It is the only department in this private university whose graduates are prepared to become English teachers.
There were several reasons why this research site, at tertiary level, was chosen. First, the researcher has been familiar with the institution where the
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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research was carried out. It showed that the researcher’s accessibility to the institution provides the ultimate chance for researchers to demonstrate their skill of serious investigators and show their own ethical position with respect to their intended research (Cohen et al, 2007, p. 55). Moreover, Emilia (2005, p. 73) claimed that the familiarity between the researcher and the situation led to a more natural conduct of research, that it avoided any students’ unnatural behavior performances; despite their awareness of the study and the fact that the class was set up for the purpose of research.
Second, the researcher decided it on the basis of relevance (Van Lier, 1988, p. 11; Cohen et al, 2007, p. 55). The relevance was also on the basis of framework which needed the English as Foreign Language (EFL). The availability of EFL in this institution provided the researcher the development of students’ language, in particular, writing a type of argumentative genre: exposition text. This genre was required to be taught in this level since much of academic writing had to be presented in argumentative essay (Chaffee et al, 2002, p. 39; Fahim & Hastroodi, 2012). Since argumentative genre needed higher order thinking or critical thinking ability, the students were expected to think more conceptually, to write more analytically, and to read more critically (Chaffee et al, 2002, p. 4).
The last reason was that the inclusion of critical thinking in writing, at
tertiary level, will create a new generation with adequate “critical consciousness”
(Shor, 1993, p. 31). Since the world always keeps changing, the impact of this study to the institution, in particular, critical thinking in general, is hoped that students were prepared to be surviving in the future. This was relevant to the current 21st century skill and the modern work environment which needs critical thinking ability (Alwasilah, 2004, p. 165; Hirose, 1992, p.1; Suherdi, 2012, p. 18).
3.3 Research Participants
Participants of the research were six semester eight students of English Department of Education in a private university of Ciamis, who had accomplished the subject of writing (Writing I to IV). They were between 21-22 years of age.
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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Participants of the research were chosen because of accessibility as Van Lier (1988).
Participants of the study were determined purposively in the research. It was done by choosing certain individuals who were considered giving the adequate data as suggested by Sugiyono (2005, p. 54). Further, six students were chosen based on their GPA (IPK/ Indeks Prestasi Kumulatif) rather than gender: two students were from low achiever (GPA<3), two students were from mid achiever (GPA 3-3.5), and two students were from high achievers (GPA> 3.5). This was employed because critical thinking was supported by the intelligence which was in line with what was said by Wade & Tavris (2007, p. xxix).
3.4 Data Collections
The study utilized several techniques in collecting the data, among others, text
document of students’ exposition texts and interviews. Writing prompt was
provided to collect students’ exposition texts. Regarding interview, a set of questionnaires was employed to obtain the data. They will be illustrated separately in the following sections.
3.4.1 Text Document of Students’ Exposition Texts
Text document of students’ exposition texts were analyzed to find out elements of critical thinking demonstrated by students in writing exposition text. It was conducted by asking the students to write an exposition text. In this case, the students were given a chance to choose one of the topics given by researcher (the topic of Internet and Corrupts were preferable) based on controversial issues
because they were effective to trigger student’s critical thinking as claimed by
Chaffee et al (2002). The chosen topic on writing prompt was rather similar to Flores (2007), Fahim & Hashtroodi (2012, p. 635), Jantrasakul (2012, p. 30), and Samanhudi (2011) as can be seen below.
Write an exposition text which consists of 3-4 paragraphs (750 words) on a controversial issue with any topic of your choice below. Topics are as follows:
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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2. Global Warming (Automobiles should be limited for reducing global warming)
3. Internet (Parents should control the use of internet by teenagers) 4. Cell phones (Cell phones should be banned in school).
The topics above were “traditionally controversial in nature” (Samanhudi, 2011; Fahim & Hastroodi, 2012). They pertained to “highly capable of arousing controversy and no answers can be held 100% correct or 100 % wrong for these types of disputatious issues.” (
http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/essay/135-most-controversial-essay-topics.html ). Although these issues were
supposed to be in question form (see Chapter II, Section 2.2), they have already been given in a positive statement to simplify the process of writing and to assist the students when developing the ideas.
Furthermore, there were three reasons why these topics were chosen. First, corruption case was a public issue in Indonesia nowadays so that it always becomes a hot topic in every information media of Indonesia. Second, global warming has become a big concern for all people in the world since it has contributed to the damage of the earth. Third, internet and cell-phones were considered as means of communication for all people in the world which may provide danger or benefits for mankind. Overall, the topics mentioned above were adopted for they were considered controversial. Before writing process, the students were informed to compose the written exposition text in 60 minutes without any interference and direction.
Subsequently, the students’ essays were documented as proposed by many
experts such as Cohen et al (2007), McMilan & Schumacher (2001), Sugiyono (2005), and Wallace (2001). These six essays were selected and collected based on the number of selected respondents (see 3.4 Research Participants). Evidently, in order to answer the first research question; to find out the elements of critical thinking demonstrated by students, these exposition texts were then analyzed by utilizing the elements of critical thinking proposed by experts: Chaffee et al (2002), Ennis, (1996), and Reichenbach (2001). This analysis was believed to be a
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Students’ critical thinking in writing An english exposition text (a case study in a private university in ciamis)
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3.4.2 Interview
In this study, a semi-structured interview was utilized in order to get a comprehensive answer from participants (Emilia, 2005; Kvale, 1996, p. 5). It was used for two reasons: (1) it allowed the sequence of themes and suggested questions to be covered; and (2) in order to evaluate the answer and the story conveyed, it was permitted that an openness to changes of sequence and forms of questions at the same time (Kvale, 1996, p. 124).
The questions were leading questions which should link to the central theme of the research and were guided by theory (Cohen et al, 2007; Kvale, 1996, p. 158). The reason was that the leading questions were aimed at verifying the
interviewer’s interpretation and enhancing the reliability of the interviewee’s
answer (see the questions of interview in Appendix 6). In addition, interview questions were tried out first to make sure that the questions were not ambiguous (Emilia, 2011, p. 10; Kvale 1996).
Subsequently, questions asked in individual interview lasted about 10- 15 minutes or less than one hour as exemplified by Kvale (1996, p. 136). For this reason, the questions in the interview consisted of seven questions (see Appendix 6). Another reason was that it was in line with Gleshne & Peshkin (Alwasilah, 2011, p. 157) who argued that less than one hour interview would suffice. In conjunction to confirm that the information linked to what was meant by interviewee and to give the chance for interviewee to say “I didn’t mean that” (Kvale, 1996, p. 189), the transcription of interview was given back to the interviewees.
In order to make the interview interaction and questions were available for public scrutiny (Kvale, 1996, p. 24), the interview was recorded and transcribed which resulted in a written text. Kvale said further that the written text was a material for interpreting of meaning (1996, p. 27).
3.4.3 Triangulation
After collecting and analyzing the data, triangulation was used to test validity and to maintain the reliability as proposed by Alwasilah (2000), Cohen et al (2007),
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Maxwell (1996, 93), and Sugiono (2005). In this case, triangulation of the research used two resources of data: students’ document texts and interview as proposed by Cohen et al (2007) and Maxwell (1996). With regards to interview, the transcriptions were written more verbatim to ascertain the validity (Kvale, 1996, p. 163) and were checked three times to maintain reliability (p. 166). In addition, transcriptions were given back to the students in order to match between what was said and what was written, and to give opportunity for the students to
say “I did not mean it” (Kvale, 1996, p. 189). 3.5 Data Analysis
In this study, the data analysis was conducted before the research took place (secondary data) as stated by Heaton (2004) such as the previous research data. The previous research data was utilized because the present study had to be carried out based on the preceding research. Meanwhile, students’ writing samples and interview data were preceded through systematic series of analysis which were based on the purpose of the study; so that it fulfilled the conformity of the purpose (Cohen et al, 2007, p. 461). Accordingly, the intended systematic series
of analysis included “coding and categorizing until theory emerged that explains
the phenomena being studied”.
As previously mentioned in Section 3.5, the data collections of this study consisted of text document and interview. Therefore, the following section will
present the analysis of students’ exposition texts and interviews. The former, it
was analyzed by using critical thinking theory. The latter, it was analyzed through transcribing, categorizing and coding, condensing, and interpreting (Kvale, 1996; Miles & Huberman as cited in Cohen et al, 2007, p. 470; Sugiono, 2005, p. 91; Alwasilah, 2000, p. 113).
3.5.1 Analyzing Students’ Exposition Texts
Students’ exposition texts were displayed into table to be analyzed as suggested by Maxwell (1996, p. 79), Miles & Huberman (1994), and Silverman (2005, p. 178). The analysis of students’ essays could reveal the ability of students’ critical
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thinking (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2007, p. 483). In this study, the analyses of
students’ argumentative essays were divided into three steps: categorizing, coding,
identifying and evaluating (judging) the elements of critical thinking reflected in
students’ argumentative essays, and evaluating their critical thinking standards
and dispositions as claimed by Chaffee et al (2002) and Ennis (1996). These
essays were categorized and coded into low, middle, and high achievement. It was
conducted to understand the participants’ categories (Alwasilah, 2000, p. 113), as
well as the representation of their performances on critical thinking capacity. Subsequently, the obtained data which were the representation of three levels of achievement: low achiever (Rani), mid achiever (Sofi), and high achiever (Rihana), were analyzed. The data were then evaluated by using the theory of argumentative essay and exposition text as stated in Chapter II, Section 2.10 Argumentative Essay and Section 2.11 Exposition Text. It might be that the data was an expected result because the students have produced proper exposition texts, i.e. the texts conformed to its generic structure.
By utilizing the theory of critical thinking as proposed by many experts (see Chapter II, Literature Review), the assessment was conducted. It was
valuable for identifying the elements of critical thinking reflected in students’
exposition texts written by low, mid, and high achiever students (see Chapter IV, Section 4.1.1, Section 4.1.2, and Section 4.1.3). The next step was judging those elements of critical thinking by using the critical thinking theory adapted from Reichenbach (2001), Ennis (1996), and Chaffee et al (2002) to judge its relevance, strengths and weaknesses. The reason was that these elements of critical thinking were common in almost all good writing, especially, exposition text as a type of argumentative essay.
The other step was judging the pattern of deductive reasoning and a few of the most common informal fallacies in all texts collected in this study. Although there were other criteria for evaluating arguments, it was decided to focus on these because of their simplicity, transferability among other disciplines, and use in constructing arguments. Moreover, “most students have little trouble with these”
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(Hatcher, 1999, p. 173) that arrives at illogical or unsound argument (Zifana et al, 2014, p. 175).
With regards to elements of critical thinking, students were also able to offer these elements in their writing. Based on three major elements of exposition text (thesis element, arguments, and restatement of thesis element), they produced elements of critical thinking in their texts (see Table 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). Others elements were also included in these three elements of exposition texts such as evidence, reason and conclusion. Moreover, the various statements of the texts produced by students indicated element of critical thinking which were also
essential. These statements were students’ opinions or assertions to express their
beliefs about the world (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 38). It could be that they were able to reflect their critical thinking capacity despite the fact that their arguments were
not sound. This implied that students’ critical thinking standards and dispositions
are still underdeveloped.
As aforementioned in chapter II that the elements of critical thinking should be supported by critical thinking standards ( Chaffee et al, 2002, p. 469; Emilia, 2005, p. 25; Paul & Elder 2007, p. 21). They comprised clarity, logical and relevance, accuracy, and precision (see Chapter II, Section 2.3 Critical Thinking Standards). Based on the students’ texts, the elements of critical thinking which were not supported by critical thinking standards emerged. These led to a dangerous argument or fallacies that were also demonstrated by students.
Consequently, their argumentative essays were far from a sound argument as previously mentioned. This unexpected result arose from illogical reasoning. This type of false reasoning (pseudo reasoning) was often called fallacies: arguments that were not sound because the reasoning had various errors (Chaffee et al, 2002, p. 504; see also Chapter II, Section 2.5 Fallacies). This term of fallacy was to be one of the aspects of critical thinking assessment. The purpose was to find out the types of fallacy demonstrated in students’ exposition texts, among other things, equivocation and amphiboly, and fallacy of deductive reasoning. These were also to be the focus of critical thinking assessment: identifying and judging the logical reasoning.
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Evidently, students’ texts were analyzed and put in rubrics. To follow
Samanhudi (2010), these texts were given some corrections, without changing the ideas of the text, which were given in the bracket. This was done to make it easy to be understood. The first document text was written by low achiever, namely, Rani; the second document text was written by mid achiever, namely, Sofi; and the third document text was written by high achiever, namely, Rihana. The name of students was written under pseudonym.
The explanation above shows that although there are other criteria for evaluating critical thinking, it was decided to focus on issue, thesis, argument, reason, evidence, opinion, pattern of deductive and inductive reasoning, and fallacies (see Chapter II, Literature Review). The critical thinking standards must also be applied in evaluating these elements of critical thinking. The reason was to develop intellectual traits, in particular, confidence in reason (Paul & Elder, 2007,
p. 17). However, students’ critical thinking standards that were reflected in their arguments still need improvement.
Students’ critical thinking dispositions were also evaluated. According to
Ennis (1996, p. xviii), dispositions in writing referred to being clear about what is written, thought, and said (see Chapter II, Section 2.4 Critical Thinking Disposition). Of course, it had to link with the argumentative essay theory (see Chapter II, Section 2.10 Argumentative Essay). Therefore, to follow Emilia (2005, p. 85), the texts were then evaluated in terms of the schematic structure, organization and purpose, and how well each element performed its function in the text. Although it did not link significantly between the students’ interviews and their exposition texts in term of critical thinking dispositions, the students have demonstrated their critical thinking dispositions in their exposition texts. Students’ critical thinking dispositions were indicated by their intention to act and think in certain way at the right time with the right activity (Alwasilah, 2004, p. 165; Ennis, 1996, p. 9; Reichenbach, 2001, p. 14; Ritchart & Perkins, 2005, p. 785; see Chapter II, Section 2.4 Critical Thinking Dispositions). It indicated that students comprehended the writing prompt which was given by the researcher; then, they wrote an argumentative essay directly with the type of
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exposition text in a proper fashion. In addition, they were also disposed to state a position, and to offer evidence, reason, and conclusion (Reichenbach, 2001; Ennis, 1996, p. 9, Paul & Elder, 2007, and Ritchart & Perkins, 2005, p. 785). Among those dispositions mentioned above, it was unfortunate that they were not disposed to be well-informed (Reichenbach, 2001; Ennis, 1996, p. 9, Paul & Elder, 2007, and Ritchart & Perkins, 2005, p. 785). The reasons were that the texts still lack sound argument and the frequent use of fallacies occurred. It indicated that they required improvement in learning and producing a sound argument.
As previous mentioned, the text was interpreted and displayed as a whole text that can be seen in Table 4.1, Table 4.2, and Table 4.3. The next section will elaborate how interview data was analyzed.
3.5.2 Analyzing Interview Data
As a second data collection of this study, the recorded interviews were then analyzed in several steps: transcribing, categorizing and coding, condensing, and interpreting (Kvale, 1996).
First, the recorded interview was transcribed to render an incomplete account of meanings which were expressed in the lived interview situation (Kvale, 1996, p. 50). During transcribing, names of participants were written under pseudonym as aforementioned. This was done to guarantee the objectivity of the researcher in analyzing the further data (Kvale, 1996). Then, transcriptions were sent back to the participants so that the transcriptions were the same as what were said by the participants.
Second, the transcriptions were categorized and coded into the theme of the research or central themes and based on the formulated research question. This categorization was based on the existed theory or built inductively (Alwasilah, 2000); that was the critical thinking theory and argumentative theory. Coding was also conducted consistently for the equal phenomenon in order to define what the data were about (Alwasilah, 2000; Charmaz, 2006, p. 43 in Liamputtong, 2009, p. 278; Kvale, 1996). After they were categorized and coded, the next step was condensation (Kvale, 1996; Miles & Huberman, 1984; Parlet & Hamilton,
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1976, as cited in Cohen et al, 2007, p. 462). An extended process of clarification and condensation might be necessary to arrive at the meanings intended by the interviewee (Kvale, 1996, p. 50).
Third, interpretation was employed to re-contextualize the statement within broader frames of references that might be provided by the entire interview or by theory (Kvale, 1996, p. 193). In addition, it was to compare with the background of the study (see Chapter I, Section 1
.
1 Background of the Study).Fourth, the result of interview analysis through transcribing, categorizing and coding, condensing, and interpreting was written and displayed individually (see Appendix 7, Appendix 8, Appendix 9, and Appendix 10). This result of interview analysis became the primary data of this study. The further step was to present and discuss this result of interview data that will be elaborated in the forthcoming Chapter IV, Data Presentation and Discussion.
3.6 Conclusion
This chapter has explained the aspects of methodology which were fully implemented through justified methods. Those aspects of methodology embraced research design, research setting, research participants, data collections, and data analysis. The forthcoming chapter consists of findings which were resulted from texts document of students’ exposition texts and interviews.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY
The chapter delineates the conclusion of the study that will be initialized by an account of research questions and research aims. Subsequently, conclusions are presented through the information of the research results briefly. The chapter also explains the limitations of the study and the recommendations for further study.
5.1 Research Aims
It has been stated previously in chapter one that this study was aimed at obtaining two following objectives.
1. To investigate the elements of critical thinking that the students demonstrate in writing an English exposition text.
2. To find out the students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text.
5.2 Research Questions
Based on the aims of the study mentioned above, the study was conducted to answer two research questions as follows.
1. What elements of critical thinking do the students demonstrate in writing an English exposition text?
2. What do the students think about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text?
5.3 Conclusions
This thesis reported the result of a study of students’ critical thinking in writing an English exposition text. The study was to discover the elements of critical thinking that the students demonstrated in writing an English exposition text and
to find out the students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text.
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By using two types of data collections techniques comprising students’ document texts and interviews, this study revealed two findings. First,writing an exposition text assisted students to reflect their critical thinking capacity. The process of writing an English exposition text represented the thought of critical thinking proposed by Ennis (1996). They were able to “make reasonable decisions about what to believe and what to do “(Ennis, 1996, p. xvii). With regard to “what
to believe and to do”, it was represented initially in students’ judgments which offered in their thesis. Their judgments described the world in ways that evaluated it on the basis of certain criteria (Chaffee et al, 2002, p. 393). Subsequently, they acted in accordance with their own recommendations (Ennis, 1996, p. xvii). This research finding was consistent with those presented by Emilia (2005), Samanhudi (2010), Flores (2007), and Fahim & Hastroodi (2012).
Second, there were several aspects of critical thinking that existed in
students’ texts. These were elements of critical thinking (arguments, issue, thesis,
reason, conclusion, opinion, and evidence), critical thinking standards, and critical thinking dispositions in their exposition text. However, they did not explore them explicitly and verbally in their interview. Regarding critical thinking dispositions, they offered reason, conclusion, and evidence in their texts successfully. The reason and conclusion were established to make an argument and to support the thesis. In addition, critical thinking standards such as relevance and clarity were shown in their texts; all texts committed the generic structure and the purpose of exposition text.
This study also found that there are still fallacies occurred in their texts such as equivocation and amphiboly. Thus, students’ critical thinking standards and dispositions were still underdeveloped and poor; and therefore it needed improvement and guidance.
Meanwhile, their inability to elaborate the terms elements of critical thinking, critical thinking standards and dispositions explicitly were due to a lack of critical thinking theory. The reason was that they were not equipped with the theory of critical thinking at the beginning (Cottrell, 2005, p. 11; Howe & Warren, 1989, p. 2; Reichenbach, 2001). Further, they have not been able yet to produce a
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sound and an effective argument (Ennis, 1996; Chaffee et al, 2002; Reichenbach, 2001). Accordingly, the sound argument was supported by logical reasoning or valid argument. Meanwhile, an effective argument was made by a qualified thesis and a careful use of cue words indicating reason and conclusion. Therefore, it could be that this finding was relevant with what has been found by Samanhudi
(2010); the verbalization of students’ critical thinking was less sophisticated and
explicit.
Third, the finding was related to the second research question regarding
the students’ opinions about critical thinking in writing an English exposition text. The finding revealed that students’ answers or opinions were a stimulation of their critical thinking capacity (Browne & Keeley, 2007). However, their answers were not consistent with those definitions in literature (Chaffee et al, 2002; Ennis, 1996; Reichenbach, 2001). This links with that claimed by Reichenbach (2001) that it was due to their limited knowledge of the issue of critical thinking. Regarding writing an argumentative essay, particularly in expository genre, they seem difficult to produce an effective argumentative writing (Flores, 2007). Realizing this matter, the students recommended the teaching of critical thinking in the classroom. In other words, they suggested that critical thinking and written composition as separate, stand-alone courses or combining them, the two should be taught and combined into an integrated activity (Emilia, 2005, p. 268; Hatcher, 1999, p. 171).
5.4 Limitations of the Study
There were some limitations of the study; the major one was dealt with the evaluation of critical thinking, in particular, in assessing the texts document written by students. The text document was evaluated alone by the researcher since it is still difficult to involve other teachers or assessors who had comprehensive knowledge of critical thinking in writing. In addition, the interview was also conducted by the researcher herself. It indicated that the students felt close with the researcher and therefore they might try to please the
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researcher. This resulted in “potential loss of the objectivity” (Emilia, 2005, p.
283).
Besides, the method of data inquiry was also simple; it used only students’ texts document and interviews. If only observation and teaching program were involved to collect the data, this study might be intriguing. In other words, multiple data collection techniques were possible to conduct in order to improve the study.
However, there were also some efforts of tactics to overcome this problem.
Among other things, the students’ texts document were analyzed by using the
theory of critical thinking proposed by Chaffee et al (2002), Ennis (1996), and Reichenbach (2001) as the main theories used in this study.
5.5 Recommendations for Further Studies
Despite the limitations, this study recommends several aspects as follows: (1) due to the scarcity in method of critical thinking assessment, it is recommended for other alternative criteria to be employed; (2) other alternative of research designs are recommended to improve the theory that has underpinned this study; (3) study emphasizing critical thinking in writing exposition texts should be tried out in a different contexts and levels. The emergence of various research results may contribute to the development of critical thinking and writing, in particular, in writing an exposition text; and (4) further studies can also attempt to propagate a creation society or community which is potential to be an agent of change and competitive to conquer and survive the world which is getting complex.
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