A SET OF ENGLISH SPEAKING MATERIALS BASED ON TASK-BASED APPROACH FOR ENGLISH TUTORIAL STUDENTS
A SET OF ENGLISH SPEAKING MATERIALS BASED ON
TASK-BASED APPROACH
FOR ENGLISH TUTORIAL STUDENTS
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in the English Language Education
By
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma : Nama : Christine Nomor Mahasiswa : 031214068
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul :
A SET OF ENGLISH SPEAKING MATERIALS BASED ON TASK-BASED
APPROACH FOR ENGLISH TUTORIAL STUDENTSbeserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupaun memberikan roya lty kepada saya selamA tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyatan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal : 27 Maret 2008 Yang menyatakan
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declared that the thesis which I wrote does not contain the works or part of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotations and references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, March 4, 2008 The writer,
Christine 03 1214 068
DEDICATION PAGE
WE CANNOT DO GREAT THINGS
ONLY A SMALL THING
WITH THE GREATEST LOVE
(Mother Theresa)
This thesis is dedicat ed t o:
M y L ord, Jesus Christ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my Lord, my Father in Heaven, and my Savior, Jesus Christ for the greatest and endless love and blessings during the completion of this thesis. My special gratitude goes to my major sponsor Caecillia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., and my co-sponsor Christina
Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for their patience, help, guidance, suggestions and support
in helping and guiding me to complete this thesis. I really appreciate their willingness and compassion to help me to solve my problems.
I would like to give my sincere and deepest gratitude to all the lecturers of English Language Education Study Program for the support and guidance during my study here. I would also like to thank to my academic advisor Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum., for her support and kindness during my study here. I also express my gratitude to Drs. Y.B. Gunawan, M.A., and Drs. Concilianus Laos Mbato, M.A., for helping me to finish this thesis.
I address my sincere gratitude to Ir. Drs. Hansiadi Yuli Hartanto, M. Si, single prayer, endless love, patience, trust, sacrifice and financial support she has given to me. I also address my deepest gratitude to my father, the late Kampeng who taught me the meaning of life. I thank him for his love, support, and concern. My gratitude also goes to Arnih Kampeng and Andrial Kusuma, my lovely sister and brother who always give me their wise advice. I thank them for giving me love, guidance and financial support.
My very special gratitude goes to my soul mate, Ali Candra Hanjaya, S.E., who always guides me to be a better person. I thank him for his love, sacrifice, support, prayer, and very wonderful moment that we have spent together. He always gives me spirit to finish this thesis.
I also would like to express my sincere gratitude to my best friends, Moniqa
Friesta de Wanna, Seeviana Yenoriani, and Janiati for their help, support and
prayer. I really appreciate the beautiful moment that we have spent together. I also give my gratitude to all my friends in English Education Study Program, especially to
Melanie, Meiske, Dudy, Fendi, Winny, Timor, for their help and support.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PageTITLE PAGE ……………………………………………………………… i APPROVAL PAGE ………………………………………………………. ii BOARD OF EXAMINERS ………………………………………………. iii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY …………………………… iv DEDICATION PAGE ……………………………………………………. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………. viii LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………… xii LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………. xiii ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………. iv
…………………………………………………………………. xv
ABSTRAK
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………… 1
Page
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE …………… 9 A. Theoretical Description ……………………………………………….. 9
1. Speaking …………………………………………………………… 9
a. The Definition of Speaking …………………………………… 9
b. The Nature of Speaking ………………………………………. 10
c. The Theories of Teaching Speaking ………………………….. 11
2. Task-Based Approach …………………………………………….. 13
a. The Definition of Task Based on Task-Based Approach …….. 14
b. Types of Task ………………………………………………… 15
c. Framework of Task-Based Approach ………………………… 18
3. Instructional Design Model ………………………………………. 19
a. Banathy’s Model …………………………………………….. 19
b. Kemp’s Model ………………………………………………. 22
B. Theoretical Framework………………………………………………. 25
Page
F. Data Analysis Techniques …………………………………………… 34
G. Research Procedure …………………………………………………. 37
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION …….. 40 A. The Steps in Designing the Materials ……………………………….. 40
1. Considering Learner Characteristics ……………………………. 41 2. Formulating Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ……………..
45 3. Specifying Learning Objectives ………………………………...
46 4. Design …………………………………………………………..
49
5. Evaluation ……………………………………………………… 50 6. Change to Improve ……………………………………………..
50 B. The Evaluation Results of the Survey Study Administered to Evaluate the Designed Materials ……………………………………………..
50
1. Data Presentation in the Form of Likert Scale …………………
51
2. The Participants’ Comments and Suggestions Toward the Designed B. Suggestions ………………………………………………………
58 REFERENCES ……………………………………………………….
59 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………
61 Appendix A …………………………………………………………….
62 Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ……………………………… 63 Appendix B …………………………………………………………….
64 The Questionnaire for Needs Survey for the Students …………
65 ……………………………… 68
Permohonan Pengisian Kuisioner
Gambaran Umum ………………………………………………
69 The Questionnaire for the Designed Materials Evaluation …….
71 Appendix C …………………………………………………………….
74 Syllabus ………………………………………………………..
75 Lesson Plan …………………………………………………….
77 The Designed Materials ……………………………………….. 101
LIST OF TABLES
Page Table 3.1 The Description of Participants ……………………………….. 32Table 3.2 The Questionnaire Answers …………………………………... 35Table 3.3 The Description of the Participants’ Opinion Using CentralTendency ……………………………………………………… 36
Table 3.4 The Assessment of the Mean …………………………………. 37Table 4.1 The Result of the Needs Survey ……………………………… 41Table 4.2 Goals …………………………………………………………. 45Table 4.3 General Purposes …………………………………………….. 45Table 4.4 Learning Objectives ………………………………………….. 47Table 4.5 The List of Participant’s Evaluation …………………………... 51
LIST OF FIGURES
Page Figure 2.1 Task-Based Framework ……………………………………… 18Figure 2.2 Banathy’s Instructional design Model ………………………22 Figure 2.3 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ………………………… 23
ABSTRACT
Christine. 2008. A Set of English Speaking Materials Based on Task-Based
Approach for English Tutorial Students. Yogyakarta: English Language Education
Study Program Sanata Dharma University.This study was conducted to design a set of English speaking materials for Economic faculty tutorial students Sanata Dharma University. This design was a set English speaking materials based on task-based approach which had a purpose to help the students to improve their speaking skill.
There were two problems discussed in this study. First, how a set of English speaking materials based on task-based approach for English tutorial students is designed. Second, what the set of English speaking materials based on task-based approach for English speaking materials looks like.
To answer the first problem, the writer applied an instructional design model which was a combination of two models from Banathy and Kemp. This ins tructional design model consisted of six steps. They were considering learners’ characteristics, formulating goals, topics, and general purposes, specifying learning objectives, design, evaluation, and changing to improve.
The writer conducted educational research and development in order to develop a set of English speaking materials. There were two types of research administered in this study. The first type was research and information collecting in order to obtain data about students’ needs and interests in learning English language. In conducting this research, the writer distributed questionnaires to the English tutorial students. The second type was preliminary field testing which had a purpose to find out opinions, suggestions, and comments toward the designed materials. In this research, the writer distributed questionnaires to two English language lecturers of English Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta and three English language instructors of LPK Global Lingua Yogyakarta.
To answer the second problem, the writer presented the final version of the
ABSTRAK
Christine. 2008. A Set of English Speaking Materials Based on Task-Based
Approach for English Tutorial Students. Yogyakarta: English Language Education
Study Program Sanata Dharma University.Skripsi ini dilaksanakan untuk menyusun seperangkat materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa inggris berdasarkan task-based approach bagi mahasiswa fakultas ekonomi khususnya yang mengikuti tutorial bahasa Inggris. Seperangkat materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa inggris berdasarkan task-based approach ini mempunyai tujuan untuk membantu siswa mengembangkan kemampuan berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris.
Ada dua masalah yang dibahas dalam skripsi ini. Pertama, bagaimana seperangkat materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris berdasarkan task-based
approach bagi mahasiswa fakultas ekonomi yang mengikuti tutorial bahasa Inggris
didesain. Kedua, bagaimana bentuk seperangkat materi pengajaran berbicara bahasa Inggris berdasarkan task-based approach bagi mahasiswa fakultas ekonomi yang mengikuti tutorial bahasa Inggris itu.
Untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama, penulis menerapkan satu model desain pembelajaran, yang merupakan penggabungan dua model dari Banathy dan Kemp. Model pembelajaran itu terdiri dari enam langkah. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah mempertimbangkan karakteristik siswa, mengembangkan tujuan, topik dan tujuan khusus pembelajaran, merincikan tujuan pembelajaran, mendesain, evaluasi, dan memperbaiki kekurangan dalam materi pembelajaran.
Penulis melakukan penelitian pengembangan yang proses pengembangannya digunakan untuk mengembangkan materi. Ada dua macam penelitian dalam pembelajaran ini. Yang pertama adalah penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi yang bertujuan untuk memperoleh data tentang kebutuhan dan minat siswa terhadap pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Dalam melaksanakan penelitian ini, penulis menyebarkan kuisioner kepada siswa-siswa yang mengikuti tutorial bahasa Inggris. Yang kedua yaitu penelitian untuk mengevaluasi materi pembelajaran yang telah
Pada akhirnya, penulis mengharapkan bahwa seperangkat materi pengajaran ini dapat berguna bagi siswa dan guru yang akan menggunakan materi pengajaran ini. Penulis juga berharap bahwa seperangkat materi ini dapat memberi inspirasi bagi para peneliti dan instruktur lainnya untuk mengembangkan materi pengajaran ini dari sisi yang lain.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the introduction of the study, which is divided, into
seven parts. They are research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits and the last is definition of terms.
A. Research Background
In this study, the writer is interested in focus ing on speaking skill. The first reason is that “to most people, mastering the art of speaking is the single most important aspect of learning a second or foreign language, and success is measured in terms of the ability to speak and interact orally in a foreign language ” (Nunan, 1991: 39). The second reason is that of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), speaking or oral communication skill seems to be the most important and most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak (Nunan 1999: 8).
2 communication. The other reason why the main focus in this study is on speaking skill is that learning a language is learning how to be able to speak in that language, to interact with the language and make the language become a unity with the person who learns it. Thus, the writer decides to choose speaking skill as the main focus in designing the materials.
Nevertheless, mastering speaking skills is not an easy job. From the writer’s experiences, la ck of grammar and vocabulary might be the two main problems for the English learners to master speaking. The other obstacle might be that most of the English learners in Indonesia rarely practice speaking English in their daily life.
Besides that, a number of learners are sensitive and therefore are easily embarrassed if found to be in error or not understood (Rivers, 1968: 193). Moreover, most of the Indonesian learners tend to have a lack of self-confident to say something in English. Thus, it is necessary for the teacher to choose the most appropriate approach and material in order to achieve the objectives of teaching and learning process.
One of the approaches, which was introduced in 1980 is called task-based approach. According to Nunan, (2003: 202) students are just as likely to learn
3 it can provide opportunities for learners to talk about communication and language practice (Nunan 1999: 199). Besides that, task-based approach can help the teachers to involve learners actively in all phases of the learning process (Littlewood, 1983: 94). “In task-based lesson, the learners see themselves as being controlled of their own learning rather than as passive recipients of content provided by the teacher” (Nunan 2004: 36).
Learning a foreign language requires more than knowing its grammatical and semantic rules. Nevertheless, “most of English learners tend to learn facts about language rather than how to use it communicatively to express ideas, to talk and write to other people, to read and listen to real language, and to learn how to cooperate with others” (Nunan, 1999: 74). Moreover, based on informal observation, the Indonesian learners tend to be passive learners in the class. They spend most of their learning time by listening to the teacher’s explanation and doing written exercises. This kind of condition concerns the writer greatly. It encourages the writer to offer the English speaking material design in order to improve the development of the Indonesian learners’ speaking skill.
4 there is a need to design the materials for Economics faculty students that can encourage Economics faculty students to use English actively.
Therefore, the implementation of task-based approach in designing a set of English speaking materials that can encourage the language learner to speak English is a suitable choice to solve the problem in English tutorial for Economics faculty students. The writer hopes that by designing a set of English speaking materials based on task-based approach, the students will be motivated to speak English. The writer also hopes that the English speaking materials will be useful for the students to improve and practice their speaking ability in English. Hopefully, it will give the advantages both for the teacher and the student. Thus, this study tries to find out how a set of English speaking materials for Economics faculty tutorial students that can be used to encourage students to speak English is designed and to present the designed English speaking materials.
B. Problem Formulation
5
2. What does the set of English speaking materials based on task-based approach for English tutorial students look like?
C. Problem Limitation
There are four English skills that are significant to be developed by the English language learners, but in this study, the writer only designs the English speaking materials. It is because the purpose of the language course is that English for real communication.
In this study, the material development is based on task-based approach because the task-based approach provides the opportunities for the learners to achieve the purpose of the language course which is English for real communication. The research is limited on the English tutorial for accounting study program students of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta, and hopefully the English speaking materials, which are based on task-based approach, can help the students to achieve their goal of learning English.
6 based approach to teach speaking are designed, and to present the designed English speaking materials based on task-based approach.
E. Research Benefits
The result s of this study are expected to share valuable contributions to the people who deal with teaching learning development of English language and the students’ speaking skill development. Here are those whose might benefit from this study:
1. For students For students, the writer expects that this study will give a contribution to the development of the student’s speaking skill.
2. For lecturers For others lecturers, the writer hopes that this study will give knowledge in improving their teaching skills, and encourage them to be more creative in developing the materials.
3. For the University
7
F. Definition of Terms
In this part, the writer tries to define the terms that are related to the topic of this study which are design, speaking, task-based approach, material, and Economics faculty tutorial students.
1. Design is “the plan to guide educational activity in a situation or the plan, which can be inferred by an analyst of that activity” (Houle, 1978: 230). According to Hutchinson and Waters (1994: 106) “designing is creating a new set of materials that fit the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learners”. In this study, design means an activity to make a set of materials that is needed to support the teaching and learning process in English tutorial for Economics faculty students.
2. Speaking is “a kind of active and productive interaction that makes use of aural mediums” (Widdowson, 1979: 58). In this study, speaking means an activity to deliver a particular message to someone.
3. Task-based approach refers to an approach based on the use of tasks to facilitate meaningful communication and interaction (Richards and Renandya, 2002: 93).
8 listening skill. In this study, materials are designed to improve speaking skill of Economics faculty tutorial students.
5. English tutorial students refer to the Economics faculty of Sanata Dharma University students who follow the English tutorial.
6. English tutorial program is one of the HIMAKS’s programs. HIMAKS is one of the organizations in Economics faculty Sanata Dharma University. The purpose of the English tutorial program is to help the English tutorial students to use English actively for real communication.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter discusses literature review of this study that is divided into two
parts: theoretical description and theoretical framework. Theoretical description describes some theories that directly relevant to this study, whereas theoretical framework summarizes and synthesizes all the theories which will help the researcher solve the problem in this study. Besides that, theoretical framework also relates all the theories to this study.
A. Theoretical Description
In the theoretical description there are three main parts that will be discussed. They are speaking, task-based approach, and instructional design models theories.
1. Speaking a. The Definition of Speaking
Speaking is “the productive aural or oral skill. It consists of producing
10 Morrow, 1983; 70). Meanwhile, Clark and Clark say that speaking is an activity in which the speaker delivers a particular message to the listener (Clark and Clark, 1977: 223). According to Rivers (1968: 162), “through speech man expresses his emotions, communicates his intentions, reacts to other persons and situations, and influences other human being”.
b. The Nature of Speaking
One needs to have a linguistic competence (know how to articulate sounds in a comprehensible manner, one needs an adequate vocabulary, and one needs to have mastery of syntax) in order to speak in another language in this case English language (Nunan, 1999: 226). Nevertheless, Hymes (1974) as stated in Nunan (1999: 226) proposed the notion of communicative competence as an alternative linguistic competence. Savigon (1972) as stated in Nunan (1999: 226) defined communicative competence as “the ability to function in a truly communicative setting—that is, a dynamic exchange in which linguistic competence must adjust itself to the total information input, both linguistic and paralinguistic, of one or more interlocutors”.
According to Richards, Platt and Webber (1985: 49), there are four
11 to use and respond to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations; (d) knowing to use language appropriately.
c. The Theories of Teaching Speaking
In this study, there are two theories of teaching speaking. They are the characteristics of a successful speaking activity and the difficulties in teaching speaking. It is hoped that these theories can be very useful in the process of making the appropriate materials that can encourage the students of English tutorial to speak.
1) The Characteristics of a Successful Speaking Activity
There are some characteristics that indicate a speaking activity is successfully applied in class as stated in Ur (1996: 120). They are as follows: a) Learners talk a lot
The major focus in the speaking activity is to support the learners to practice their speaking ability as many as possible. Thus, the speaking activity should promote the learners to participate actively in the speaking activity.
b) Participation is even
12 c) Motivation is high
Learners’ motivation is one of the most important factors that can promote a successful speaking activity. Thus, it is very significant to create an enjoyable speaking activity that can motivate the learners to speak a lot.
d) Language is of an acceptable level The background of learners in learning English was not the same.
Therefore, the level of speaking activity should be adjusted with the level of learners’ speaking ability.
2) The Difficulties in Teaching Speaking
Teaching speaking skill is not an easy job. The teacher often finds some difficulties when he or she conducts the speaking activities in the class. By knowing the difficulties in teaching speaking, it is expected that the writer can design the speaking materials as one of the solution to these problem. According to Ur (1996: 120) those problems are:
a) Inhibition
13 b) Nothing to say
The other problem is that sometimes the learners prefer to say nothing in a speaking activity. It is not only because they feel afraid or shy, but it is because they do not have any motivation to express what they think or feel in a speaking activity.
c) Low or uneven participation Usually there is only one learner who can express the mselves in a speaking activity and when the learners have to work in a group, it means that each learner only have little time to talk. Besides that, there are some learners who tend to be active learners while others tend to talk very little or not at all.
d) Mother tongue use In a speaking activity, learners usually tend to use their mother tongue. It is because all learners tend to have the same mother tongue. Moreover, the learners speak their mother tongue because they feel more comfortable and natural.
14 involve real communication are essential for language learning, activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning, and language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.
Here are the key assumptions of task-based approach which are summarized by Feez as stated in Richards and Rodgers (2001: 223): 1) The focus is on the process rather than product. 2) Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. 3) Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks. 4) Activities and tasks can be either those that learners might need to achieve in real life or those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom. 5) Activities and tasks of task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty. 6) The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available. There are three parts that are discussed in the task-based approach. They are: definition of tasks based on task-based approach, types of tasks, and framework of task-based approach. The writer hopes that all of those things can help the readers to know and understand the task-based approach better.
15 Nunan (1999: 10) states that a communicative task is a piece of classroom activity which provides learners the opportunities to produce, comprehend, and interact in the target language. For Prabhu as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (2001: 233) a task is “an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome for given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process”. The last definition in this study is defined by Crookes. Crookes defines a task as “a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of educational course” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 233).
b. Types of Task
In the literature of task-based approach, several attempts have been made to classify tasks into categories, as a basis for task design and description (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 234). Willis (1996: 26) proposes six types of task. They are:
1) Listing Listing tasks tend to generate a lot of talk as learners explain their ideas. The processes involved are: a) Brainstorming, in which learners draw on their knowledge and experience either as a class or in pairs or groups.
b) Fact-finding, in which learners find things out by asking each other or other people and referring to books, etc. The outcome would be the completed list,
16 a) Matching to identify specific points and relate them to each other.
b) Finding similarities and things in common.
c) Finding differences. 4) Problem solving
Problem solving tasks make demands upon people’s intellectual and reasoning powers, and, though challenging, they are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The processes and time scale will vary enormously depending on the type and complexity of the problem. 5) Sharing personal experience
These tasks encourage learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. The resulting interaction is closer to casual social conversation in that it is not so directly goal-oriented as in other tasks. For that ve ry reason, however, these open tasks ma y be more difficult to get going in the classroom. 6) Creative tasks
These are often called projects and involve pairs or groups of learners in some kind of freer creative work. They also tend to have more stages than other tasks, and can involve combinations of tasks types: listing, ordering and sorting, comparing and problem solving. Out of class research is sometimes needed. Organizational skills and team-work are important in getting the task done. The outcome can often be appreciated by a wider audience than the students who produced it.
Meanwhile Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (2001: 234) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment and give the following classification: 1) Jigsaw tasks
17 2) Information- gap tasks
Some students are given a set of information and other students are given a complementary set of information. These tasks involve learners to negotiate and find out what the other party’s information in order to finish an activity. 3) Problem-solving tasks
Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the outcome.
4) Decision- making tasks Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
5) Opinion exchange tasks Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement.
In addition to selecting tasks as the basis for a task-based approach syllabus, the ordering tasks also has to be determined. The intrinsic difficulty of tasks has been
18 b) Skills, both macro-skills and sub skills.
c) World knowledge or “topic content” d) Text handling or conversation strategies. 4) Amount and type of help given 5) Role of teachers and learners 6) Time allowed 7) Motivation 8) Confidence 9) Learning style c.
Framewo rk of Task-Based Approach
Willis (1996: 38) offers the components of the task-based approach framework. The framework can be seen in Figure 2.1.
Pre -task Introduction to topic and task Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students understand task instructions and prepare, students may hear a recording of others doing similar task.
Task cycle Task Students do the task, in pairs or small groups. Teacher monitors from a distance. Planning Students prepare to report to the whole class (orally or in writing) how they did the task what they decided or discovered
19 According to Willis (1996: 40), the framework cons ists of three phases: pre- task, task cycle and language focus. The pre-task phase introduces the class to the topic and the task and builds the knowledge for introduction to the new topic. The task cycle provides learners the opportunity to use whatever language they already know in order to complete the task, and then to improve their language skills, under teacher guidance, while planning their reports of the task. The task cycle also offers learners a holistic experience of language in use. The last phase in the framework, language focus, allows a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring in the language used during the task cycle (Willis 1996: 40). By this point, the learners will have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready to focus on the specific language forms that carry that meaning.
3. Instructional Design Models
“Any interaction between the learner and his or her environment through which the learner is making progress toward the attainment of specific and purposed knowledge, skills, and attitudes is viewed as instruction” (Banathy, 1989: 20). In this
20 which are employed to function in an integrated fashion to attain predetermined purpose”. In the system view, instruction is used by learners to help them to master of a specific learning task (Banathy, 1976: 20). According to Banathy (1976: 20), “instructional system serves its purpose to the extent to which it brings about the environment of the learner all the possible interactions that result in the attainment of the desired performance”. There are six stages of the design of instructional system based on Banathy (1976: 23): 1) Formulate Objectives
The initial step is to formulate a statement that spells out what we expect the learner to do, know, and feel as a result of his or her learning experiences.
2) Develop Test The designers develop a test based on objectives and use it to test terminal proficiency. The criterion tests are the measuring instruments that are used to assess the degree to which the objective has been achieved. 3) Analysis of Learning Task
In this stage, the designer tries to find out what has to be learned by the
21 4) Design of the System
Once the designe r has identified and characterized the tasks the learner is to attain, the designer processes the design of a system. The designer has to consider alternatives and identify what has been done to ensure that the learner will master the tasks (Function Analysis). Besides that, the designer has to determine who or what has the best potential to accomplish these functions (Component Analysis) and decide when and where the functions are to be carried out.
5) Implement and Test Output The designed system can now be tried out or tested, implemented, and installed. The performance of the learner, who is the product of the system, is to be evaluated in order to assess the degree to which he or she behaves in the way initially described.
6) Change to Improve Findings of the evaluation are then fed back into the system to see what changes if any – are needed to improve the system.
The model of instructional system that is proposed by Banathy can be seen in
22
b. Kemp’s Model
23
24 2) Learner Characteristics
The designer enumerates the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed.
3) Learning Objectives The designer specifies learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes.
4) Subject Content The designer lists the subject content that support each objectives.
5) Pre-assessment The designer deve lops pre-assessments to determine the student’s background and present level of knowledge about the topic.
6) Teaching Learning Activities, Resources The designer selects teaching learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives.
7) Support Services The designer coordinates such support services as budget, personnel,
25
B. Theoretical Framework
Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts (Chaney, 1998: 13). Speaking plays a crucial role in the English teaching learning context. Besides, speaking skill must be developed as early as possible in order to assist the development of the other English skills. Based on informal observation, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. However, according to (http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kayi- TeachingSpeaking.html, accessed on September 26, 2006) “today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance”.
In order to teach second language learners how to speak in the best way possible, the writer offers to design a set of speaking materials based on task-based approach. Task-based approach has some advantages that can encourage learners to
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3. The students will have a much more varied exposure to language with Task- based approach. They will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations and patterns as well as language forms.
4. The langua ge explored arises from the students' needs. This need dictates what will be covered in the lesson rather than a decision made by the teacher or the course book.
5. It is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of time communicating. Just watch how much time the students spend communicating during a task-based lesson.
6. It is enjoyable and motivating.
In designing a set of speaking materials based on task-based approach for Economic faculty students, the writer combines the instructional materials designed by Banathy and Kemp because these models describe clearly step by step all of the procedures about what the designers should do in order to develop her own materials from the beginning of the process. The framework of the design model in this study consists of six stages:
27 Stage II: Goals, topics, and general purposes (Kemp’s model)
In this stage, the writer identified the goals, selected the topics, and listed the general purposes. The goal was constructed based on the teacher’s general aim of the task. Then, the writer sequenced the topics based on logical organization from simple to complex level. The identification of the purpose would ensure that the materials were developed to fulfill a certain goal in task-based learning. Stage III: Learning objectives (Kemp’s model)
In this stage, the writer specified learning objectives for every meeting in order to achieve the goals.